The Car

Engine and Structure

 The Car
Engine and Structure

Roy H. Bacon, C.ENG., M.I.MECH.E.

SECOND EDITION

Macmillan Education
 ISBN 978-0-333-17322-0 ISBN 978-1-349-15459-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-15459-3
©Roy H. Bacon 1968, 1972
Reprint of the original edition 1972

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, without permission.

First edition 1968

Second edition 1972
Reprinted 1972, 1974

Published by
THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Associated companies in New York Dublin
Melbourne Johannesburg and Madras

SBN 333 13713 2 (printed cased edition)

333 17322 8 (limp-cover edition)

The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the condition that
it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or
otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent, in any form
of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without
a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the
subsequent purchaser.
 Preface
This book is intended for the use of engineers, fitters, maintenance
mechanics and students whose careers are concerned with the motor
car, particularly for students taking the Associate Membership
examinations of the Institute of the Motor Industry, or the City and
Guilds Motor Vehicle Mechanics', or Motor Vehicles Technicians',
examinations. It may well appeal also to the keen driver who wishes
to obtain fuller information, not only on how a car works but also
the reasons why certain features of design are used in preference
to others.
The basic principles of car design and construction are covered
fully, with the accent on principles of operation and suitable illustra-
tions of modern practice. Although there is continual development in
the industry, the basic principles remain the same and with this
knowledge the newest developments can easily be followed.
In accordance with the policy of teaching basic principles, the
great majority of the illustrations are diagrammatic only, and illustra-
tions of the whole or of part of particular cars and engines are used
only occasionally, as examples.
In this second edition, the opportunity has been taken to include a
table allowing conversion of Imperial units to metric equivalents,
and at the same time minor corrections and amendments to the
text have been incorporated.
The author, a professional design engineer, was Chairman of the
Bantam Racing Club from 1963 to 1969 and is the author of seven
books on cars and motor cycles.
The jacket design illustrates the Rover 2000 TC engine and is here
reproduced by kind permission of the Rover Company of Solihull.
 Contents
Preface v
Conversion Factors X
1 Engine Types and Cycles 1
The Use of Energy - The Basic I.C. Engine Cycle - The Four-
stroke Cycle- The Four-stroke Engine- The Two-stroke Cycle -
The Two-stroke Engine
2 Fuel into Power 10
Introduction - Volatile Fuels - Combustion - Detonation -
Octane Values- Pre-ignition- Compression Ratio- Anti-knock
Fuels - Special Fuels - The Heat Value of Fuels -Thermo-
dynamics- Cylinder Pressures- Horsepower- Tor(:ue- Thermal
Efficiency- Volumetric Efficiency- Horsepower omparison-
Heat Losses
3 Practical Engine Layouts 22
Introduction - The Induction System - Valve Systems - The
Ignition System - The Cooling System - The Lubrication System
- The Single-cylinder Engine - Twin-cylinder Engines - Three
Cylinders in Line- Four-cylinder Engines- Six-cylinder Engines
- Eight-cylinder Engines - Twelve-cylinder Engines
4 The Cylinder Head, Valves and Valve Gear 35
Combustion Chamber Design - The Cylinder Head - The Side
Valve Engine- The Overhead Inlet, Side Exhaust Valve Engine-
The Overhead Valve Engine- Valves- Valve Guides- Valve
Springs- Rotating Valves- Valve Rockers and Shafts- Tapgets
and Pushrods- Desmodromic Valve Operation- The Cams aft
and its Drive- Four-valve Engines- Sleeve and Rotary Valve
Engines- Valve Timings- The Manifolds- The Silencer
s The Cylinder Block, Crankcase and Connecting Rods 60
The Cylinder Block and Crankcase - Flat-four Construction -
Aluminium Cylinders- Cylinder Head Gasket- The Sump- The
Crankshaft - The Connecting Rod - Main and Big End Bearings
-The Flywheel
6 Pistons and Rings 72
The Piston - The Gudgeon Pin - Piston Rings
viii CONTENTS

7 Carburation and Petrol Systems 79

The Problem- The Fixed Choke Carburettor - The Variable
Choke Carburettor- Float Chamber- Multiple Carburettors-
Multiple Choke Carburettors - Carburettor Trouble - Car-
burettor Icing - Air Cleaner and Silencer - Petrol Pump - Petrol
Filters- Petrol Tank - Petrol Injection- Supercharging- Pollution

8 Cooling the Engine 104

Introduction- Air Cooling- Water Cooling- Comparison of
Systems

9 Lubrication 113
The Purpose of Lubrication - Lubricating Oils - Additives -
Splash Lubrication - Low-pressure Lubrication - High-pressure
Lubrication - The Oil Pump - The Filter - The Pressure Gauge -
The Breather - Oil Capacity

10 Engine Electrics 123

Introduction - Coil Ignition - Ignition Timing - Automatic
Advance and Retard -The Sparking Plug- Suppression of Radio
Interference - Alternative Ignition Systems - The Battery - The
Dynamo- Voltage Control- The Cut-out Unit- The Alternator
- The Starting System

11 Examples of Modem Engines 145

Introduction- The Hillman Imp - The Vauxhall Viva - The
Jaguar 4·2 Litre- The Ford Cortina
12 'The Two-stroke Engine 154
The Two-stroke Cycle - Two-stroke Engine Design - Alternative
Engine Forms- Two-stroke Crankcase- Two-stroke Cylinders-
Two-stroke Pistons - Two-stroke Cylinder Heads - Two-stroke
Lubrication - Two-stroke Ignition - A Two-stroke Car Engine;
The Saab
13 Alternative Types of Power Unit 161
The Compression Ignition Engine - Combustion Chambers -
Fuel Injection System - Two-stroke Compression Ignition
Engines - Improving the Reciprocating Engine - The Free Piston
Engine- The Gas Turbine - The Wankel Engine
14 The Complete Car and Basic Structure 170
Types of Car- The Typical Layout- Layout Variations- The
Chassis Frame - Semi-unit Construction - Unit Construction
-Unit Mounting
15 Suspension Systems 178
Introduction - Suspension Factors - Front Suspension - Rear
Suspension - Springs - Coupled Suspension Systems - Hydro-
lastic Suspension - Fully Coupled Suspension - Additional Sus-
pension Control Springs - Dampers
 CONTENTS ix
16 Steering 199
Steering Principles - The Steering Linkage- The Steering Box-
Types of Steering Boxes - The Steering Wheel and Column -
Power-assisted Steering
17 Wheels, Tyres and Brakes 210
Wheel Requirements - Pressed Steel Wheels - Wire Wheels -
Cast Wheels - Wheel Bearings - The Purpose of Tyres - Tyre
Construction - Radial-ply Tyres - Special Purpose Tyres -
High Hysteresis Rubber- The Tyre Valve- Tyre Sections and
Pressures - Tyre Wear - Wheel and Tyre Balancing - Spare
Wheels - Braking Requirements - Types of Brakes - Drum
Brakes- Disc Brakes- The Hydraulic System- Brake Shoes and
Linings - Brake Testing - Power Brakes
18 The Clutch 236
The Purpose of the Clutch - The Principle of the Single Plate
Clutch - The Modern Single Plate Clutch - The Clutch Plate -
Clutch Operation - Multiplate Clutches - The Centrifugal
Clutch - The Magnetic Clutch - The Fluid Coupling - The
Torque Converter
19 The Gearbox 245
The Need for the Gearbox - Traction Principles - Gearing -
Gearwheels - Gear Engagement - The Three-speed 'Crash'
Gearbox - The Constant Mesh Gearbox - Synchromesh -
Selecting and Holding Gears -The Gearbox Casting- Epicyclic
Gearing - The Epicyclic Gearbox - The Electromagnetic Gear-
box - Overdrive - Automatic Gearboxes
20 The Drive from Gearbox to Road Wheels 267
Introduction - The Propeller Shaft - Universal Joints - The
Final Drive Unit- The Rear Axle- The Differential Unit- Rear-
engined Cars - Front Wheel Drive - Four Wheel Drive - The
Variable Pulley Belt Drive
21 The Body Structure 277
Modern Body Style - Body Construction - The Doors - Win-
dows and Winders - Door Locks - The Roof- Anti-corrosion
Treatment - Visibility - Windscreen Wipers - Windscreen
Washers - Driving Mirrors - Seats - Stowage -Heating and
Ventilation - Comfort and Safety- Driving Position and Con-
trols - Instruments - Controls - Lamps - Direction Indicators -
The Horn - Accessories - Wiring
22 Testing the Car 313
The Purpose of Tests - Laboratory Tests - Indicators - Measur-
ing Brake Horsepower - Flowmeters - Field Tests - Road Tests
Index 319
 Conversion Factors
(Imperial to Metric Units)
Length
I inch = 25·4 mm I mm = 0·03937 in
I foot = 0·3048 m 1m = 3·281 ft
I yard = 0·9I44 m 1m = 1·094yd
I mile = I·609 km 1 km = 0·6215 mile

Area
I in• = 6·452 em• 1 em• = 0·155 in'
Volume and Capacity
I in3 = 16·387 ems 1 ems = 0·06102 in8
1 gallon = 4·546 I 1 litre = 0·220 gal

Mass
1 lb = 0·4536 kg 1 kg = 2·2046 lb
1 ton= 1016 kg I kg = 0·00098 ton

Torque
1 lb ft = 0·138 kg m 1 kg m = 7-233 lbf ft
Pressure
1 lb/in' = 703·07 kg/m' I kg/m 2 = 0·00142 lb/in•
1 lbf/in2 = 68·95 m bar 1 m bar = 0·0145 lbf/in'
Speed
1 m.p.h. = 1·609 km/h 1 km/h = 0·6215 m.p.h.
I ft/min = 0·3048 m/min 1 m/min = 3·281 ft/min
1 ft/min = 0·00508 m/sec 1m/sec = I96·85 ft/min

Acceleration
I ft/sec• = 0·3048 m/sec• 1 m/sec' = 3·281 ft/sec•
Consumption
1 m.p.g. = 0·354 km/1 1 km/1 = 2-825 m.p.g.
1 m.p.g.= 282/(1/100 km) 11/100 km = 282/m.p.g.
Energy
1 Btu= 1·055 kJ 1 kJ = 0·948 Btu
Power
I horsepower = 745·7 W (i.e. J/sec) 1 kW = 1·341 h.p.
= 0·7457kW

Specific Energy
I Btu/lb = 2326 J/kg 1 J/kg = 0·00043 Btu/lb