Unit 4 - WAVE SHAPING

4.1. Introduction:

The circuits in which the shape of the wave form is altered are called as Wave shaping Circuits. Wave shaping circuits are
basically two types

 Linear Wave Shaping Circuits: The circuit designed with linear elements like Resistors, capacitors and inductors are
called as Linear Wave Shaping Circuits. Examples of linear wave shaping circuits are low pass filter and high pass filter
 Non Linear Wave Shaping Circuits :The circuits designed with non linear elements like diodes, transistors are called as
Non Linear Wave Shaping Circuits .Examples of non linear circuits are Clippers and Clampers

4.2. LINEAR WAVE SHAPING:

The circuit designed with linear elements like Resistors, capacitors and inductors are called as Linear Wave Shaping Circuits.
Examples of linear wave shaping circuits are high pass filter and low pass filter.

As described in previous chapter, Inductors and Capacitors react to changes in frequency in opposite ways. Looking at the circuits
for low pass filters and high pass filters , both the LR and CR combinations shown have a similar effect.

4.2.1. HIGH-PASS CIRCUITS

FIGURE (a) A high-pass RC circuit FIGURE (b) A high-pass RL circuit

Consider the high-pass RC circuit shown in Fig. (a). The capacitor offers a low reactance (XC = 1/jωC) as the frequency increases;
hence, the output is large. Consequently, high-frequency signals are passed to the output with negligible attenuation whereas, at
low frequencies, due to the large reactance offered by the capacitor, the output signal is small.

Similarly, in the circuit shown in Fig. (b), the inductive reactance XL (= jωL) increases with frequency, leading to a large output.
At low frequencies, the reactance of the inductor XL becomes small; hence, the output is small.

Therefore, the circuits in Fig (a) and (b) are called high-pass circuits.

In the case of L, XL is directly proportional to frequency; and in the case of C, XC is inversely proportional to frequency. C and L
may therefore be called inverse circuit elements. Thus, in the high-pass circuit of Fig. 4.2.1 (a), C appears as a series element; and
in the high-pass circuit of Fig. 4.2.1(b), L appears as a shunt element. The time constant τ is given by: τ = RC = L/R.

4.2.2. A High-pass RC Circuit as a Differentiator

If the time constant of the high-pass RC circuit, shown in Fig. 4.2.1 (a), is much smaller than the time period of the input signal,
then the circuit behaves as a differentiator.

If T is to be large when compared to τ, then the frequency must be small. At low frequencies, XC is very large when compared to
R. Therefore, the voltage drop across R is very small when compared to the drop across C.

But iR = vo is small. Therefore,

Differentiating:

Therefore

Thus, from Eq. (70), it can be seen that the output is proportional to
the differential of the input signal, as shown in Fig. If the input is a
square wave, the output is in the form of positive and negative spikes, as shown in below figure.
 Figure: The output of a differentiator

Hence, a high-pass circuit behaves as a good differentiator only when RC << T.

The output of the differentiator in above figure contains both positive and negative
spikes. If only positive spikes are needed to trigger a multivibrator (to be considered
later), we use the circuit shown below. Here, since D conducts only when the input
spikes are positive, the negative spikes are eliminated. The output of the circuit is
shown beside.

FIGURE :The differentiator circuit for eliminating negative spikes in the output.

Alternately, if only negative spikes are needed, the positive spikes are eliminated using the circuit below, since D conducts only
when the input spikes are negative. The output of the circuit is shown beside.

FIGURE :The differentiator circuit for eliminating positive spikes in the output.

4.2.3.LOWPASS CIRCUIT

Low-pass circuits derive their name from the fact that the output of these circuits is larger for lower frequencies and vice-versa.
Figures (a) and (b) represent a low-pass RC circuit and a low-pass RL circuit, respectively.

FIGURE (a) A low-pass RC circuit; and (b) a low-pass RL circuit

In the RC circuit, shown in Fig. (a), at low frequencies, the reactance of C is large and decreases with increasing frequency.
Hence, the output is smaller for higher frequencies and vice-versa.

Similarly, in the RL circuit shown in Fig. (b), the inductive reactance is small for low frequencies and hence, the output is large at
low frequencies. As the frequency increases, the inductive reactance increases; hence, the output decreases.

Therefore, these circuits are called low-pass circuits.

4.2.4.A Low-pass RC Circuit as an Integrator

For the low-pass RC circuit in (a) to behave as an integrator, τ >>T. For T to be small when compared to τ, the frequency has to be
high. At high frequencies, XC is very small when compared to R. Therefore, the voltage drop across R is very large when
compared to the drop across C. Hence, vi ≅ iR.

Since,

Therefore,

The output is proportional to the integral of the input signal. Hence, a low-pass circuit with a large time constant produces an
output that is proportional to the integral of the input.

Hence, only when RC >> T, a low-pass RC circuit behaves as a good integrator and the output is a co-sinusiodally varying signal
if the input is a sine wave.

The major limitations of high-pass and low-pass RL circuits are:

1. For a large value of inductance, an iron-cored inductor has to be used. As such it is bulky and occupies more space.

2. Inductors are more lossy elements, when compared to capacitors. So, it is possible to get ideal capacitors, but not ideal
inductors.

4.2.5. RLC CIRCUITS

RLC circuits behave altogether differently when compared to either RL or RC circuits. RLC circuits are resonant circuits. These
can be either series resonant circuits or parallel resonant circuits. A parallel RLC circuit is used as a tank circuit in an oscillator to
generate oscillations (this is the feedback network that produces the phase shift of 180°). The RLC circuit is also used in tuned
amplifiers to select a desired frequency band at the output.

4.3.NON-LINEAR WAVE SHAPING :

The circuits designed with non linear elements like diodes, transistors are called as Non Linear Wave Shaping Circuits .Examples
of non linear circuits are Clippers and Clampers

4.4.CLIPPING CIRCUITS :

A Clipping circuit comprises of linear elements like resistors and non linear elements like diodes or transistors, but it does not
contain energy storage elements like capacitors.

Clipping circuits are used to select for purpose of transmission, that part of an waveform which lie above or below a certain
reference voltage level.

Thus clipper circuit can remove certain portions of wave form. Clipping circuit “clips” some portion of the waveform. They are
referred to as Voltage limiters, Amplitude selectors or Slicers. Clipping can be done either at one level or two levels. Usually
under the action of clipping, there is a change brought about in the wave shape of the signal..

Clipping circuits are classified based on the position of Diode.

 Series Diode Clipper

 Shunt Diode Clipper

4.4.1 Series Clippers

Series Clippers are again sub divided into two types

 Series Negative Clipper and

 Series Positive Clipper
4.4.1.1 Series Negative Clipper: Series Negative Clipper is used to cut or clipper negative part of wave form. Below figure
shows the circuit of series negative clipper.

Transfer characteristic (a plot

that gives the relationship
between the input and the
output voltages) with input
and output waveforms is
shown beside.

Fig: The transfer characteristics of a series negative clipper. The output is in

the form of half-cycles, similar to the output of a half-wave rectifier; in fact, it is a
half-wave rectifier

Working Of Diode:

When Vi is positive, D conducts and the input signal is When Vi is negative, There is no transmission of the signal
transmitted to the output, as the diode is in reverse bias.

Vo = Vi Vo = 0

Transfer Characteristic Equation:

For Vi > 0 ; Vo= Vi For Vi < 0 ; Vo = 0

4.4.1.2. Series Positive Clipper: Series Positive Clipper is used to cut or clipper Positive part of wave form. Below figure shows
the circuit of series Positive clipper.

Working Of Diode:

When Vi is positive, D is OFF and the signal is not When Vi is negative, D conducts and the input Vi is
transmitted to the output. transmitted to the output

Vo = 0 Vo = Vi

Transfer Characteristic Equation: Transfer Characteristics:

For Vi > 0 ; Vo= 0

For Vi < 0 ; Vo = Vi
4.4.1.3 Biased Clipper. If a battery (VR) is included in the series-clipping circuit, such that the diode is connected in series with
the load, as shown in Fig. then these circuits are called biased series clippers, which can clip above or below certain level

(i) Series Clipper - Clipping below the reference voltage VR

Working Of Diode:

For vi < VR, D is OFF; hence, Vo = VR. For vi ≥ VR, D is ON; hence, Vo = Vi.

Transfer Characteristic Equation:

For vi < VR, D is OFF; hence, Vo = VR. For vi ≥ VR, D is ON; hence, Vo = Vi.

Transfer Characteristics:
(ii)Series Clipper - Clipping Above reference voltage VR

Working Of Diode:

For Vi < VR, D is ON, Hence, Vo = Vi. For Vi > VR, D is OFF, Hence, Vo = VR.

Transfer Characteristic Equation:

For Vi < VR, D is ON, Hence, Vo = Vi. For Vi > VR, D is OFF, Hence, Vo = VR.

Transfer Characteristics:
4.4.2 Shunt Clippers

Shunt Clippers are again sub divided into two types

 Shunt Negative Clipper and

 Shunt Positive Clipper

4.4.2.1 Shunt Negative Clipper: Shunt negative Clipper is used to cut or clipp negative part of wave form. Below figure shows
the circuit of shunt negative clipper in which the diode is used as a shunt element.

Working Of Diode:

When Vi is positive, Diode is in reverse bias and it becomes When Vi is negative, Diode is in forward bias and it
open and Vo = Vi conducts and Vo = Vγ, where Vγ is the cut-in voltage of the
diode which is 0.3V approximately equal to 0

=> Vo = 0

Transfer Characteristic Equation:

For Vi > 0 ; Vo= Vi For Vi < 0 ; Vo = 0

Transfer Characteristics:
4.4.2.2 Shunt Positive Clipper: Shunt Positive Clipper is used to cut or clipp Positive part of wave form. Below figure shows the
circuit of shunt positive clipper in which the diode is used as a shunt element.

Working Of Diode:

As long as the input is positive, D conducts and the output When the input is negative, D is OFF and an open circuit.
Vo = Vγ, where Vγ is the cut-in voltage of the diode which The input is transmitted to the output. ie,. Vo = Vi
is 0.3V approximately equal to 0.=> Vo = 0

Transfer Characteristic Equation:

For Vi > 0 ; Vo= 0 For Vi < 0 ; Vo = Vi

Transfer Characteristics:
4.4.2.3 Shunt Clipper - Clipping Above reference voltage VR

Working Of Diode:

When Vi < VR, Diode is in Reverse Bias and D is OFF, hence, Vo = Vi.

When Vi > VR, Diode is in Forward Bias and D is ON, hence, Vo = VR.

Transfer Characteristic Equation:

For Vi < VR, D is OFF, Vo = Vi.

For Vi > VR, D is ON, Vo = VR

Transfer Characteristics:
4.4.2.4 Shunt Clipper - Clipping Below reference voltage VR

Working Of Diode:

When Vi < VR, Diode is in Forward Bias and D is ON, hence, Vo = VR.

When Vi > VR, Diode is in Reverse Bias and D is OFF, hence, Vo = Vi.

Transfer Characteristic Equation:

For Vi < VR, D is ON, Vo = VR

For Vi > VR, D is OFF, Vo = Vi.

Transfer Characteristics:

4.5.Two-level Clippers

We have considered clippers which clip the input at one level. Let us now consider clippers which clip the signal at two
independent levels. Two diode clippers may be used in a cascade to limit the output at two independent levels. If a positive-
clipper and a negative clipper are used in a pair, the resultant circuit is called a two-level clipper.

Slicers. The input can be clipped at two independent levels, either during the positive going half-cycle or during the negative
going half-period. If the input is clipped at two levels during the positive going half-cycle, leaving only a slice of the input at the
output, the circuit is called a positive slicer. If on the other hand, the signal is sliced during the negative half-cycle, the circuit is
called a negative slicer.
4.5.1 Positive Slicers: The circuit shown in Fig. 4.16(a) is a positive slicer, as it slices the positive going signal at two
independent levels.

Working Of Diode: Consider the following conditions:

Case 1. When Vi < VR1:

When Vi < VR1: D1 is ON, D2 is OFF. Hence Vo = VR1.

Case 2.When VR1 < vi < VR2

When VR1 < vi < VR2, D1 and D2 are OFF. Hence, Vo = Vi.

Case 3. When Vi > VR2

When Vi > VR2, D1 is OFF and D2 is ON. Hence, Vo = VR2.

Transfer Characteristic Equation:

For Vi < VR1 ,Vo = VR1.

For VR1 < vi < VR2, Vo = Vi.

For Vi > VR2, Vo = VR2.

Transfer Characteristics:

Below figure represents the transfer characteristic, input and output of a positive slicer. We observe that in the output only a
portion of the positive going signal is selected.

4.5.2 Limiters. The combination of a positive clipper and a negative clipper, clipping the input symmetrically at the top and the
bottom is called a limiter as shown in Fig.

Working Of Diode: Consider the following conditions:

Case 1: When −VR < Vi < VR

When −VR < Vi < VR, D1 and D2 are OFF ,Hence, Vo = Vi.
Case 2. When Vi ≥ VR

When Vi ≥ VR, D1 is ON and D2 is OFF. Hence, Vo = VR.

Case 3. When Vi ≤ −VR

When Vi ≤ −VR, D1 is OFF, D2 is ON. Hence, Vo = −VR.

Transfer Characteristic Equation:

For −VR < Vi < VR, Vo = Vi.

For Vi ≥ VR, Vo = VR

For Vi ≤ −VR, Vo = −VR.

Transfer Characteristics:

The transfer characteristic of a limiter with input and output waveforms are shown in below figure. It is seen from the below
waveform that the input sinusoidal voltage has been clipped at both top and bottom symmetrically. It is obvious that the output
waveform is almost a square wave.
4.6. Non-linear Wave shaping: Clamping Circuits

The clamping circuit essentially consists of an input source, a capacitor of a suitable value and a diode connected in shunt with the
output terminals.

When a signal is transmitted through a capacitive coupled network, the dc component associated with the input is lost in the
output since the capacitor blocks the dc. If the dc component needs to be restored, a clamping circuit is used. Thus, clamping
circuits reintroduce the dc component lost during transmission through a capacitive coupled network and hence, are called either
dc restorers or dc re-inserters.

The direction of the diode in the clamping circuit determines the clamper circuit type. Clamping Circuits are of basically two
types

Negative Clamper or Positive Peak Clamper

Positive Clamper or Negative Peak Clamper

4.6.1 Negative Clamper or Positive Peak Clamper

The Negative Clamping circuit consists of a diode connected in parallel

with the load. The anode of the diode is connected to the capacitor and
cathode to the ground. The diode is assumed to be ideal and initially there
is no charge on the capacitor. Below figure shows a basic clamping circuit.

As the input rises from 0 to Vm in the first quarter cycle, Diode is in

Forward Bias, Diode conducts, C charges to Vm. During this period, Vo = 0 if the
diode is ideal.

During second quarter cycle input signal amplitude decreases, we expect C to discharge.
But this cannot happen since there is no resistance through which it can discharge. So
voltage across C remains Vm.

During Negative cycle D is in reverse bias and does not conduct and Voltage across C
remains fixed at Vm.

The Output Voltage Vo = Vs - Vm

Therefore For

Vs = 0, Vo = −Vm.

Vs = Vm, Vo = Vm − Vm = 0

Vs = −Vm, Vo = −Vm − Vm = −2 Vm

4.6.2 Positive Clamper or Negative Peak Clamper

The circuit of the positive clamper is similar to the negative clamper but the
direction of the diode is inverted in such a way that the cathode of the diode is
connected to the capacitor.

During the negative half wave cycle, the diode starts to conduct and charges the
capacitor to value - Vm.

During the positive half wave cycle, output voltage of the circuit will be the sum of
applied input voltage and the charge stored at capacitor.

Vo = Vs - (- Vm) ; which gives Vo =Vs + Vm

Therefore For
Vs = 0, Vo = Vm.
Vs = Vm, Vo = Vm + Vm = 2 Vm
Vs = −Vm, Vo = −Vm + Vm = 0

4.7. Biased Clampers:

Addition of DC level to the waveform can be done by adding an extra voltage supply in series with the diode and polarity as we
require. Then we get four combinations.

 Negative Clamper with Positive Reference Voltage

 Negative Clamper with Negative Reference Voltage
 Positive Clamper with Positive Reference Voltage
 Positive Clamper with Negative Reference Voltage

4.7.1. Negative Clamper with Positive Reference

Voltage

The circuit arrangement is very similar to the Negative

clamper circuit, but a DC reference supply is connected
in series with the diode. The output waveform is also
similar to the Negative clamper output waveform, but it
is shifted towards the positive direction by an amount
equal to the reference voltage at the diode.

4.7.2. Negative Clamper with Negative Reference

Voltage

Circuit arrangement is very similar to above, If the

reference voltage directions in the above case are reversed
and connected to the diode in series.

4.7.3. Positive Clamper with Positive Reference

Voltage

A positive reference voltage is connected in series with the

diode in the positive clamper circuit such that the positive
terminal of the reference voltage is connected in series
with the anode of the diode.

4.7.4. Positive Clamper with Negative Reference

Voltage

The direction of the reference voltage is reversed in this case such that the negative terminal of the reference voltage is connected
in series with the anode of diode reflecting it as a negative reference voltage

The important points regarding clamping circuits are:

(i) The shape of the waveform will be the same, but its level is shifted either upward or downward,

(ii) There will be no change in the peak-to-peak or rms value of the wave form due to the clamping circuit. Thus, the input
waveform and output waveform will have the same peak-to-peak value

(iii) The values of the resistor R and capacitor C affect the waveform.

(iv)The values for the resistor R and capacitor C should be determined from the time constant equation of the circuit, t = RC. The
values must be large enough to make sure that the voltage across the capacitor C does not change significantly during the time
interval the diode is non-conducting. In a good clamper circuit, the circuit time constant t = RC should be at least ten times the
time period of the input signal voltage.