Module 2: Phonetics: The

Sound of the Language

Module Overview
This module will introduce you to the first component of phonology which is
phonetics – the study of the sounds of the English language. Here you will
realize how important human voice is in producing sound. The voice can be
used to inform, persuade, trick, console, and change emotional states as
evidenced by skillful orators, actors and singers.

Motivation Question

Read the following words aloud, giving emphasis on

how underlined sounds are produced:
he people key believe seize see seas
father village badly made many steak God
shoot character Thomas either physics rough coat
Does spelling consistently represent the sound of the language? Is
this true in the English language?

Module Pretest

Instructions: Before we start with this module, try to answer the following
questions. This is just a self-check of how much you learn about the topic. No
need to send your answers to your instructor/professor.
1. What is phonetics? What are the types of phonetics?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What are the parts of the human body concerned in the production of
sounds?
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
3. What are the general types of sounds? How do they differ from each
other?
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
4. What is meant by suprasegmental?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Why do linguist use a phonetic alphabet to represent speech sounds
instead of regular spelling?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Lesson 2.1: Sound Production and Sound Classes

Lesson Summary
This lesson will introduce you to an in-depth study of the structure of the
sounds of speech in English. Here, you will start knowing the apparatus of
speech, the types of sounds in the English language as well as the phonetic
symbols used to represent each sound. You are expected to memorize the
phonetic symbols of each of the sounds as well as produce the sound correctly
in preparation for the succeeding lessons.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. define phonetics;
2. identify the types of phonetics;
3. label the apparatus of speech correctly; and
4. distinguish the major classes of sounds in English as well as their
phonetics symbols.

Motivation Question
Read the following sentences:
1. My name is Philip. – English
2. Ako ay si Philip. – Filipino
3. Mi nombre es Philip. – Spanish
4. Je ileum-eun pillib-ibnida – Korean

Do all languages have the same speech sounds?

Discussion
Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds: their physical properties, the
way they are received and decoded by the brain, and the way they are produced.
Phones or speech sounds are the variety of sounds in a language.
Phonetics is divided into 3 branches:
1. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of sound.
It includes pitch, dynamics, timbre and duration.

Pitch – is the relative highness or lowness we hear in sound.

Dynamics – is the degree of loudness or softness of a sound.
Timbre – refers to the quality of a tone that distinguishes it from
other tones of the same pitch.
Duration – refers to how long or short a sound is.
 2. Auditory phonetics is the study of how sounds are received by the
ear and decoded by the brain.
3. Articulatory phonetics is the study of how the speech sounds are
produced.

Our discussion will focus more on articulatory phonetics since we will

study the production of speech sounds.

First, let us know where these sounds are produced. Let’s take a look
on the Apparatus of Speech

Figure 3. The Apparatus of Speech

In humans, the respiratory and digestive tracts produce speech as the

brain directs them. For example, movements of the tongue and air from the
lungs are important in the production of speech sounds.
The airstream used in speech can originate at different locations, but
the lungs are the usual initiators. The lungs act as bellows, pushing air through
the throat, nose and mouth. The air is modified by the structures of the
respiratory and digestive systems before it is released. These structures are
referred to as the organs of speech or articulators.

Here are the parts of the body known as articulators:

 1. Trachea (windpipe) is the tube that extends from the voice box to the
lungs.
2. Larynx (voice box) is the uppermost part of the trachea that contains
the vocal cords or folds and is one of the sound-producing organs.
3. Vocal Folds (vocal cords) are a muscular pair of elastic folds, which can
be moved into various degrees of openness.
4. Glottis is the space (opening) between the vocal folds
5. Epiglottis is a membranous flap that covers the glottis during
swallowing and prevents anything that is swallowed from entering the
lungs.
6. Pharyngeal Cavity is the space or passageway in the throat.
7. Nasal Cavity is the passageway in the nose.
8. Oral Cavity is the space or passageway in the mouth.
9. Uvula is the fleshy lobe at the back of the roof of the mouth.
10. Alveolar Ridge is the hard ridge behind the upper front teeth.
11. Hard Palate is the bony section of the roof of the mouth.
12. Soft Palate (velum) is the back, the fleshy section of the roof of the
mouth that is movable and closes off the nasal cavity during
swallowing.

We can maintain a continuous flow of conversation only when exhaling

air from the lungs. The air exhaled from the lungs does not in itself produce
speech sounds. To create such sounds, the flow of air must be altered into
sound waves of varying qualities and characteristics. This begins in the larynx
with the degree of opening of the vocal folds. The folds are in a constant state
of flux. When they are together, a narrow pathway is created for the air to flow
through, setting the folds into oscillation or vibration. The resultant sounds are
called voiced sounds. When the vocal cords are apart and the airstream flows
smoothly through, voiceless sounds are produced.
How would you know that a sound is voiced or voiceless? The
difference in these sounds is easy to feel. Simply place a finger on the front of
your neck at the larynx level and in a normal voice say a long v sound [vvvvvvv],
you will notice vibrations coming from your larynx. Now, do the same thing with
the f sound, [fffffff], and notice no vibrations. Therefore, (v) is voiced and (f) is
voiceless.
We use brackets [ ] to enclose the symbols. Brackets signify phonetic
transcription, indicating how it is pronounced.

Sound Classes
The sounds of language can be grouped into classes based on the
phonetic properties that they share. There are two basic divisions/classes of
sounds: vowels and consonants. Another class of sounds, called the glides,
shares properties of both vowels and consonants.
A consonant is produced when the pulse from the larynx, either voiced
or voiceless, are impeded by a part of the vocal trap.
A vowel sound is produced with no obstruction of the airstream. The
differences between various sounds depend on which cavity is used and on
what shape is formed in that resonance chamber.
 Vowels, consonants and glides can be distinguished on the basis of
articulation, acoustic properties or whether they are syllabic or non-syllabic
sounds.
1. The articulatory difference
Consonant sounds, which may be voiced [v] or voiceless [f], are
made with either a complete closure [p] or a narrowing [f] of the
vocal tract. The airflow is either blocked momentarily or
restricted so much that noise is produced as air flows past the
constriction. In contrast, vowels are produced with little
obstruction in the vocal tract and are usually voiced.
2. The acoustic difference
As a result of the difference in articulation, consonants and
vowels differ in the way they sound. Vowels are more sonorous
(acoustically powerful) than consonants and so are louder and
long lasting.
3. Syllabic and non-syllabic sounds
The greater sonority of vowels allows them to form the basis of
syllables.

A syllable can be defined as a peak of sonority surrounded by less

sonorous segments.

Table 1. Shows How Each of the Symbols of the Consonant Sounds of the
Phonetic Alphabet is pronounced

CONSONANTS
Symbols Examples
[p] pat, spat, apply, lap, hiccough
[b] bat, table, bubble, lab
[m] mat, came, comma, lamb
[f] fat, left, tough, photo, coffee
[v] vat, driving, Stephen, move
[t] tap, rats, tapped, mitt
[d] dip, tending, buddy, red
[n] gnat, noise, pneumonia, mnemonic, running
[s] sat, scent, psychology, city, fasten, mats
[z] zip, Xerox, razor, physics, bags, haze, jazz
[Ɵ] thin, ether, Matthew, teeth
[ð] that, either, teethe, bathe
[ʃ] shed, sure, mission, facial, nation, fish
[ʒ] pleasure, vision, casual, azure, rouge
[tᶴ] church, situation, match, righteous, each
[dᶾ] judge, genius, midget, enjoy, gauge
[k] kit, kick, cap, clique, chlorine, tack
[g] grow, hugged, bag, Pittsburgh
[ŋ] anger, think, wrong
[l] lot, place, spill
[r] rat, run, merry, far
[j] you, use, feud, few
[w] witch, wet, twin, quit, mowing
 [ʍ] which, what
[h] hem, hat, who, inhale

Table 2. Shows How Each Vowel Symbol of the Phonetic Alphabet is

Pronounced

VOWELS
Monophthongs Examples
[i] east, secret, Caesar, receive, believe
[I] it, since, been, business
[e] aid, eight, profane, lay, prey
[ꜫ] wet, dress, guest, ready, said
[æ] attic, sat, calf, bank
[u] moon, suit, flue, through, too
[v] put, stood, cook, would
[ʌ] under, but, love, dull, blood, touch
[o] old, oh, toe, boat, though, plateau
[ɔ] always, often, awe, applaud, song, bought
[a] ah, cot, knock, honor

[ə] about, alone, suppose, animal, the

Diphthongs
[aI] fight, buy, my, high, lied, eye
[au] how, plough, ow (interjection)
[ɔI] coy, voice, oil

Learning Tasks/Activities:
Exercise 1
Instructions: This exercise will test how well you understand the relationship
between the phonetic alphabet and the English alphabet.
 a. List the phonetic symbols for consonants that are usually
pronounced the same as they are spelled.
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__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

b. What English alphabetic symbols for consonants are used

in the phonetic alphabet but are used differently in the
English alphabet?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

c. What symbols used in the phonetic alphabet for

consonants which do not have graphic representations in
the English alphabet?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Exercise 2
Instructions: Transcribe into phonetic symbols:
1. The initial consonant /vowel sounds:
a. grow - _______ e. thing - _______ i. us - ________
b. vow - ________f. zoo - _______ j. ask - ________
c. hem - ________ g. cheap - ______
d. shed - ________ h. judge - ______
2. The final sounds
a. ooze -_______ f. tooth - _______
b. have -_______ g. each - _______
c. sound -_______ h. ask - _______
d. wrong -_______ i. far - _______
e. breathe - _______ j. plant - _______
3. The underline sections of the following words:
a. enjoy - _______ f. anger - _______
b. inhale - _______ g. motion - _______
c. vision - _______ h. birth - _______
d. rather - _______ i. speech - _______
e. twin - _______ j. scarf - _______
4. Write an English word that contains each of the following
consonant/vowel sounds.

a. [ɛ] -______ f. [ʃ] -_______

b. [ᴂ] -______ g. [tʃ] -_______
c. [ə] -______ h. [ɳ] -_______
d. [θ] -______ i. [ʒ] -_______
 e. [ð] -______j. [dʒ] -_______

Assessment:

Instructions: Read carefully and understand the instructions for each item
that follows:

1. For the following words, identify which letters are silent and
mark all combinations that represent only one sound.
Example: August
(Circled letters represent one sound. A slash through a letter
means that it is silent.)
a. listen f. philosophy
b. anger g. bride
c. passed h. teeth
d. who i. mechanic
e. critique j. comb
2. Transcribe into phonetic symbols the vowel sounds in:
a. hot -________ f. all -_______
b. cat -________ g. we -_______
c. hope-________ h. foot -_______
d. bate -________ i. boot -_______
e. love -________ j. bet -_______
3. The words listed below contain diphthongs. How would you
transcribe the diphthongs in the phonetic alphabet?
a. oil -________ f. toy -________
b. sigh -________ g.by -________
c. now -________ h. owl -________
d. aisle -________ i. sign -________
e. plough-_______ j. doily -________
4. Write a word orthographically that contains each of the
following:
a. [a] -______ f. [ʃ] -_______
b. [ᴂ] -______ g. [tʃ] -_______
c. [o] -______ h. [θ] -_______
d. [ᴐ] -______ i. [ð] -_______
e. [I] -______ j. [ŋ] -_______
5. Answer this question in your own words briefly.
a. Why do linguists use phonetic alphabet as opposed to standard
orthography?

Instructions on how to submit the output:

Use MSWord for your output, no other specific technical format aside from the
standard font size 12 and font style, either Times New Roman or Arial, is
required. Don’t forget to write your name, class schedule, Learning
Task/Assessment No. and title.
Submit your outputs to my email account: [email protected] or you
may submit them directly to our VSUEE.

Lesson 2.2: Consonant and Vowel Articulation

Lesson Summary:
Articulation is the production of speech sounds by the movement of the
speech organs. This lesson will help you learn how to articulate consonant and
vowel sounds. This will enable you to recognize how and where the consonants
and vowel sounds are produced. Knowing this will prepare you to the task of
transcribing words using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. articulate the consonant and vowel sounds correctly according to
their characteristic qualities; and
2. transcribe words using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

Motivation Question:
1. What serves as your guide in producing the correct sounds in the
English language?
2. How do you transcribe English words correctly using the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)?

Discussion

Articulating the Consonant Sounds

Consonant sounds are produced when air passes through an
articulator and point of articulation that touches or nearly touches each other.
They are grouped according to three categories:
1. According to whether they are voiced or voiceless
2. According to the manner of articulation, and
3. According to the point of articulation
A. According to whether they are voiced or voiceless
Say: [p], [p], [p] – no vibration
Say: [b], [b], [b] – there is a certain amount of vibration that accompanies
these sounds.
When a sound is produced without any vibration in the vocal cords, the sound is
voiceless; when the vocal cords vibrate when the sound is produced, the sound is
voiced.

The voiceless consonant sounds are:

1. [p] 6. [s]
2. [t] 7. [ʃ]
3. [k] 8. [tʃ]
4. [f] 9. [ʍ]
5. [θ] 10. [h]

The voiced consonants are:

1. [b] 6. [z] 11. [ŋ]
2. [d] 7. [ʒ] 12. [l]
3. [g] 8. [dʒ] 13. [r]
4. [v] 9. [m] 14. [w]
5. [ð] 10[n] 15. [j]

B. According to the Manner of Articulation

Manner of Articulation refers to how the sounds are produced. According
to MOA (Manner of Articulation) consonant sounds may be classified as:
1. Plosives – (stops) – are sounds created by momentarily closing off the
airstream
which creates pressure behind the point of articulation. The
built-up pressure is released in a burst of sound. A stop cannot
be prolonged.
The following are the consonant sounds classified as stops or
plosives:

[p] - [b]
[t] - [d]
[k] - [g]
[ʔ]

The first of each pair is voiceless as is the glottal stop. The

second of each pair is voiced.
2. Fricatives – are produced by an incomplete obstruction of the airstream.
While
stops/plosives are produced with complete obstruction,
fricatives are produced with the airstream only partially
obstructed. The result is a hissing sound.

The following are the consonant sounds classified as fricatives:

[f] - [v]
[θ] - [ð]
[s] - [z]
[ʃ] - [ᴣ]
 The first of each pair is voiceless, the second is voiced.

3. Affricates – are each, in a sense, two sounds. The affricate starts out as a
stop but
ends up as a fricative. The following sounds are considered
affricates:

[tʃ] - [ʤ]
char - jar
The first affricate [tᶴ] is voiceless while the second [dᴣ] is voiced.

4. Nasals – are produced in both the nasal and oral cavities, especially if the
velum
(soft palate) is lowered. There are only three nasal consonants in
English:
[m] - mad
[n] - nose
[ŋ] - sing

5. Liquids – are distinguished from the other classes of sounds in that they
involve only
minimal obstruction of the airstream and friction is not produced. Just
like the affricates, there are only two liquids:

[l] - lateral liquid

[r] - retroflex liquid
6. Glides – are labeled as semi-vowels because they display elements of both vowels
and consonants. However, the airstream usually does not flow as freely as in
vowels. Thus, semi-vowels are intermediate between consonants and vowels.
The glides are represented by the following phonetic symbols:

[j] - [w] - [ʍ]

C. According to the Point/Place of Articulation

Point/Place of Articulation (POA) refers to where the sound is
produced. It classifies consonants according to the organs involved in
the production of speech sounds.

According to Point/Place of Articulation, consonant sounds may be classified

as:
1. Bilabials – are produced by bringing the two lips together. The
bilabials sounds are:
[p] - pool
[b] - boot
[m] - money
2. Labiodentals – are produced by raising the lower lip until it comes
near the upper teeth.These are the labiodental sounds:

[f] - fine
[v] – vine
The three bilabials [p], [b], [m] and the two labiodentals are sometimes
grouped together under the general designation of labials.

3. Dentals – are articulated using the tongue and the teeth. The dental sounds
are:
[θ] - think
[ð ] - then
The first dental sound [θ] is voiceless; the second is [ð] is voiced.

4. Alveolar – sounds are produced by raising the tip of the tongue to the
alveolar ridge, the bony ridge behind the upper teeth.

The alveolar sounds are:

[t] - time
[d] - dime
[n] - nine
[s] - sigh
[z] - zeal
[l] - lie
[r] - reef
5. Palatal – sounds are formed when the blade of the tongue articulates with
the back of the alveolar ridge or palate. The palatal sounds are represented by
the following phonetic symbols:

[ᶴ] - shed
[tᶴ] - chead
[ᴣ] - pleasure
[dᴣ] - midget

6. Velar – sounds are created when the back of the tongue articulates
with the soft palate. The velar sounds are phonetically represented as
follows:

[k] - hack
[g] - hag
[ŋ] - hang
7. Labiovelar sounds are created by rounding the lips while the back of
the tongue is raised in the velar region. The labiovelar sounds are
represented by the following phonetic symbols:
[w] - witch
[ʍ] - which
 8. Glottal sounds are articulated by the glottis. The glottal sounds are:
[ʔ] - button, mountain
[h] - hem, hop

Table 3. English Consonants: Classification of Consonant Sounds

Manner of Articulation (MOA)

Point of Plosive Affricate Fricatives Nasal Lateral Retrofle Glides/
VOICE Articula s s s x Semi-
tion Vowel
s
Voiceless [p] [m]

Bilabial
[b]
Voiced
Voiceless [f]
Labiode [v]
ntal
Voiced
Voiceless [ᶿ]

Dental [ᶞ]

Voiced
Voiceless [t] [s]
Alveota [d] [z] [n] [l] [r]
r
Voiced
Voiceless [tᶴ] [ᶴ]
[j]
Palatal
[dᴣ] [ᴣ]
Voiced
Voiceless [k]
Velar [ŋ]
Voiced [g]
Voiceless [ʔ] [h]

Glottal

Voiced
Voiceless [ʍ]
Labiove
lar [w]
Voiced

Articulating the Vowel Sounds

The articulation of vowels is more difficult to describe because, unlike
consonants, vowels involve no obstruction of the airstream. Because a main
mechanism of vowel production is vibrating vocal folds, vowels are voiced.
The other factors involved in vowel production are:
1. Which resonance chamber is used – the oral cavity or both the oral
and nasal cavity.
2. The shape of the resonance chamber – affected by tongue height,
tongue advancement (front to back), and lip rounding or spreading.

The Oral and Nasal Vowels

We can divide vowels into oral vowels and nasalized vowels. In English,
vowels are almost always oral. However, nasalized vowels occurs before nasal
sound.
Example: hat - [hæt] - oral
ham - [hæm] - nasalized since [ʍ] is a nasal sound
seat - [sit] - oral
seam - [sim] - nasalized
Vowels and the Shape of the Resonance Cavity
Figure __4__ below schematically represents a fixed shape for the oral
cavity. Traditionally, vowels have been defined in two dimensions: tongue
height and degree to which the front or the back of the tongue is used. Each
vowel is given a phonetic symbol.
Part of the Tongue Used

Front Central Back

Tongue High [i]
Height [ɪ] [u]
R
[e] [v]
O
[o]
Mid [ꜫ] [ə] U
N
[ʌ]
D
E
[ɔɪ] [ɔ]
D

Low [æ] [aI] [av] [a]

Figure __4_. Traditional Representation of English Vowels

 Part of the Tongue Used
Front Central Back
High [ i] [ɪ] Lax [v] [u]

[O]
Mid [e] [ə]

Tongue
Height [ꜫ] [ʌ] [ɔ]

Low [æ] [a]

Tense

Figure __5_. Tense and Lax English Vowels (Lax vowels are in shaded area.)

Vowels can also be divided into two categories according to the degree of
tension of the tongue muscle and the degree of vocal tract constriction. They
are:
1. Tense Vowels are produced with more tension and more
constriction of the vocal tract.
They are usually produced for a slightly longer duration than lax
vowels. The tense vowels in English are:

[ i] - eat
[e] - ate
[u] - moon
[o] - moan

2. Lax Vowels are produced with less tension and constriction and are
shorter in duration than tense vowels. The lax vowels are:
[ ɪ] - fish [ꜫ] - met
[æ] - mat
[ə] - about
[ʌ] - under
 [v] - book
[ɔ] - caught
[æ] - pot

Articulating the Diphthongs

There are other features that can distinguish vowel sounds in addition
to tongue height, tongue advancement, and lip rounding. For example, vowels
are made up of either a single sound or two sounds in sequence. Vowels
composed of one sound are called monophthongs (mono=one,
phthong=sound), whereas vowels made of two sounds are called diphthongs
(di=two). There are three common English diphthongs:
1. [aI] - fight
2. [au] - how
3. [ɔI] - boy

Learning Tasks/Activity:
A. Instructions: Below are the phonetic symbols used to represent the
consonant and vowel sounds as well as the diphthongs in the English
language. I want you to produce the correct sounds for each phonetic symbol.

I. Consonants
[p] - [s] - [k]-
[b] - [z] - [g]-
[ f] - [ θ] - [l]-
[v] - [ð] - [r]-
[ t] - [ ʃ] - [j]-
[d] - [ ʒ] - [w]-
[m] - [ t ʃ] - [ʍ]-
[n] - [s] - [h]-
[ŋ] - [ʔ]-

II. Vowels
[ i] - [u]-
[ I] - [v]-
[e] - [ʌ]-
[ꜫ] - [o]-
[æ] - [ɔ]-

[a] - [ ᶞ]
 III. Diphthongs
[aɪ] -
[av] -
[ɔɪ] -

B. Instructions: This time, I will give you the sound, what you will do is give me
the phonetic symbol for each English sound.

Note: This exercise will be given during the virtual meeting

Assessment:
Instructions: Answer the following as indicated.
A. Which English vowels are referred to in the following descriptions? Write
their phonetic symbols.
a. The highest front vowel _________
b. The most central vowel _________
c. The lowest back vowel _________
d. The lowest front vowel _________
e. Vowels that are never rounded in English ________

B. Transcribe into phonetic symbols the vowel sounds in:

a. pot ______ f. call ______
b. mat ______ g. he _______
c. cope ______ h. book ______
d. mate ______ i. boot _______
e. hut _______ j. bet _______
C. List two English words that contain each of the following vowel sounds.
(Do not use words given as examples in the exercises in this module).

1. [i] - ____________ , ___________

2. [ɪ] - ____________ , ___________
3. [ꜫ] - ____________ , ___________
4. [e] - ____________ , ___________
5. [æ] - ____________ , ___________

D. Transcribe into phonetic symbols the diphthongs contained in the words

given below.
a. boil _______ f. aisle _______
b. sigh _______ g. bough _______
c. cow _______ h. by _______
d. owl _______ i. boy _______
e. toy _______ j. sign _______
E. Compare and contrast tense and lax vowels.

______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________

Lesson 2.3 Suprasegmentals

Lesson Summary
In the previous lessons, we discussed about how sounds are produced
and represented by phonetic symbols. Each symbol represents a phonetic
segment or a phone. A phonetic segment or phone refers to a speech sound
perceived as an individual and unique sound, different from others sounds.
However, a string of phonetic units can be altered in terms of fundamental
frequency, duration (speed and length), and stress. These are above and
beyond the phonetic segmental level and are called suprasegmentals or
prosodic features.
This lesson will introduce you to suprasegmentals or prosodic features-
characteristics of speech that can distinguish words, phrases, or sentences
that are otherwise identical in their segments.

Motivation Question
What do you mean by suprasegmental?

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. explain the meaning of suprasegmental; and
2. characterize the factors associated with suprasegmentals or prosodic
features.

Discussion
Suprasegmentals or Prosodic Features.
Suprasegmentals or prosodic features are the secondary components
of language. They are associated with stretches of speech larger than an
individual phonetic segment. In the field of phonology, suprasegmentals
include fundamental frequency, duration and stress.

Fundamental Frequency
In speech, fundamental frequency is the rate at which the vocal cords
vibrate. It is otherwise known as pitch, judged by the listener on a scale from
high to low. Pitch alone can change the meaning of a sentence or a word. It
allows us to put sound on a scale that goes from low to high; the faster the
vocal folds vibrate, the higher the perceived pitch of a sound.
 One way to indicate a change in pitch is by the use of intonation
contour.
Example, the sentence His name is Harry can be represented as:

1. His name is Harry? (question)

2. His name is Harry. (declarative)

3. His name is Harry? (surprise)

4. His name is Harry. (doubt)

Duration
Duration of a phone is how long it lasts. It can be a brief sound or a long
sound. Some speech sounds are generally longer or shorter than other sounds
because of the way they are usually produced by vocal apparatus.
In English, a vowel that comes before a voiced consonant has a
duration about one and a half times longer than a vowel that precedes a
voiceless consonant. You might be able to detect that the [i] sound in need is
longer than the [i] sound in neat. However, such duration does not change the meaning
of the word, unlike other languages such as Hindi, Italian and Finnish.

Examples: Hindi: [paka] – means ripe [pakka] – means firm

Italian: [kasa] – means house [kassa] – means box
Finnish: [tapan] – means I kill [tapaan] – means I meet

Contrasts on meaning are made in many languages based on

the length of a sound.
Stress
The word stress means to make emphatic or more prominent. Stress
can be accomplished by changing the pitch (usually raising it), increasing the
length, or increasing the relative loudness of any part of an utterance.
The syllable is the smallest speech unit that contains stress. In some
languages, the stress pattern is completely predictable. For instance, in Finnish
and Hungarian, stress is always in the first syllable of a word. In French and the
Mayan language of Mexico, words are stressed on the final syllable. In Polish
and the African language Swahili, the next to last syllable of the word is the one
stressed. Other languages, including English, the stress pattern is variable and
unpredictable. A difference in the placement of stress in a multi-syllabic word
can signal a difference in the meaning of the word.
In English, there are three levels of stress: primary, secondary, and
unstressed. Primary, stress, also called accent or main stress is marked with
an [ʽ] over the vowel. Secondary stress is marked with an [ʼ] over the vowel. An
unstressed syllable is not marked over the syllable.
A word can only have one primary stress.
 Example: The word phonetic
The primary stress is on the second syllable. There is a secondary
stress on the first syllable and the third syllable is unstressed.
When transcribed phonetically as [fànέtIk]
The stress pattern of a word can change its meaning and the word’s part of speech.
Example:
• Súbject is a noun: “The subject of his discussion was love.
• Subjéct is a verb: “He will subject us to rapid testing.

Table _4_ shows some examples of changes in stress with accompanying

changes in meaning:
Table ______ Supramentals: Stress
Examples of change in stress with accompanying changes in meaning:
cońvict noun person found guilty
convíct verb to prove guilty
cońtent noun all that is contained within
something
contént adjective satisfied with one has
dígest noun a book, a periodical
digest verb to break down into component
parts
súspect noun one who is suspected
suspéct verb to believe someone to be guilty
récord noun anything that is preserved as
evidence
recórd verb to write down; to tape
ínvalid adjective weak; not well; infirm
invàlid adjective null or void
rébel noun a person who revolts
rebél verb to revolt

Table 4. Examples of Changes in Stress with Accompanying Changes in

Meaning
Learning Task/Activities
Instructions: Aside from those word pairs that differ in where stress is
placed listed in Table ____, give ten more examples of this stress/meaning
variation.

a) _____________ f. ______________
b) _____________ g. ______________
c) _____________ h. _______________
d) _____________ i. ________________
e) _____________ j. ________________

Assessment:
A. Instructions: Prepare a table of the words you provided in the learning
tasks and tell what part of speech does each word belong, then give its
meaning.

Word Part of Speech Meaning

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

B. Instructions: Use each word on the table above in a sentence correctly.

Instructions on how to submit your output:

Use MSWord for your output, no other specific technical format aside from the
standard font size 12 and font style, either Times New Roman or Arial, is
required. Don’t forget to write your name, class schedule, Learning
Task/Assessment No. and title.
E-mail your outputs to: [email protected] or you may submit them
directly to our VSUEE.
Module Posttest

I. Instructions: Label the drawing below:

a. ______________
b. ______________
c. ______________
d. ______________
e. ______________
f. ______________
g. ______________
h. ______________
i. ______________
II. Instructions: Transcribe into phonetic symbols each word listed below.
a. act ________ e. mask _________ i. siege _________
b. Roy ________ f. now _________ j. die _________
c. fatigue ________ g. pawn _________
d. mouse ________ h. put _________

References and Additional Resources

References
Bonvillain, Nancy. Language, Culture, and Communication: The Meaning of Messages (Fourth
Edition).
Prentice Hall. 2003
O’Grady, William and Archibald, John. Contemporary Linguistics Analysis:
An Introduction. Pearson Canada, Inc. 2012.
Rowe, Bruce M. Levine, Diane P. A Concise Introduction to Linguistics. Pearson Education, Inc.
2012

Answers to the Pretest

Module 1:
1. Communication is a process of transmitting information, ideas,
events, feelings, etc. from one person to another.
2. Language is a system of communication that relies on verbal or non-
verbal codes to transfer information. Simply put, language is a tool of
communication.
3. The study of language is referred to as linguistics.
Module 2:
1. Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that study speech sounds; their
physical properties, the way they are received and decoded, and the way
they are produced. The types of phonetics are: acoustic, auditory and
articulatory.
 2. The parts of the body involved in the production of sound are trachea,
larynx, vocal cords, glottis, epiglottis, pharynx, nasal cavity, oral cavity,
tongue, teeth, uvula, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate and trachea.
3. The three general types of sounds are consonants, vowels, and
diphthongs. They differ on the basis of articulation, acoustic properties
or whether they are syllabic or non-syllabic.

Answer to the Posttest

Module 1

I. 1. Grammar
2. phonology
3. lexicon
4. morphology
5. syntax

II. 1. Language is a tool of communication.

2. A prospective English teacher like me needs to learn the
grammar of the English language so that I can also teach this
effectively to my students. I cannot teach what I do not know, therefore,
I could not teach grammar of English if I don’t know about it.