Soil texture

Soil texture is a classification instrument

used both in the field and laboratory to
determine soil classes based on their
physical texture. Soil texture can be
determined using qualitative methods
such as texture by feel, and quantitative
methods such as the hydrometer method
based on Stokes' law. Soil texture has
agricultural applications such as
determining crop suitability and to predict
the response of the soil to environmental
and management conditions such as
drought or calcium (lime) requirements.
Soil texture focuses on the particles that
are less than two millimeters in diameter
which include sand, silt, and clay. The
USDA soil taxonomy and WRB soil
classification systems use 12 textural
classes whereas the UK-ADAS system
uses 11.[1] These classifications are based
on the percentages of sand, silt, and clay
in the soil.

History
The first classification, the International
system, was first proposed by Albert
Atterberg in 1905 and was based on his
studies in southern Sweden. Atterberg
chose 20 μm for the upper limit of silt
fraction because particles smaller than
that size were not visible to the naked eye,
the suspension could be coagulated by
salts, capillary rise within 24 hours was
most rapid in this fraction, and the pores
between compacted particles were so
small as to prevent the entry of root
hairs.[2] Commission One of the
International Society of Soil Science (ISSS)
recommended its use at the first
International Congress of Soil Science in
Washington in 1927.[3] Australia adopted
this system, and its equal logarithmic
intervals are an attractive feature worth
maintaining.[4] The United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) adopted
its own system in 1938, and the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) used the
USDA system in the FAO-UNESCO world
soil map and recommended its use.

Classification
Soil texture triangle, showing the 12 major textural classes, and particle size scales as defined by the USDA.

In the United States, twelve major soil

texture classifications are defined by the
United States Department of Agriculture.[1]
The twelve classifications are sand, loamy
sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt,
sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam,
sandy clay, silty clay, and clay.[5] Soil
textures are classified by the fractions of
each soil separate (sand, silt, and clay)
present in a soil. Classifications are
typically named for the primary
constituent particle size or a combination
of the most abundant particles sizes, e.g.
"sandy clay" or "silty clay". A fourth term,
loam, is used to describe equal properties
of sand, silt, and clay in a soil sample, and
lends to the naming of even more
classifications, e.g. "clay loam" or "silt
loam".

Determining soil texture is often aided with

the use of a soil texture triangle plot.[5] An
example of a soil triangle is found on the
right side of the page. One side of the
triangle represents percent sand, the
second side represents percent clay, and
the third side represents percent silt. If the
percentages of sand, clay, and silt in the
soil sample are known, then the triangle
can be used to determine the soil texture
classification. For example, if a soil is 70
percent sand and 10 percent clay then the
soil is classified as a sandy loam. The
same method can be used starting on any
side of the soil triangle. If the texture by
feel method was used to determine the
soil type, the triangle can also provide a
rough estimate on the percentages of
sand, silt, and clay in the soil.
Chemical and physical properties of a soil
are related to texture. Particle size and
distribution will affect a soil's capacity for
holding water and nutrients. Fine textured
soils generally have a higher capacity for
water retention, whereas sandy soils
contain large pore spaces that allow
leaching.[6]

Soil separates
Particle size classifications used by different countries, diameters in μm

Soil separates are specific ranges of

particle sizes. The smallest particles are
clay particles and are classified as having
diameters of less than 0.002 mm. Clay
particles are plate-shaped instead of
spherical, allowing for an increased
specific surface area.[7] The next smallest
particles are silt particles and have
diameters between 0.002 mm and
0.05 mm (in USDA soil taxonomy). The
largest particles are sand particles and are
larger than 0.05 mm in diameter.
Furthermore, large sand particles can be
described as coarse, intermediate as
medium, and the smaller as fine. Other
countries have their own particle size
classifications.

Diameter limits (mm)

Diameter limits (mm)

Name of soil separate

(USDA classification) (WRB classification)

Clay less than 0.002 less than 0.002

Silt 0.002 – 0.05 0.002 – 0.063

Very fine sand 0.05 – 0.10 0.063 – 0.125

Fine sand 0.10 – 0.25 0.125 – 0.20

Medium sand 0.25 – 0.50 0.20 – 0.63

Coarse sand 0.50 – 1.00 0.63 – 1.25

Very coarse sand 1.00 – 2.00 1.25 – 2.00

Methodology

Texture by feel
Texture by feel flow chart

Hand analysis is a simple and effective

means to rapidly assess and classify a
soil's physical condition. Correctly
executed, the procedure allows for rapid
and frequent assessment of soil
characteristics with little or no equipment.
It is thus a useful tool for identifying
spatial variation both within and between
fields as well as identifying progressive
changes and boundaries between soil map
units (soil series). Texture by feel is a
qualitative method, as it does not provide
exact values of sand, silt, and clay.
Although qualitative, the texture by feel
flowchart can be an accurate way for a
scientist or interested individual to analyze
the relative proportions of sand, silt, and
clay.[8]

The texture by feel method involves taking

a small sample of soil and making a
ribbon. A ribbon can be made by taking a
ball of soil and pushing the soil between
the thumb and forefinger and squeezing it
upward into a ribbon. Allow the ribbon to
emerge and extend over the forefinger,
breaking from its own weight. Measuring
the length of the ribbon can help
determine the amount of clay in the
sample. After making a ribbon, excessively
wet a small pinch of soil in the palm of the
hand and rub in with the forefinger to
determine the amount of sand in the
sample. Soils that have a high percentage
of sand, such as sandy loam or sandy clay,
have a gritty texture.[1] Soils that have a
high percentage of silt, such as silty loam
or silty clay, feel smooth.[1] Soils that have
a high percentage of clay, such as clay
loam, have a sticky feel. Although the
texture by feel method takes practice, it is
a useful way to determine soil texture,
especially in the field.

The international soil classification system

World Reference Base for Soil Resources
(WRB) uses an alternative method to
determine texture by feel, offering another
flow chart.

Flow Chart to determine soil texture as used by the 4th edition of the WRB
Sieving

Sieving is a long-established but still

widely used soil analysis technique.  In
sieving, a known weight of sample
material passes through finer sieves. The
amount collected on each sieve is
weighted to determine the percentage
weight in each size fraction.

Schematic representation of sieve method

The method is used to determine the grain
size distribution of soils that are greater
than 75 µm in diameter, as sieving has a
strong disadvantage in the lower
measurement border. In fact, in case of
finer fraction at high content of clay and
silt (below 60 µm), the dispersion
becomes challenging because of the high
cohesiveness of particles, stickiness of
powder to the sieve, and electrostatic
charges. Moreover, in the sieving particles
pass with the smallest side through the
mesh opening, which means that the
plate-shaped clay and silt particles might
be sieved as well. In all this generally leads
to a massive underestimation of the fine
fraction.[9]

In order to measure silt and clay (with a

particle size below 60 µm), a second,
independent sizing method (most often
hydrometer or pipette technique) is used
on the sample taken from the bottom
sieve. Particle size distribution obtained
from sieve analysis should be combined
with the data from a sedimentation
analysis to establish a complete particle
size distribution of the sample.

Hydrometer Method
Sedimentation analysis (e.g. pipette
method, hydrometer) is commonly used in
the soil industry or in geology to classify
sediments.The hydrometer method was
developed in 1927 [10] and is still widely
used today.

The hydrometer method of determining

soil texture is a quantitative measurement
providing estimates of the percent sand,
clay, and silt in the soil based on Stokes'
law, which expresses the relationship
between the settling velocity and particle
size.[11]
According to this law the particles settle
down because of the weight and gravity
action. However, there are two additional
forces acting in the opposite direction of
particles´s motion which determines the
equilibrium condition at which the particle
falls at a constant velocity called terminal
velocity.

The hydrometer method requires the use

of sodium hexametaphosphate, which
acts as a dispersing agent to separate soil
aggregates. The soil is mixed with the
sodium hexametaphosphate solution on
an orbital shaker overnight. The solution is
transferred to one liter graduated cylinders
and filled with water. The soil solution is
mixed with a metal plunger to disperse the
soil particles.[11] The soil particles
separate based on size and sink to the
bottom. Sand particles sink to the bottom
of the cylinder first. Silt particles sink to
the bottom of the cylinder after the sand.
Clay particles separate out above the silt
layer.

Measurements are taken using a soil

hydrometer. A soil hydrometer measures
the relative density of liquids (density of a
liquid compared to the density of water).
The hydrometer is lowered into the
cylinder containing the soil mixture at
different times, forty-five seconds to
measure sand content, one and a half
hours to measure silt content and between
six and twenty-four hours (depending on
the protocol used) to measure clay. The
number on the hydrometer that is visible
(above the soil solution) is recorded.[11] A
blank (containing only water and the
dispersing agent) is used to calibrate the
hydrometer. The values recorded from the
readings are used to calculate the percent
clay, silt and sand. The blank is subtracted
from each of the three readings. The
calculations are as follows:[11]
Percent silt = (dried mass of soil – sand
hydrometer reading – blank reading) /
(dried mass of soil) *100

Percent clay = (clay hydrometer reading –

blank reading) / (dried mass of soil) *100

Percent sand = 100 – (percent clay +

percent silt)

The Stokes´ diameter determined via

sedimentation method is the diameter of a
sphere having the same settling velocity
and same density as the particle.[12] This
is the reason why the sedimentation
analysis applies well when assuming that
particles are spherical, have similar
densities, have negligible interactions and
are small enough to ensure that the fluid
flow stays laminar.[13] Deviations from
Stokes´ equation are to be expected in
case of irregularly shaped particles, such
as clay particles which are mostly platy or
tubular. The stable position during settling
of particles with such shapes is with the
maximum cross-sectional area being
perpendicular to the direction of
motion.[13] For this reason, the drag
resistance of particles increases and the
settling velocity decreases. The particle
diameter is directly proportional to the
settling velocity. Therefore, with lower
velocity, the calculated diameter also
decreases determining an overestimation
of the fine size fraction.[13]

Sedimentation analysis shows anyways

limits for particles smaller than 0.2 micron
because such small particles undergo
Brownian motion in the suspension and do
not settle anymore as per the Stokes´
law.[14] Sedimentation analysis can be
operated continuously with a high degree
of accuracy and repeatability. The particle
size distribution of soil containing a
significant number of finer particles (silt
and clay) cannot be performed by sieve
analysis solely, therefore sedimentation
analysis is used to determine the lower
range of the particle size distribution.

Laser Diffraction

Laser diffraction is a measurement

technique for determining the particle size
distribution of samples, either dispersed in
a liquid or as a dry powder. The technique
is based on light waves getting bent when
encountering particles in a sample.[15] The
measured equivalent spherical diameter is
the diameter of a sphere having on the
cross-sectional area the same diffraction
pattern as the investigated particle.[16]
The angle of diffraction depends on the
particle size, hence the pattern of
diffraction depends on the relative
amounts of different particle sizes present
in that sample. This diffraction pattern is
then detected and analyzed by means of
Mie and Fraunhofer  diffraction models.
The outcome of the measurement is a
particle size distribution (PSD).[15]

By means of laser diffraction not only the

particle size distribution and the
corresponding volume weighted D-values
can be determined but also the percentage
of particles in the main size classes used
for the soil classification.
Compared to other techniques laser
diffraction is a fast and cost-effective
method to measure particle size and
quickly analyze soil samples. A big
advantage is the built-in dispersion (e.g.
dispersion by air pressure or ultrasound
dispersion) unit of laser diffraction
instruments. Therefore, dry samples can
be measured without external sample
preparation steps, which are required for
sieving and sedimentation analysis.
Moreover, since the sample can be
dispersed properly, there is no need to
combine two different measurement
techniques to obtain the full range of the
particle size distribution, including the silt
and clay content.

Both Fraunhofer and Mie laser diffraction

theories assume that particles are
spherically shaped. This results in a small
measurement error, since small particles
in soil samples, such as clay and silt in
particular, are elongated and
anisotropic.[17] The particle diameter in the
laser diffraction method is determined in
relation to their potential volume, which is
calculated on the basis of an optical
diffraction image at the edges of the
particle cross-section. The volume of clay
particles is the diameter of the plate’s
cross-section, which is treated in the
calculations as the diameter of the sphere.
Therefore, their dimensions are usually
overestimated in comparison to those
measured via sedimentation analysis.[17]

The error associated with the assumption

of the sphericity of particles depends
furthermore on the degree of anisotropy.
The optical properties of anisotropic
particles, such as refractive index and
absorption index, change according to
their orientation relative to the laser beam
which is also variable. Therefore, at
different particles orientations different
cross-sections will be measured and
different diffraction patterns produced.

For clays with sizes close to the

wavelength of a laser beam, Mie theory
would be desirable. This requires precise
knowledge of the complex refractive index
of the particles’ material, including their
absorption coefficient.[18] Because these
parameters are often difficult to retrieve,
especially the light absorption coefficients
for various particles and soil grains,
Fraunhofer theory, which only takes into
account the light diffraction phenomena at
the edge of the particles, is often
recommended for natural soils.[17]
Additional Methods

There are several additional quantitative

methods to determine soil texture. Some
examples of these methods are the pipette
method, the x-ray sedimentation, the
particulate organic matter (POM) method,
the rapid method.[19]

X-Ray sedimentation

The x-ray sedimentation technique is a

hybrid technique which combines
sedimentation and x-ray absorption. The
particle size is calculated from the
terminal settling velocities of particles by
applying Stokes´ law. The adsorption of
the x-radiation is used to determine the
relative mass concentration for each size
class by applying the Beer-Lambert-
Bouguer law.

See also
Soil color
Texture (geology)
Hydrometer
USDA soil taxonomy

References
1. Soil Science Division Staff. 2017. Soil
survey sand. C. Ditzler, K. Scheffe, and H.C.
 Monger (eds.). USDA Handbook 18.
Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.
2. Atterberg A (1905) Die rationalle
Klassifikation der Sande und Kiese.
Chemiker Zeitung 29, 195–198.
3. Davis ROE, Bennett HH (1927) "Grouping of
soils on the basis of mechanical analysis."
United States Department of Agriculture
Departmental Circulation No. 419.
4. Marshall TJ (1947) "Mechanical
composition of soil in relation to field
descriptions of texture." Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research, Bulletin
No. 224, Melbourne.
5. Soil Survey Division Staff (1993). Soil
survey manual (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/nedc/traini
ng/soil/?cid=nrcs142p2_054262) . United
States Department of Agriculture. pp. 63–
65. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
6. Lindbo, Hayes, Adewunmi (2012). Know
Soil Know Life: Physical Properties of Soil
and Soil Formation. Soil Science Society of
America. p. 17. ISBN 9780891189541.
7. Foth, Henry D. (1990). Fundamentals of Soil
Science 8th Edition (https://archive.org/det
ails/fundamentalssoil00foth_729) .
Canada: John Wiley & Sons. p. 23 (https://a
rchive.org/details/fundamentalssoil00foth_
729/page/n38) . ISBN 0-471-52279-1.
 8. Thien, Steven. "Determining Soil Texture by
the "Feel Method" " (http://www.ndhealth.go
v/wq/sw/z1_nps/pdf_files/soil_texture_feel
_test.pdf) (PDF). NDHealth.gov.
9. "Standard Test Method for Particle-Size
Analysis of Soils" (https://www.astm.org/d
0422-63r07.html) . www.astm.org.
Retrieved 2022-07-20.
10. Bouyoucos G. 1951. A recalibration of the
hydrometer method for making mechanical
analysis of soils. American Society of
Agronomy.
11. Bouyoucos, George. 1936. Directions for
making mechanical analysis of soils by the
hydrometer method. Soil Science. Vol 42
Issue 3: pp 225–230
12. Particulate products : tailoring properties
for optimal performance (https://www.worl
dcat.org/oclc/864591828) . Henk G.
Merkus, Gabriel M. H. Meesters. Cham.
2014. ISBN 978-3-319-00714-4.
OCLC 864591828 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/864591828) .
13. Ferro, Vito; Mirabile, Stefano (2009-06-30).
"Comparing Particle Size Distribution
Analysis by Sedimentation and Laser
Diffraction Method" (https://dx.doi.org/10.4
081/jae.2009.2.35) . Journal of Agricultural
Engineering. 40 (2): 35.
doi:10.4081/jae.2009.2.35 (https://doi.org/
10.4081%2Fjae.2009.2.35) . ISSN 2239-
6268 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2239-
6268) . S2CID 67844152 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:67844152) .
14. Ranjan, Gopal (2007). Basic and applied
soil mechanics (https://www.worldcat.org/
oclc/171112208) . [Place of publication not
identified]: [publisher not identified].
ISBN 978-81-224-1223-9. OCLC 171112208
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17111220
8) .
15. "Laser diffraction for particle sizing :: Anton
Paar Wiki" (https://wiki.anton-paar.com/en/
laser-diffraction-for-particle-sizing/) . Anton
Paar. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
16. "Particle size analysis methods: Dynamic
light scattering vs. laser diffraction :: Anton
Paar Wiki" (https://wiki.anton-paar.com/at-d
e/particle-size-analysis-methods-dynamic-li
ght-scattering-vs-laser-diffraction/) . Anton
Paar (in German). Retrieved 2022-07-20.
17. Gorączko, Aleksandra; Topoliński, Szymon
(2020-01-31). "Particle Size Distribution of
Natural Clayey Soils: A Discussion on the
Use of Laser Diffraction Analysis (LDA)" (htt
ps://doi.org/10.3390%2Fgeosciences1002
0055) . Geosciences. 10 (2): 55.
Bibcode:2020Geosc..10...55G (https://ui.ad
sabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Geosc..10...55
G) . doi:10.3390/geosciences10020055 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.3390%2Fgeosciences1002
0055) . ISSN 2076-3263 (https://www.worl
dcat.org/issn/2076-3263) .
18. Ryżak, Magdalena; Bieganowski, Andrzej
(August 2011). "Methodological aspects of
determining soil particle‐size distribution
using the laser diffraction method" (https://
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jpln.20
1000255) . Journal of Plant Nutrition and
Soil Science. 174 (4): 624–633.
doi:10.1002/jpln.201000255 (https://doi.or
g/10.1002%2Fjpln.201000255) .
ISSN 1436-8730 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/1436-8730) .
19. Kettler, T., Doran, J., Gilbert, T., 2001.
Simplified method for soil particle-size
determination to accompany soil-quality
analyses. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65:849–853

Further reading
Natural Resources Conservation
Service. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29,
2017, from
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/
nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?
cid=nrcs142p2_054311
Prescott JA, Taylor JK, Marshall TJ
(1934) "The relationship between the
mechanical composition of the soil and
the estimate of texture in the field."
Transactions of the First Commission of
the International Society of Soil Science
1, 143–153.
Rowell D (1994) Soil Science; Methods
and Application, Longman Scientific &
Technical (1994), 350 pages [1] (https://
books.google.com/books/about/Soil_sc
ience.html?id=wOrwAAAAMAAJ)
Soil Texture, by R. B. Brown, University of
Florida, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences.
Toogood JA (1958) "A simplified textural
classification diagram." Canadian
Journal of Soil Science 38, 54–55.
Whitney M (1911) "The use of soils east
of the Great Plains region." United States
Department of Agriculture Bureau of
Soils Bulletin No. 78.
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Soil_texture&oldid=1132707105"

This page was last edited on 10 January 2023, at

04:41 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless
otherwise noted.