MED– 2104

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
LABORATORY MANUAL

Prepared by
Dr.K.Mohamed Bak

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

List of Experiment (MED – 2104 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES – I)

Sr.
Title Course Outcomes
No.

1 Molding Practice in Sand Casting, Design of Gating CO1

system –Single piece pattern
2 Making of pattern using split piece CO1

3 Lap joint using Arc welding CO2

4 T Joint using Arc welding CO2

5 T joint using MIG welding CO2

6 Determination of weld defects using microscope CO2

Making of U bend using Forging CO3

7

8 Making of SHAPE J using Sheet metal forming CO3

9 Lathe Machining operations-Taper Turning CO4

10 Lathe Machining operations-Internal and External CO4

Thread cutting
11 Lathe Machining operations-Knurling CO4

MED– 2104 MANUFACTURINGPROCESS LABORATORY MANUAL Page 1 of 26

 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Date:

Date:
EXPERIMENT: 1
Moulding Practice in Sand Casting-
SINGLE PIECE
AIM: To learn how to make sand mix and sand mould.
To prepare a Green sand mold from the given pattern (single piece)

OBJECTIVE:
 To study about different types of patterns and its materials
 Demonstrate preparation of sand systems.
 Identify parting line.
 Demonstrate placement of pattern
 Understand ramming of sand around pattern.
 Demonstrate preparation of mould.

THEORY:
Founding or Casting is the process of producing metal/alloy components parts
of desired shapes by pouring the molten metal/alloy into a prepared mould (of that
shape) and then allowing the metal/alloy to cool and solidify. The solidified piece of
metal/alloy is knownas Casting.

Pattern:
Pattern is mould forming tool and the replica of the object to be cast. Pattern may
beconstructed out of the following materials according to application.
 Wood  Metal
 Plastic  Plaster
 Wax  Polystyrene

The different types of patterns commonly used are:

 One Piece pattern  Split Pattern
 Loose Piece Pattern  Match Plate Pattern
 Cope and Drag Pattern  Sweep Pattern
 Segmental pattern  Gated Pattern

Core:
It is an obstruction which when positioned in the mould naturally does not permit
the molten metal to fill up the space occupied by the core. It is made up of sand,
metal, plaster andceramics.
Types of cores classified according to
 The state or condition of core
 The nature of core material employed
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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Date:
 The type of core hardening process employed
 The shape and positioned of the core
Gating System:
This term refers to all passageways through which the molten metal passes
to enter themould cavity. The gating system composed of
 Pouring Cups &  Sprue
Basins
 Gates  Runner
 Risers
Risering System:
Riser or feeder head is a passage of sand made in the cape (mould). The molten
metal rises in the feeder need after the mould cavity is filled up. There are mainly
two types ofrisers: open riser and closed riser.

Design of gating system

A good gating design should ensure proper distribution of molten metal
without excessive temperature loss, turbulence, gas entrapping and slags.
If the molten metal is poured very slowly, since time taken to fill the mould
cavity will become longer, solidification will start even before the mould is
completely filled. This can be restricted by using super-heated metal, but in this case
solubility will be a problem.
If the molten metal is poured very faster, it can erode the mould cavity. So
gating design is important and it depends on the metal and molten metal composition.

Steps involved in making a Casting:

 Make a pattern out of wood, metal, plastic etc.
 In case of sand casting, select, test and prepare the necessary sand mixture
for mouldand core making.
 With the help of patterns prepare the mould and necessary cores.
 Melt the metal/alloy to be cast.
 Pour the molten metal/alloy into the mould and remove the casting from
the mouldafter the metal/alloy solidifies.
 Clean and finish the casting.
 Test and inspect the casting
 Remove the defects if any.
 Relieve the casting stresses by heat treatment.
 Again inspect the casting.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Date:

Diagram

Results

Marks obtained: Signature of faculty: Date:

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Date:
EXPERIMENT: 2
Split Piece Pattern for Sand Casting

AIM: To prepare a Green sand mold from the given pattern (Split piece)

OBJECTIVE:
 Demonstrate preparation of sand systems.
 Identify parting line.
 Demonstrate placement of split piece pattern
 Understand ramming of sand around pattern.
 Demonstrate preparation of mould.

Steps involved in making a Casting:

 Make a pattern out of wood, metal, plastic etc.
 In case of sand casting, select, test and prepare the necessary sand mixture
for mould & core making.
 With the help of patterns prepare the mould and necessary cores.
 Melt the metal/alloy to be cast.
 Pour the molten metal/alloy into the mould and remove the casting from
the mouldafterthe metal/alloy solidifies.
 Clean and finish the casting.
 Test and inspect the casting
 Remove the defects if any.
 Relieve the casting stresses by heat treatment.
 Again inspect the casting.

Diagram

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Date:

Results

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Date:

EXPERIMENT: 3
LAP JOINT USING ARC WELDING

Aim: To prepare a lap joint with the specimens by Arc Welding.

Equipment and Material Required: D.C Welding machine, Bench vice, Tensile testing
machine, M.S. Plates of 100x50x5(2), Metallurgical microscope.

Tools Required: Hack saw, Chipping hammer, wire brush, safety goggles, Hand gloves,
Face shield, Files

INTRODUCTION:
Welding is more than dragging a welding rod across a piece of steel &gluing
it to another one. The process begins with properly fitting and securing the work
piece. or metal to be welded together. For thicker pieces you may want to grind a
bevel so subsequent beads can be placed in the groove to fill it completely with a solid
weld. Here are the basic steps for completing a simple weld.
THEORY:
There are various ways of classifying the welding and allied processes. They
may be classified on the basis of source of heat (flame, arc etc.) and types of
interaction (fusion welding and solid state welding).
In general, various welding and allied processes are classified as follows:
Gas Welding Processes
Arc Welding Processes
Resistance Welding Processes
Solid State Welding Processes
Thermo Chemical Welding Processes
Radiant Energy Welding Processes
Commonly welded base metals can be classified as
Ferrous Metals (like Wrought Iron, Cast Iron, Alloy Steel, Stainless Steel,
Cast Steel etc.)
Non-Ferrous Metals (like Al & its Alloys, Cu & its alloys, Mg & its alloys, Ni
& its alloys, Zn & its alloys etc.)

PROCEDURE:
The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces
overlapped one over the other as shown in drawing.
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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Date:
The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a
proper value.
The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work pieces
are tack welded at both the ends and at the centre of the joint.
The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.
DIAGRAM

RESULTS
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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
BSAR CRESCENT INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Date:
EXPERIMENT: 4
T JOINT USING ARC WELDING

Aim: To prepare a T joint with the specimens by Arc Welding.

Equipment and Material Required: D.C Welding machine, Bench vice, Tensile
testing machine, M.S. Plates of 100x50x5(2), Metallurgical microscope.

Tools Required: Hack saw, Chipping hammer, wire brush, safety goggles, Hand
gloves, Face shield, Files

PROCEDURE:
The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces
overlapped one over the other as shown in drawing.
The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a
proper value.
The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work pieces
are tack welded at both the ends and at the centre of the joint.
The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

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 DIAGRAM

RESULTS

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EXPERIMENT: 5

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Page 12 of 26
RESULTS

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 EXPERIMENT: 6
MIG & TIG Welding Process

Part – I TIG (GTAW) Welding Process

AIM: To Study about TIG Welding Process

APPARATUS: Welding Torch, Tungsten Electrode & Filler Metal, Cooling Water Supply,
Water and Gas Solenoid Valves, Inert gas Cylinder

OBJECTIVES:
 To study the principle of arc welding process, welding cycle & different time phases
involved.
 To understand various welding parameters of TIG welding process.

THEORY:
Air during welding tends to reduce the quality of weld. Inert gases are used to keep
contaminants away from contacting the metal and also to remove the contaminants from the metal
surfaces as the contaminants like air, dust and metal oxides also reduce the weld quality
considerably. Inert arc gas welding is faster, produces cleaner weld and can weld metals
considered to be difficult or impossible to weld. A GTAW process uses a non-consumable
tungsten electrode which is mounted in a special electrode welder. This holder is also design to
furnish a flow of inert gas around the electrode and around the arc. Welding operation is doneby
striking an arc between the work-piece and tungsten electrode in an atmosphere of inert gas such
as helium, argon, CO2 etc.

A GTAW process welding set utilises suitable power sources, a cylinder of organ gas, a
welding torch having connections of cable for current, tubing for shielding gas supply andtubing
for water for cooling the torch. The shape of torch is characteristic, having a cap at the back end
to protect the rather long tungsten electrode against accidental breakage.

OPERATION SEQUENCE:
 Weld puddle is developed due to arc action on the job.
 Welding torch is moved back.
 Filler rod is moved ahead and filler metal is added to the weld puddle.
 Filler rod is withdrawn.
 Torch is moved to the leading edge of the puddle.

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 MIG (GMAW) Welding Process

AIM: To Study about MIG Welding Process

APPARATUS: Power Source & Cables, Welding Torch & Wire Electrode Coiled on a Spool,
Wire Feed Mechanism & Controls, Shielding Gas Cylinder, Pressure Regulator, Flow Meter

OBJECTIVES:
 To study the principle of arc welding process, welding cycle & different time phases
involved.
 To understand various welding parameters of MIG welding process.

THEORY:
GMAW is performed by using direct current reverse polarity as it gives both good cleaning
action and fast filler metal deposition rates. A rather high welding current is desirableas this
extra current break up the globules of molten metal into fine spray. This increases the rate of
transfer and gives better control of arc, so that it can be directed accurately into the weld
joint.

GMAW uses consumable electrode which is fed through the electrode holder into the arc
and at the same speed the electrode is melted and deposited in the weld. A small adjustable speed
motor is used to remove wire from a spool and feed it into the arc. CO2 and argon/CO2 mixtures
are often use as shielding gases for welding various types of carbon sheets compared with GTAW.

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 EXPERIMENT: 7
MAKING OF SHAPE J USING SHEET METAL FORMING

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RESULTS

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 EXPERIMENT: 8
Weld Defects and Dye Penetrate (DP) Test

AIM: To study of weld defects and carry out Dye Penetrate (DP) test on welded joint

OBJECTIVES:
 To know the types of welding defects, and its remedies.
 To study types of testing methods available, its principle and working.
 To carry out Dye Penetrate (DP) test.

THEORY:

The ideal weld should be such that adequate fusion exists between the filler metal and edge
preparation together with good penetration. There are two classes of defects: (a) those due to faulty
technique on the part of operator such as lack of fusion, lack of penetration, over penetration, slag
lines. These are basically the faults of the welder or choice of process. (b) Those resulting from
fundamental difficulties in welding operations such as cracking and porosity.

TYPES OF WELDING-DEFECTS:

DIMENSIONAL Welding-defects can be assessed by visual inspection and by measuring with

simple weld gages. They derive from improper set up or by distortion which should be controlled
in a proper fixture, or by a different welding sequence. In general they should be corrected by
employing proper means before welding. MISALIGNMENT is a setup problem.

Other appearance features which may cause rejection of these Welding-defects are
excessive bead convexity and reinforcement, or the opposite condition, namely considerable
concavity and undersized welds. Here the welder's technique should be improved.

UNDERCUT consists in a groove formed into the base metal, adjacent to the weld bead. It derives
from improper manipulation of torch or electrode. Further training and improved skill of the
welder should save future performance.

CRACKS are Welding-defects never permitted, because they are seen as stress raisers, and
capable to grow until fracture. Different forms and positions of cracks can hint at their origin, and
should be investigated before trying to correct for their appearance. Except for cases of lack of
experience of the welder, who may be unable to end a weld bead without crater cracking, other
instances derive mostly from limited weld ability of the materials, and should be dealt with

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by whoever has metallurgical experience, by means of special procedures invoking
pre-heat andpost heat and other tricks which the welder cannot be expected to provide.

Fine cracks that cannot be seen by visual inspections are the object of specialized
inspection techniques. For which DP test is done which is based upon capillary action,
where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and dry surface-breaking
discontinuities. Penetrate may be applied to the test component by dipping, spraying, or
brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrate is
removed, a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrate out of the flaw
where a visible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed
under ultraviolet or white light,depending upon the type of dye used - fluorescent or no
fluorescent (visible).

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 EXPERIMENT: 8

DATE :

TAPER TURNING OPERATION BY USING A LATHE

AIM

To machine a work piece by facing, plain turning and taper turning operation
using a lathe.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Mild steel polished round rod -  25 X 100 mm

TOOLS REQUIRED

▪ Lathe machine

▪ Steel Rule

▪ Cutting tool

▪ Vernier Caliper

▪ Outside Caliper

▪ Spanner

FORMULA

1) The taper angle is calculated using the following formula:

Dd 
Taper angle () = tan1 
 
 2l 

Where

D = large diameter of taper in mm

d = small diameter of taper in mm

l = length of tapered part in mm

 = angle of taper

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 2) Time taken for taper turning :

Length of the cut

T = -------------------------------- X Number of cuts

[Feed x rpm]

Where,

Depth of the cut should not exceed 4mm

Cutting speed, S = 75 mm/rev

Maximum feed, f = 0.05mm/rev

Rpm, N = [1000×S/ π × D]

PROCEDURE

1. The given work piece is held firmly in a lathe chuck.

2. The cutting tool is set in a tool post such that the point of the Cutting tool
coincides with the lathe axis.

3. The machine is switched on to revolve the work piece at the selected speed.

4. By giving Cross feed and longitudinal feed to the cutting tool, the facing and
turning operations are done respectively.

5. The compound rest is swiveled for the calculated taper angle.

6. By giving angular feed to the cutting tool through the compound slide the
taper turning operation is done.

7. The machine is switched off.

8. The work piece is removed from the chuck and all the dimensions are
measured and checked.

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 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, VVIT. Page 22

 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

CALCULATION

1) Taper angle calculation:

Dd 
Taper angle () = tan1 
 
 2l 


= tan 1 23 10 / 2 X 50


 = 7.4°

(2) → HG = HE X Sin θ

= 45 X 0.14

HG = 6.4 mm

Estimation of machining time:

Length of the cut

T = --------------------------- × Number of cuts ------------------------------- (1)
[Feed x rpm]
Let,

ED = Length of the cut required for taper turning

ED = √DH2 + HE2

ED = √6.52 + 452

ED = √42.25 + 2025

ED = 45.46 mm

Number of cut required:

HG
=
Depth of cut
 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

From ∆ GHE,
HG
Sin θ = --------
HE

HG = HE × Sin θ --------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)

From ∆ DHE ,
HG
Sin θ = --------
HE
6.5
Sin θ = --------
45.46
= 0.14

No. of cuts = 6.4/4

ASSUME:
= 1.6
✓ Depth cut should not
≈ 2 cuts exceed 1mm
✓ Cutting speed = 75 mm/min
Speed, N = (1000 x S / π D) ✓ Max. feed = 0.05 mm/rev
= (1000 x 75 / π x 23)
N = 1038.5 rpm

(2) → T = [(45.46 /0.05 X 1038.5) X 2]

T=1.75 min.

RESULT

The given work piece as shown in fig. is subjected to facing, plain turning and taper
turning operation to become a finished work piece as shown in fig.
 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

EX.NO:9

DATE :

EXTERNAL THREAD CUTTING BY USING A LATHE

AIM

To machine a work piece by facing, plain turning and external thread cutting
operations using a lathe.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

 Mild steel polished round rod -  25 X 100 mm

TOOLS REQUIRED

▪ Outside Caliper

▪ Turning tool .

▪ Vernier Caliper

▪ External V – thread cutting tool

FORMULA

1) Time taken for external threads:

Length of the cut

T = ----------------------------- × Number of cuts

[pitch x rpm]

2) Number of cuts

25

T = ----------------------------- for external threads

Threads per ‘cm’

 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

PROCEDURE

1. The given work piece is held firmly in a lathe chuck.

2. The cutting tool is set in a tool post such that the point of the Cutting tool
coincides with the lathe axis.

3. The machine is switched on to revolve the work piece at the selected speed.

4. By giving Cross feed and longitudinal feed to the cutting tool, the facing and
turning operations are done respectively.

5. The speed of the work piece is reduced.

6. The machine is switched off and the change gears of calculated teeth (as per
calculation) are connected.

7. Again the machine is switched on.

8. The external thread cutting operation is done using external thread cutting tool
by engaging thread cutting mechanism.

9. The machine is switched off.

10. The work piece is removed from the chuck and all the dimensions are
measured and checked.
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I
 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

CALCULATION

The number of teeth on change gears is calculated using the following formula:

Driver teeth/ Driven teeth = Pitch of the work / pitch of the lead screw

RESULT

The given work piece as shown in fig. is subjected to facing, plain turning, knurling
and external thread cutting operations to become a finished work piece as shown in fig.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

EX.NO:10

DATE :

KNURLING OPERATION BY USING A LATHE

AIM
To machine a work piece by facing, plain turning, knurling operations using a
lathe.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
 Mild steel polished round rod -  25 X 100 mm

TOOLS REQUIRED
▪ Lathe machine

▪ Turning tool

▪ Knurling tool

▪ Outside Caliper

▪ Steel Rule

▪ Vernier Caliper

FORMULA

Time taken for knurling:

Length of the cut

T = ---------------------------
[Feed x rpm]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I
 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

PROCEDURE

1. The given work piece is held firmly in a lathe chuck.

2. The cutting tool is set in a tool post such that the point of the Cutting tool
coincides with the lathe axis.

3. The machine is switched on to revolve the work piece at the selected speed.

4. By giving Cross feed and longitudinal feed to the cutting tool, the facing and
turning operations are done respectively.

5. The speed of the work piece is reduced.

6. The knurling operation is done using knurling tool.

7. Again the machine is switched on.

8. The machine is switched off.

9. The work piece is removed from the chuck and all the dimensions are
measured and checked.

RESULT

The given work piece as shown in fig. is subjected to facing, plain turning, knurling
operations to become a finished work piece as shown in fig.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, .

 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

EX.NO:11

DATE :

INTERNAL THREAD CUTTING BY USING A LATHE

AIM

To machine a work piece by facing, plain turning and internal thread cutting
operations using a lathe.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

 Mild steel polished round rod -  25 X 100 mm

TOOLS REQUIRED

▪ Lathe machine

▪ Outside Caliper

▪ Turning tool

▪ Steel Rule .

▪ Vernier Caliper

▪ Internal V – thread cutting tool

FORMULA

1) Time taken for internal threads:

Length of the cut

T = -------------------------------- × Number of cuts

[Pitch x rpm]

2) Number of cuts:

32

T = -------------------------------- for external threads

Threads per ‘cm’

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, .

 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

PROCEDURE

1. The given work piece is held firmly in a lathe chuck.

2. The cutting tool is set in a tool post such that the point of the Cutting tool
coincides with the lathe axis.

3. The machine is switched on to revolve the work piece at the selected speed.

4. By giving Cross feed and longitudinal feed to the cutting tool, the facing and
turning operations are done respectively.

5. The speed of the work piece is reduced.

6. The machine is switched off and the change gears of calculated teeth(as per
calculation) are connected.

7. Again the machine is switched on.

8. The internal thread cutting operation is done using internal thread cutting tool
by engaging thread cutting mechanism.

9. The machine is switched off.

10. The work piece is removed from the chuck and all the dimensions are
measured and checked.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, .

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I
 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

CALCULATION

The number of teeth on change gears is calculated using the following formula:

Driver teeth/ Driven teeth = Pitch of the work / pitch of the lead screw

RESULT

The given work piece as shown in fig. is subjected to facing, plain turning, and
internal thread cutting operations to become a finished work piece as shown in fig.

D E P A R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G.
 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I

EX.NO :11

DATE :

ECCENTRIC TURNING OPERATION BY USING A LATHE

AIM

To machine a work piece by facing, plain turning, eccentric operations by use

a four jaw chuck lathe.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

 Mild steel polished round rod -  25 X 100 mm

TOOLS REQUIRED

▪ Four jaw chuck lathe

▪ Outside Caliper

▪ Turning tool

▪ Vernier caliper

▪ Steel Rule

FORMULA

1) Speed , N = 1000 x s / π x D

2) No. of passes = D-d / 2 x depth of cut

3) Time for eccentric turning = L/FxN

D E P A R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G.
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY-I
PROCEDURE

1. The given work piece is held firmly in a lathe chuck.

2. The cutting tool is set in a tool post such that the point of the Cutting toolcoincides
with the lathe axis.

3. The machine is switched on to revolve the work piece at the selected speed.

4. By giving Cross feed and longitudinal feed to the cutting tool, the facing andturning
operations are done respectively.

5. The speed of the work piece is reduced.

6. The four jaw chuck is manually adjusted for the offset purpose to make the
eccentricity.

7. Again the machine is switched on.

8. The machine is switched off.

9. The work piece is removed from the chuck and all the dimensions aremeasured and
checked.

RESULT

The given work piece as shown in fig. is subjected to facing, plain turning, knurlingoperations to
become a finished work piece as shown in fig.

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