ASSIGNMENT OF DIGITAL TECHNIQUES

Q.1 WHAT IS 1’S AND 2’S COMPLEMENT? WRITE ITS UTILIZATION.

ANS= 1’s Complement of a Binary Number

There is a simple algorithm to convert a binary number into 1’s complement. To get 1’s
complement of a binary number, simply invert the given number.
Ex. 1s (11011) = 11111 - 11011 = 00100

2’s Complement of a Binary Number

There is a simple algorithm to convert a binary number into 2’s complement. To get 2’s
complement of a binary number, simply invert the given number and add 1 to the least
significant bit (LSB) of given result.
EX. 2s (11011) = 100000 - 11011 = 00101

Q.2 EXPLAIN BCD COD AND ASCII CODES.

ANS= BINARY CODED DECIMAL (BCD):
In this code each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number. BCD is a way to
express each of the decimal digits with a binary code. In the BCD, with four bits we can
represent sixteen numbers (0000 to 1111). But in BCD code only first ten of these are used (0000
to 1001). The remaining six code combinations 1010 to 1111 are invalid in BCD.

Advantages of BCD Codes

 It is very similar to decimal system.
 We need to remember binary equivalent of decimal numbers 0 to 9 only.
Disadvantages of BCD Codes
 The addition and subtraction of BCD have different rules.
 The BCD arithmetic is little more complicated.
 BCD needs more number of bits than binary to represent the decimal number. So BCD
is less efficient than binary.

Types of BCD code-

 BCD 8421(NBCD– Natural Binary Coded Decimal)
 BCD 7421
 BCD 5421
 BCD 2421
 Excess-3
The following table shows different BCD code of 0-9:

AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII)

ASCII is the acronym for the American Standard Code

for Information Interchange. Most computers use ASCII codes to represent text, which
makes it possible to transfer data from one computer to another. ANSI (American National
Standard Institute) invented this code. ASCII two types-
 ASCII-7
 ASCII-8
ASCII-7: It is a code for representing 128 English characters as numbers, with each letter
assigned a number from 0 to 127. For example, the ASCII code for uppercase M is 77.
ASCII-8: It is a code for representing 256 English characters as numbers.

Q.3 EXPLAIN RULES AND LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA.

ANS= A set of rules or Laws of Boolean Algebra expressions have been invented to help reduce
the number of logic gates needed to perform a particular logic operation resulting in a list of
functions or theorems known commonly as the Laws of Boolean Algebra.
Boolean Algebra is the mathematics we use to analyse digital gates and circuits. We can use
these “Laws of Boolean” to both reduce and simplify a complex Boolean expression in an
attempt to reduce the number of logic gates required. Boolean Algebra is therefore a system of
mathematics based on logic that has its own set of rules or laws which are used to define and
reduce Boolean expressions.
The variables used in Boolean Algebra only have one of two possible values, a logic “0” and a
logic “1” but an expression can have an infinite number of variables all labelled individually to
represent inputs to the expression, For example, variables A, B, C etc, giving us a logical
expression of A + B = C, but each variable can ONLY be a 0 or a 1.

Q. 4 WHAT IS K- MAP ? Simplify the Boolean expression.

ANS= Digital electronics deals with the discrete-valued digital signals. In general, any electronic
system based on the digital logic uses binary notation (zeros and ones) to represent the states of
the variables involved in it. Thus, Boolean algebraic simplification is an integral part of the
design and analysis of a digital electronic system.
Although Boolean algebraic laws and  De Morgan's theorems can be used to achieve the
objective, the process becomes tedious and error-prone as the number of variables involved
increases. This necessitates the use of a suitable, relatively-simple simplification technique like
that of Karnaugh map (K-map), introduced by Maurice Karnaugh in 1953.

1) f= ABC+ABC+ABC

Solve 3 Variables K-Map for ∑(5, 6, 7)

Work with Steps:

step 1
input = ∑ (5, 6, 7)
Place the values in the corresponding places of Karnaugh's Map Table

BC BC BC BC

A 0 0 0 0

0 1 3 2

A 0 1 1 1

4 5 7 6

step 2 2 cell Grouping

Group 1:
Positions = {5, 7}
Simplified Expression = AC

BC BC BC BC

A 0 0 0 0
A 0 1 1 0
Group 2:
Positions = {7, 6}
Simplified Expression = AB

BC BC BC BC

A 0 0 0 0
A 0 0 1 1

step 3Form Output expression from mapped and unmapped variables

output = sum(unmapped & mapped cells)

y = AC + AB

2) f=A B C D +A B C D +A B C D+A B C D

Solve 4 Variables K-Map for ∑(5, 6, 12, 14)

Work with Steps:

step 1
input = ∑(5, 6, 12, 14)
Place the values in the corresponding places of Karnaugh's Map Table

CD CD CD CD

AB 0 0 0 0

0 1 3 2

AB 0 1 0 1

4 5 7 6

AB 1 0 0 1
 12 13 15 14

AB 0 0 0 0

8 9 11 10

step 2 cell Grouping

Group 1:
Positions = {6, 14}
Simplified Expression = BCD

CD CD CD CD

AB 0 0 0 0
AB 0 0 0 1

AB 0 0 0 1

AB 0 0 0 0

Group 2:
Positions = {12, 14}
Simplified Expression = ABD

CD CD CD CD

AB 0 0 0 0
AB 0 0 0 0
AB 1 0 0 1

AB 0 0 0 0

step 3The Boolean expression for un-mapped position 5 is ABCD

step 4Form Output expression from mapped and unmapped variables

output = sum(unmapped & mapped cells)
 y = ABCD + BCD + ABD

Q.5 EXPLAIN FULL SUBSTRACTOR WITH APPROPRIATE EXAMPLE.

ANS= A full subtractor is a combinational circuit that performs subtraction of two

bits, one is minuend and other is subtrahend, taking into account borrow of the
previous adjacent lower minuend bit. This circuit has three inputs and two outputs.
The three inputs A, B and Bin, denote the minuend, subtrahend, and previous borrow,
respectively. The two outputs, D and Bout represent the difference and output
borrow, respectively.

Truth Table –

From above table we can draw the K-Map as shown for “difference” and
“borrow”.

Q.6 WHAT IS ICs? WRITE ITS CHARACTERSTICS.

ANS= The circuits that were made previously were large and bulky, consisting of circuit components
like resistor, capacitor, inductor, transistor, diodes, etc., which were connected with copper wires. This
factor limited the use of the circuits to big machines. It was not possible to create small and compact
appliances with these big circuits. Moreover, they were not entirely shockproof and reliable.
As it is said, necessity is the mother of all inventions. So there was a need to develop smaller size circuits
with more power and safety to incorporate them into devices. Three American scientists invented
transistors that simplified things to quite an extent, but the development of integrated circuits changed
electronics technology’s face.
The integrated circuit is a fundamental concept of electronics that builds on other basic concepts
previously discussed in our syllabus. Therefore, for a quick reference, go through the articles listed
below:

 Electric Circuits
 Resistors
 Transistors
 Diodes
 Capacitors

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL IC:

Operating Speed: Speed of a logic gate depends upon the time that elapses between
the application of a signal to an input terminal and the resulting change in logical
state at the output terminals.
 Fan-In: The fan-in of a logic gate is defined as the number of inputs (coming from
similar circuits) that it can handle properly.
 Fan-Out: In general, a logic circuit is required to drive several logic inputs. The fan-
out (also sometimes called the loading factor) is defined as the maximum number of
standard logic inputs that an output can drive reliably
 Power Dissipation: This is the amount of power dissipated in an IC. It is determined
by the current, IC. that it draws from the VCC supply and equals VCC IC where IC
is average value of IC and . This IC power is specified in MW. Lower power
dissipation is desirable feature for any IC.
 Power Supply Requirements: Every IC requires a certain amount of electrical power
to operate. The power is supplied by one or more power-supply voltage connected to
the power pin (or pins) on the chip

Q.7 WHAT IS FLIP-FLOP? EXPLAIN RS FLIP-FLOP AND SR FLIP-FLOP.

ANS= FLIP-FLOP
In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state
information – a bistable multivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one
or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic storage element in sequential logic.
Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers,
communications, and many other types of systems.
Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements. A flip-flop is a device which stores a
single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its two states represents a "one" and the other represents a "zero".
Such data storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is described as sequential logic in
electronics.

RS FLIP-FLOP
The R-S flip-flop is used to temporarily hold or store information until it is needed. A single R-S
flip-flop will store one binary digit, either a 1 or a 0. Storing a four-digit binary number would
require four R-S flip-flops.

The standard symbol for the R-S flip-flop is shown in the figure below. The name is derived
from the inputs, R for reset and S for set. It is often referred to as an SR latch. The outputs Q
and Q (¬Q) are complements, as mentioned earlier.

SR FLIP-FLOP
The SR flip flop is a 1-bit memory bistable device having two inputs, i.e., SET and RESET. The
SET input 'S' set the device or produce the output 1, and the RESET input 'R' reset the device
or produce the output 0. The SET and RESET inputs are labeled as S and R, respectively.

The SR flip flop stands for "Set-Reset" flip flop. The reset input is used to get back the flip flop
to its original state from the current state with an output 'Q'. This output depends on the set
and reset conditions, which is either at the logic level "0" or "1".
Q.8 WHAT IS REGISTER EXPLAIN SISO AND SIPO REGISTER.

REGISTERS
ANS=

A Register is a collection of flip flops. A flip flop is used to store single bit digital data. For storing a large
number of bits, the storage capacity is increased by grouping more than one flip flops. If we want to store
an n-bit word, we have to use an n-bit register containing n number of flip flops.

The register is used to perform different types of operations. For performing the operations, the CPU use
these registers. The faded inputs to the system will store into the registers. The result returned by the
system will store in the registers. There are the following operations which are performed by the
registers:

SERIAL IN SERIAL OUT(SISO)

Serial In Serial Out (SISO) shift registers are a kind of shift registers where both data
loading as well as data retrieval to/from the shift register occurs in serial-mode. Figure
1 shows a n-bit synchronous SISO shift register sensitive to positive edge of the clock
pulse. Here the data word which is to be stored is fed bit-by-bit at the input of the first
flip-flop.

SERIAL IN PARALLEL OUT(SIPO)

In Serial In Parallel Out (SIPO) shift registers, the data is stored into the register
serially while it is retrieved from it in parallel-fashion. Figure 1 shows an n-bit
synchronous SIPO shift register sensitive to positive edge of the clock pulse. Here the
data word which is to be stored (Data in) is fed serially at the input of the first flip-flop
(D1 of FF1)

Q.9 WHAT IS COUNTER WRITE IT’S APPLICATIONS.

ANS= In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the
number of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock. The most
common type is a sequential digital logic circuit with an input line called the clock and multiple output
lines. The values on the output lines represent a number in the binary or BCD number system. Each pulse
applied to the clock input increments or decrements the number in the counter.
A counter circuit is usually constructed of a number of flip-flops connected in cascade. Counters are a
very widely used component in digital circuits, and are manufactured as separate integrated circuits and
also incorporated as parts of larger integrated circuits.

DIGITAL COUNTER APPLICATIONS

These counter circuits are the basic ones in the ‘Digital Electronics’. These counters
possess various applications.

1. In the conversions from Analog to Digital, these counters are used.

2.   In the applications of Timers for example Washings machines where we set the time.
These counters are used.
3. With the help of these counters, a ‘Digital Triangular Wave Generator’ can be designed.
4. In the application of ‘Digital Clock’ counters are used.
5. A practical example of these devices is seen in malls, stadiums, or auditoriums. In the
above situations to keep the data on the number of persons. This can be made possible
or it will become simple because of these counters.