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UNIT IV
BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Definition of boundary layer – Thickness and classification – Displacement and momentum Thickness –
Development of laminar and turbulent flows in circular pipes – Major and minor Losses of flow in pipes
– Pipes in series and in parallel – Pipe network
Boundary Layers
Fluid flowing over a stationary surface,
e.g. the bed of a river, or the wall of a pipe, is brought to rest by the shear stress to ,This gives a, now
familiar, velocity profile:

Zero at the wall A maximum at the centre of the flow.The profile doesn’t just exit. It is build up
gradually. Starting when it first flows past the surface
e.g. when it enters a pipe.
Considering a flat plate in a fluid.
 Upstream the velocity profile is uniform,This is known as free stream flow.
 Downstream a velocity profile exists.This is known as fully developed flow.

BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW:

When a real fluid flow past a solid body or a solid wall, the fluid particles adhere to the boundary and
condition of no slip occurs. This means that the velocity of fluid close to the boundary will be same as
that of the boundary. If the boundary is stationary, the velocity of fluid at the boundary will be zero.
Farther away from the boundary, the velocity will be higher and as a result of this variation of velocity,
du
the velocity gradient will exit. The velocity of fluid increases from zero velocity on the stationary
dy
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boundary to free stream velocity (U) of the fluid in the direction normal to the boundary. This variation
of velocity from zero to free stream velocity in the direction normal to the boundary takes place in a
narrow region in the vicinity of solid boundary. This narrow region of the fluid is called boundary layer.
The theory dealing with boundary layer flows is called boundary layer theory.
According to boundary layer theory, the flow of fluid in the neighborhood of the solid boundary may
be divided into two regions as shown in figure.
1. A very thin layer of the fluid, called the boundary layer, in the immediate neighbourhood of the
solid boundary, where the variation of velocity from zero at the solid boundary to free stream
velocity in the direction normal to the boundary takes place. In this region, the velocity gradient
du
exists and hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall in the direction of motion. The
dt
value of shear stress is given by

du

dy
2. The remaining fluid, which is outside the boundary layer. The velocity outside the boundary layer is
constant and equal to free-stream velocity. As there is no variation of velocity in this region, the velocity
du
gradient becomes zero. As a result of this shear stress is zero.
dt
Laminar Boundary Layer: For defining the boundary layer (i.e., laminar boundary layer or turbulent
boundary layer) consider the flow of a fluid, having a free-stream velocity (U), over a smooth thin plate
which is flat and parallel to the direction for free stream of fluid as shown in figure. Let us consider the
flow with zero pressure gradient on one side of the plate, which is stationary.

The velocity of fluid on the surface of the plate should be equal to the velocity of the plate. But plate
is stationary and hence velocity of fluid on the surface of the plate is zero. But at a distance away from
the plate, the fluid is having certain velocity. Thus a velocity gradient is set up in the fluid near the
surface of the plate. This velocity gradient develops shear resistance, which retards the fluid. Thus the
fluid with a uniform free stream velocity (U) is retarded in the vicinity of the solid surface of the plate
and the boundary layer region begins at the sharp leading edge. At subsequent points downstream the
leading edge, the boundary layer region increases because the retarded fluid is further retarded. This is
also referred as the growth of boundary layer. Near the leading edge of the surface of the plate, where
the thickness is small, the flow in the boundary layer is laminar though the main flow is turbulent. This
layer of fluid is said to be laminar boundary layer. This is shown by AE in figure. The length of the plate
from the leading edge, upto which laminar boundary layer exists, is called laminar zone. This is shown
by distance AB. The distance of B from leading edge is obtained from Reynold’s number equal to 5 x
105 for a plate. Because upto this Reynold’s number the boundary layer is laminar.

Ux
The Reynold’s number is given by R  

e x

Where x= Distance from leading edge U= Free-stream velocity of fluid

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 = Kinematic viscosity of fluid

Hence, for laminar boundary layer, we have 5  10 5 

U  x ------------- (1)

If the values of U and  are known, x or the distance from the leading edge upto which laminar
boundary layer exists can be calculated
Turbulent Boundary Layer: If the length of the plate is more than the distance x, calculated from
equation (1), the thickness of boundary layer will go on increasing in the down-stream direction. Then
the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and motion of fluid within it, is disturbed and irregular
which leads to a transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer. This short length over which the
boundary layer flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called transition zone. This is shown by
distance BC in figure. Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent and
continuous to grow in thickness. This layer of boundary is called turbulent boundary layer, which is
shown by the portion FG in figure.
2. Laminar Sub-layer: This is the region in the turbulent boundary layer boundary layer zone,
adjacent to the solid surface of the plate as shown in figure. In this zone, the velocity variation is
influenced only by viscous effects. Though the velocity distribution would be a parabolic curve in
the laminar sub-layer zone, but in view of the very small thickness we can reasonably assume that
velocity variation is linear and so the velocity gradient can be considered constant. Therefore, the
shear stress in the laminar sub-layer would be constant and equal to the boundary shear stress 0 .
Thus the shear stress in the sub-layer is

 u  u u
 0     
u { For linear variation,  }
 y  y0 y y y

Boundary Layer Thickness(  ): It is defined as the distance from boundary of the solid body
measured in y-direction to the point, where the velocity of the fluid is approximately equal to 0.99 times
the free stream (U) velocity of the fluid. It is denoted by the symbol  . For laminar and turbulent zone it
is denoted as:

1.  lam= Thickness of laminar boundary layer,

2.  tur=Thickness of turbulent boundary layer, and
3.  ’= Thickness of laminar sub-layer.
Displacement thickness (  *):It is defined as the distance, perpendicular to the boundary of the solid
body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in flow rate on
account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by the symbol  *. It is also defined as:
The distance, perpendicular to the boundary, by which the free stream is displaced due to the
formation of boundary layer.
 u
*  0 1  dy
 U
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Momentum thickness (θ):It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the
solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum of
the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by the symbol θ.

 u u
  0 1  dy
U U
Energy thickness (  **):It is defined as the distance, perpendicular to the boundary of the solid
body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of
the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by the symbol  **.

u u2 
  0 1  2 dy
**

U U 
Boundary layers in pipes
Initially of the laminar form.
 It changes depending on the ratio of inertial andviscous forces;
 i.e. whether we have laminar (viscous forces high) or turbulent flow (inertial forces high).
 Use Reynolds number to determine which state.

 Laminar flow: profile parabolic (proved in earlier lectures)

 The first part of the boundary layer growth diagram.
 Turbulent (or transitional),
 Laminar and the turbulent (transitional) zones of the boundary layer growth diagram.
 Length of pipe for fully developed flow is the entry length.
Laminar flow =120 * diameter
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Turbulent flow = 60 * diameter

Boundary layer separation
Divergent flows:
Positive pressure gradients.Pressure increases in the direction of flow.
The fluid in the boundary layer has so littlemomentum that it is brought to rest,and possibly reversed in
direction.Reversal lifts the boundary layer.

Expression for loss of head due to Friction in pipes (Darcy weisbach’s Equation):

4.f LV 2 4f .L.V 2
hf   
2g d d  2g

The above equation is known as Darcy- weisbach’s equation. This is commonly used for finding loss of
head due to friction in pipes.
f .L.V 2
Equation (5) is written as h f  d  2g

Then f is known as friction factor.

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND TOTAL ENERGY LINE:

This concept of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line is very useful in the study of flow of fluids
through pipes. They are defined as

1.Hydraulic Gradient Line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and
datum head (z) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line which is
obtained by joining the top of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure head (p/w) of a flowing fluid
in a pipe from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as H.G.L (Hydraulic Gradient Line).

2.Total Energy Line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and
kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also defined as the line
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which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the sum of pressure head and
kinetic head from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as T.E.L (Total Energy Line)

 DARCY – WEISBACH EQUATION (Derivation refer class notes)

 Moody diagram for friction factor:

Minor losses: (Derivation and formulas refer class notes)

 Sudden enlargement
 Sudden contraction
 Sudden obstruction
 Entrance in pipe
 Exit in pipe
 Losses by bend
 Losses by using fittings
FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN SERIES OR FLOW THROUGH COMPOUND PIPES:
2 2 2
4fL1 V1 4fL 2 V2 4fL 3 V3
H + +
d 1  2g d 2  2g d 3  2g

4f  L1 V1 L 3 V3 
2 2 2
L 2 V2
=    
2g  d 1 d2 d 3 

FLOW THROUGH PARALLEL PIPES:

Loss of head for branch pipe 1= Loss of head for branch pipe 2
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2 2
4f 1 L1 V1 4f L V
or = 2 2 2
d 1  2g d 2  2g

2 2
L 1 V1 L 2 V2
If f1=f2, then =
d 1  2g d 2  2g

UNIT IV
BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Definition of boundary layer – Thickness and classification – Displacement and momentum Thickness –
Development of laminar and turbulent flows in circular pipes – Major and minor Losses of flow in pipes
– Pipes in series and in parallel – Pipe network
 Boundary layer concepts –(Theory)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 716 and 717)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 611 to 613)
 Boundary layer thickness.
 Boundary layer thickness (Derivation Refer Class Notes)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 720 to729, Example: 13.1 to 13.9)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 616 to 618, Problem: 13.1 and 13.2)
 Drag force on a flat plate by momentum equation
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 729 to762, Example: 13.10 to 13.28)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 619 to 648, Problem: 13.3 and 13.17)
 Hydraulic and energy gradient
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 648 to 658, Example: 12.16 to 12.21)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 491 to 498, Problem: 11.22 to 11.26)
 Darcy – Weisbach equation and chezy’s eqn. (Derivation Refer Class Notes)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 630 to 633, Example: 12.1 to 12.4)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 467 to 471, Problem: 11.1 to 11.7)
 Friction factor and Moody diagram. (Notes)
 Minor losses (Derivation refer class notes)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 636 to 648, Example: 12.8 to 12.15)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 471 to 491, Problem: 11.8 to 11.21)
 Flow though pipes in series
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 659 to 665, Example: 12.22 to 12.26)
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(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 502 to 508, Problem: 11.30 to 11.31)
 Flow though pipes in parallel.
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 665 to 684, Example: 12.27 to 12.39)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 508 to 524, Problem: 11.32 to 11.41)
 Flow though branched pipes.
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 684 to 687, Example: 12.40 to 12.42)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 524 to 530, Problem: 11.42 to 11.44)
TWO MARKS
BOUNDARY LAYER & FLOW THROUGH PIPES
1. Mention the range of Reynold’s number for laminar and turbulent flow in a pipe.
If the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar. But if the Reynold’s number is
greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent flow.
2. What does Haigen-Poiseulle equation refer to?
The equation refers to the value of loss of head in a pipe of length ‘L’ due to viscosity in a
laminar flow.

3. What is Hagen poiseuille’s formula?

2
(P1-P2) / ρg = hf = 32 μŪL / ρgD
The expression is known as Hagen poiseuille formula.
Where P1-P2 / ρg = Loss of pressure head, Ū= Average velocity,
μ = Coefficient of viscosity, D = Diameter of pipe,
L = Length of pipe
4. Write the expression for shear stress?
Shear stress ζ = - (∂p/∂x) (r/2)
ζmax = - (∂p/∂x) (R/2)
5. Give the formula for velocity distribution: -
The formula for velocity distribution is given as
2 2
u = - (¼ μ) (∂p/∂x) (R -r )
Where R = Radius of the pipe,
r = Radius of the fluid element
6. Give the equation for average velocity: -
The equation for average velocity is given as
2
Ū = - (1/8μ) (∂p/∂x) R
Where R = Radius of the pipe
7. Write the relation between Umax and Ū?
2 2
Umax / Ū = { - (¼ μ) (∂p/∂x) R } / { - ⅛μ (∂p/∂x) R }
Umax / Ū = 2
8. Give the expression for the coefficient of friction in viscous flow?
Coefficient of friction between pipe and fluid in viscous flow
f =16/ Re
Where, f = Re = Reynolds number
9. What are the factors to be determined when viscous fluid flows through the circular pipe?
The factors to be determined are:
i. Velocity distribution across the section.
ii. Ratio of maximum velocity to the average velocity.
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iii. Shear stress distribution.

iv. Drop of pressure for a given length
10. Define kinetic energy correction factor?
Kinetic energy factor is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of the flow per sec based on
actual velocity across a section to the kinetic energy of the flow per sec based on average velocity
across the same section. It is denoted by (α).
K. E factor (α) = K.E per sec based on actual velocity / K.E per sec based on Average velocity
11. Define momentum correction factor (β):
It is defined as the ratio of momentum of the flow per sec based on actual velocity to the
momentum of the flow per sec based on average velocity across the section.
β= Momentum per sec based on actual velocity/Momentum Per sec based on average velocity
12. Define Boundary layer.
When a real fluid flow passed a solid boundary, fluid layer is adhered to the solid boundary. Due
to adhesion fluid undergoes retardation thereby developing a small region in the immediate vicinity
of the boundary. This region is known as boundary layer.

13. What is mean by boundary layer growth?

At subsequent points downstream of the leading edge, the boundary layer region increases
because the retarded fluid is further retarded. This is referred as growth of boundary layer.
14. Classification of boundary layer.
(i) Laminar boundary layer,
(ii) Transition zone,
(iii) Turbulent boundary layer.
15. Define Laminar boundary layer.
Near the leading edge of the surface of the plate the thickness of boundary layer is small and
flow is laminar. This layer of fluid is said to be laminar boundary layer.
The length of the plate from the leading edge, upto which laminar boundary layer exists is called
as laminar zone. In this zone the velocity profile is parabolic.
16. Define transition zone.
After laminar zone, the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and the fluid motion
transformed to turbulent boundary layer. This short length over which the changes taking place is
called as transition zone.
17. Define Turbulent boundary.
Further downstream of transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent and continuous to grow in
thickness. This layer of boundary is called turbulent boundary layer.
18. Define Laminar sub Layer
In the turbulent boundary layer zone, adjacent to the solid surface of the plate the velocity
variation is influenced by viscous effects. Due to very small thickness, the velocity distribution is
almost linear. This region is known as laminar sub layer.
19. Define Boundary layer Thickness.
It is defined as the distance from the solid boundary measured in y-direction to the point, where the
velocity of fluid is approximately equal to 0.99 times the free stream velocity (U) of the fluid. It is
denoted by δ.
20. List the various types of boundary layer thickness.
Displacement thickness(δ*), Momentum thickness(θ), Energy thickness(δ**)
21. Define displacement thickness.
The displacement thickness (δ) is defined as the distance by which the boundary should be displaced
to compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation.
δ* = ∫ [ 1 – (u/U) ] dy
22. Define momentum thickness.
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The momentum thickness (θ) is defined as the distance by which the boundary should be displaced
to compensate for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer
formation.
2
θ = ∫ [ (u/U) – (u/U) ] dy
23. Define energy thickness
The energy thickness (δ**) is defined as the distance by which the boundary should be displaced
to compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer
formation.
3
δ** = ∫ [ (u/U) – (u/U) ] dy
24. What is meant by energy loss in a pipe?
When the fluid flows through a pipe, it looses some energy or head due to frictional resistance and
other reasons. It is called energy loss. The losses are classified as; Major losses and Minor losses
25. Explain the major losses in a pipe.
The major energy losses in a pipe is mainly due to the frictional resistance caused by the shear force
between the fluid particles and boundary walls of the pipe and also due to viscosity of the fluid.
26. Explain minor losses in a pipe.
The loss of energy or head due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude or direction is
called minor losses. It includes: sudden expansion of the pipe, sudden contraction of the pipe, bend
in a pipe, pipe fittings and obstruction in the pipe, etc.
27. State Darcy-Weisbach equation OR What is the expression for head loss due to friction?
2
hf = 4flv / 2gd
where, hf = Head loss due to friction (m), L = Length of the pipe (m),
d = Diameter of the pipe (m), V = Velocity of flow (m/sec)
f = Coefficient of friction

28. What are the factors influencing the frictional loss in pipe flow?
Frictional resistance for the turbulent flow is,
n
i. Proportional to v where v varies from 1.5 to 2.0.
ii. Proportional to the density of fluid.
iii. Proportional to the area of surface in contact.
iv. Independent of pressure.
v. Depend on the nature of the surface in contact.
29. Write the expression for loss of head due to sudden enlargement of the pipe.
2
hexp = (V1-V2) /2g
Where, hexp = Loss of head due to sudden enlargement of pipe.
V1 = Velocity of flow at pipe 1; V2 = Velocity of flow at pipe 2.
30. Write the expression for loss of head due to sudden contraction.
2
hcon =0.5 V /2g
hcon = Loss of head due to sudden contraction. V = Velocity at outlet of pipe.
31. Write the expression for loss of head at the entrance of the pipe.
2
hi =0.5V /2g
hi = Loss of head at entrance of pipe. V = Velocity of liquid at inlet of the pipe.
32. Write the expression for loss of head at exit of the pipe.
2
ho = V /2g
where, ho = Loss of head at exit of the pipe. V = Velocity of liquid at inlet and outlet of the pipe.
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33. Give an expression for loss of head due to an obstruction in pipe

2 2
Loss of head due to an obstruction = V / 2g ( A/ Cc (A-a ) -1 )
Where, A = area of pipe, a = Max area of obstruction,
V = Velocity of liquid in pipe A-a = Area of flow of liquid at section 1-1
34. What is compound pipe or pipes in series?
When the pipes of different length and different diameters are connected end to end, then the pipes
are called as compound pipes or pipes in series.
35. What is mean by parallel pipe and write the governing equations.
When the pipe divides into two or more branches and again join together downstream to form a
single pipe then it is called as pipes in parallel. The governing equations are:
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 hf1 = hf2
36. Define equivalent pipe and write the equation to obtain equivalent pipe diameter.
The single pipe replacing the compound pipe with same diameter without change in discharge
and head loss is known as equivalent pipe.
L = L1 + L2 + L3
5 5 5 5
(L/d ) = (L1/d1 ) + (L2/d2 ) + (L3/d3 )
37. What is meant by Moody’s chart and what are the uses of Moody’s chart?
The basic chart plotted against Darcy-Weisbach friction factor against Reynold’s Number (Re)
for the variety of relative roughness and flow regimes. The relative roughness is the ratio of the
mean height of roughness of the pipe and its diameter (ε/D).
Moody’s diagram is accurate to about 15% for design calculations and used for a large number
of applications. It can be used for non-circular conduits and also for open channels.

38. Define the terms a) Hydraulic gradient line [HGL] b) Total Energy line [TEL]
Hydraulic gradient line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head and datum
head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect the reference line.
HGL = Sum of Pressure Head and Datum head
Total energy line: Total energy line is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head,
datum head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line.
TEL = Sum of Pressure Head, Datum head and Velocity head