Kali Linux

A Comprehensive Step-by-Step
Beginner's Guide to Learn the Basics of
Cybersecurity and Ethical Computer
Hacking, Including Wireless Penetration
Testing Tools to Secure Your Network
 Table of Contents

Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction to Kali Linux

History of Kali Linux
Tool categories in Kali Linux
The Lifecycle for Penetration Testing
General Penetration Testing Framework
Let us look at the Ethics
Terminologies
Chapter 2: The Basics of Kali Linux
Downloading Kali
Installation of Kali Linux on the Hard Drive
First Time Booting of Kali Linux
Setting the Defaults
Initial Network Setup
Why You Should Use Kali Linux
The Terminal
Basic Commands in Linux
Finding Files
Modify Files and Directories
Removing a Directory
Searching for tools/packages
Adding Softwares
Removing Softwares
Updating Packages
Upgrading Packages
Chapter 3: The Hacking Process
Reconnaissance
Enumeration
Scanning
 Port Scanning
Vulnerability Scanning
Gaining Access
Maintaining Access
Rootkits
Clearing Tracks
Deleting Evidence
Chapter 4: Wireless Network Hacking
Wireless Hacking
Wireless Network attacks
WEP
WPA
How to perform MAC spoofing
Transmissions
Access Points
Devices
The Users
Chapter 5: Uses and Applications of Kali Linux
Penetration testing
Espionage and military
Chapter 6: Introduction to Cybersecurity
Introduction
Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability
Encryption
Backup and Redundancy
Chapter 7: Network Scanning and Management
Introduction
Network Scanning
Manipulating the Domain Name System (DNS)
Basic Wireless Commands
Detecting and Connecting to Bluetooth
Chapter 8: Web Security
Web Security
Common website security threats
How to safeguard your website
Conclusion
 Introduction
Congratulations on purchasing Kali Linux : A Comprehensive Step-by-Step
Beginner's Guide to Learn the Basics of Cybersecurity and Ethical
Computer Hacking, Including Wireless Penetration Testing Tools to Secure
Your Network, and thank you for doing so. The book covers the numerous
tools in Kali Linux that you can use for performing penetration tests. You
will also be able to learn the operations of the various utilities in this
Debian distribution. To use this book effectively, you will require prior
knowledge of basic Linux administration, computer networking and the
command utilities but on a minimum. This will help you to comprehend
the various subjects that have been covered herein.

You will get to know how hackers are able to gain access to your systems
and the methods they use to steal information. Furthermore, you will also
learn the countermeasures required to safeguard yourself against the
numerous hacking techniques. To this end, the books cover topics that
include: an Introduction to Kali Linux, The Basics of Kali Linux, The
Hacking Process, Wireless Network Hacking, Uses and Applications of
Kali Linux, Introduction to Cybersecurity
Network Scanning and Management and some basics on Web Security you
will need to know in your journey to be a professional hacker.

By the time you flip the last page of this book you will have mastered both
theoretical and practical concepts on the basic techniques that you require
to become a hacker. You will have the techniques needed for penetration of
computer networks, computer applications alongside computer systems.
Let me say that we have numerous books that cover this topic, but you
have decided to pick this one up. Many thanks for that. No efforts have
been spared in ensuring that the content in this book is relevant and
refreshing to you. Have fun reading!
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Kali Linux
In this chapter you will be introduced to a diverse area of ethical
penetration testing. It is also referred to as ethical hacking and is defined
as a technical procedure and methodology which gives professional
hackers a platform to simulate the techniques and actions that real-life
hackers would use in the exploitation of an information system or a
computer network. We are going to learn the steps that are usually
followed by the penetration tester right from the understanding and
analysis of a select target to the actual break-in. The book also covers
topics dealing with the numerous tools that are used in the penetration
testing exercise. These are briefly introduced in this chapter but will be
covered in depth in chapter 4. The reader will get to understand the
practical applications of Kali Linux in the real world besides knowing how
to download and install this distribution of Linux. So, let us get into it
without further ado.

History of Kali Linux

Offensive Security is the company behind this wonderful distribution. Kali
Linux is the company’s latest release. Kali is a live disk security
distribution having over 300 penetration testing and security tools. If you
have prior experience with the operating system, you may have noticed
that the tools have been categorized into groups that are commonly
utilized by penetration testers and any other entities doing the assessment
of information systems. Kali Linux utilizes Debian 7.0
distribution as its base, unlike the earlier distributions that were released
by Offensive Security. The operating system is of the same lineage as its
predecessor, Backtrack Linux. It is worth noting that it is also supported
by the same team.

The name change to Kali Linux, according to Offensive Security, implies

that this operating system is a total rebuild of the Backtrack distribution.
The major improvements that were made meant that it was not just a new
version of Backtrack but a new operating system altogether. Going down
memory lane, you will remember that Backtrack itself, just like Kali, was
an upgrade that was derived from White Hat and SLAX, abbreviated as
WHAX alongside Auditor. Technically speaking, Kali is the most recent
incarnation of the information security industry penetration and auditing
assessment tools.

Tool categories in Kali Linux

Kali Linux comes prepackaged with plenty of tools we can use for
carrying out penetration testing. As we have said previously, the tools in
Kali Linux are categorized in a fashion that helps with the penetration
testing exercise. Below are the broad categories:

1) Information gathering tools: In this category, we have numerous

tools that are used in the information gathering process. Normally, a
penetration tester would be interested in information about DNS,
operating systems, IDS/IPS, SSL, network scanning, routing, voice
over IP, SMB, e-mail addresses, VPN, and SNMP.

2) Vulnerability assessment tools: Here, tools that are used in the

scanning of vulnerabilities, in general, are located. We have tools
that are utilized for the vulnerability assessment of the Cisco
network and database servers. We also have several fuzzing tools in
this category.

3) Web applications: Just like the name, tools in this category relate
to web applications. They include database exploitation, content
management system scanner, web vulnerability scanners, web
crawlers, and web application proxies.

4) Tools for password attacks: Tools that you can use to carry out
both online and offline password attacks are found under this
category.

5) Exploitation tools : You will find tools for the exploitation of the
vulnerabilities unearthed from a selected target environment. Here,
you will get exploitation tools you can use for databases, the Web,
and the network. Also, under this category, you will find tools for
carrying out social engineering attacks. The tools will give the user
information about the exploits carried out too.
6) Tools for sniffing and spoofing: The tools here are used for
sniffing web traffic and the network traffic. We also have network
spoofing tools, for example, Yersinia and Ettercap.

7) Tools for maintaining access: A penetration tester will use the

tools found here to maintain their access to a target machine.
Obviously, you require the highest level of privilege to install tools
located in this category. We have tools that can be used for
backdooring web applications and the operating system. Tools used
for tunneling are also found in this category.

8) Tools for reporting: Tools that are used for documentation of the
penetration testing methodology and the obtained results and
recommendations are found in this category.

9) System services: We have numerous services which are necessary

during the penetration testing exercise in this category. Examples
include: the Metasploit service, Apache service, SSH service, and
MySQL service.

10) Wireless attacks: Here, we have tools for carrying out

attacks on wireless devices, RFID/NFC and Bluetooth devices.

11) Reverse engineering: Tools in this category are normally

used for debugging programs or carrying out disassembly of
executable files.

12) Stress testing : If you want to carry out stress testing of

your network, VOIP environment, wireless and Web, you will find
all the tools relevant in this category.

13) Hardware hacking: If you are interested in working with

Arduino and Android applications, all the tools you need are found
here.

14) Forensics: The forensics category contains numerous tools

normally utilized in digital forensics. Examples of forensics include
the acquisition of hard disk images, carving of files and, more
 importantly, analyzing the image retrieved from the hard disk. To do
these tasks properly, a user is required to go to the Kali Linux
Forensics menu then select the No Drives or Swap Mount from the
booting menu. This way, the operating system will not automatically
mount the drives. This implies that the integrity of the drives will be
maintained.

Hold onto this information for now as we will look at some of it in chapter
5.

The Lifecycle for Penetration Testing

Today, we have various lifecycle models of penetration testing that are
being used. So far, the lifecycle and the methodology defined and used by
the EC-Council Certified Ethical Hacker program is the one that is widely
used. This penetration testing life cycle is made up of five phases,
including Reconnaissance, Scanning, Gaining Access, Maintaining Access
and finally Covering Tracks in that order. Later in the book, we will look
at each of the stages above in detail.

General Penetration Testing Framework

We have said before that Kali Linux provides us with the versatility we
need in the process of penetration testing and security assessment from the
numerous tools it possesses. A penetration tester who does not follow a
proper framework is likely to get unsatisfactory results emanating from
unsuccessful testing. This means that it is therefore essential for managers
and technical administrators to ensure that the security testing is in
harmony with a structured framework: the goal of the test is to provide
useful findings.
What you are going to learn here is a general testing framework that is
normally used by both the white box and black box approaches. From it,
you will get an elementary understanding of the typical phases that a
penetration tester or a security auditor should progress. The frameworks,
however, need to be adjusted appropriately basing on the target being
assessed. The following are steps that need to be followed so that the
assessment procedure is successful.

Scoping of the target

Gathering Information
Discovery of the Target
Target Enumeration
Mapping out Vulnerabilities
Social engineering
The exploitation of the Target
Escalation of Privilege
Maintenance of access
Reporting and Documentation

1. Scoping of the Target

This is usually the first step prior to beginning the technical assessment of
the security. It is essential that observations are carried out on the target
network environment so that the scope is well understood. It is also
possible to define the scope for a given set of entities or a single entity
that is given to the auditor. Examples of typical decisions normally made
in this step include;

What element requires testing?

How will it be tested?
What are the parameters that will be applied when conducting
the test?
What are the limiting factors of the test process?
How long will the test take?
What objectives are intended to be achieved?
For any penetration testing exercise to be successful, the tester must have
a good understanding of the technology being assessed, its basic
operations together with the way it interacts with the network
environment. What this means is that an auditor’s knowledge is what
determines the success of the penetration testing procedure.

2. Information gathering

After scoping has been done, the next phase is the reconnaissance phase.
Here, the penetration tester will make use of resources that are available
publicly to get a better understanding of their target. One can get valuable
information from sources on the Internet, which include:

Social networks
Articles
Forums
Blogs
Bulletin boards
Commercial or non-commercial websites
Newsgroups
Search engines, for example, MSN Bing, Google, among others.

Additionally, Kali Linux has several tools that you can use to get a target’s
network information. The tools use crucial data mining techniques for
gathering information from DNS servers, e-mail addresses, traceroutes,
phone numbers, Whois database, personal information, and user accounts.
Chances of having a successful penetration test increase with the amount
of information that is gathered.

3. Target discovery

Here, key activities are the identification of the network status of selected
targets, its OS and, if possible, the target’s network architecture. Such
information gives a penetration tester a comprehensive outlook of the
interconnected devices or current technologies in the network. That means
that they will be able to enumerate the numerous services running within
the network. It is possible to do all this (determination of hosts on the
network that are live, the running OS on the hosts and the characterization
of each of them based on their roles in the network system) using the Kali
Linux advanced network tools. The detection techniques employed by
these tools can either be active or passive. This is done on top of network
protocols and can be manipulated in a fashion that will yield useful
information. An example of this information is the OS fingerprinting.

4. Target Enumeration

This phase advances the previous efforts by finding open ports on the
systems being targeted. After the identification of open ports, enumeration
of the ports will be done for the running services. Employing port
scanning techniques like stealth, full-open, and half-open scan can assist a
hacker, or a penetration tester checks the visibility of ports. This is
possible for hosts that are behind an Intrusion Detection System or a
firewall. To help penetration testers or hackers discover existing
vulnerabilities in a target network's infrastructure, an investigation of the
services which are mapped to the open ports can be done. This means that
we can use target enumeration as a platform for unearthing vulnerabilities
present in the various devices on the network. Through the vulnerabilities,
one can penetrate the network. A security auditor can utilize Kali Linux’s
automated tools to do target enumeration.

5. Vulnerability mapping

By now, we will be having enough information about the target network.

We will now need to analyze the identified vulnerabilities basing on the
services and ports we have discovered. We have automated vulnerability
assessment tools for applications and the network in Kali Linux that can
help us achieve the objectives of this phase. It is also possible to do
vulnerability mapping manually. The only downside is that it requires
expert knowledge and consumes plenty of time. The best approach to this
is to combine the two so that a security auditor can have a clear vision that
will enable them to investigate vulnerabilities that are either known or
unknown in the network systems.
 6. Social engineering

Social engineering is a type of attack which uses human beings as attack

vectors. In most information security configurations, human beings are
regarded as the weak link through which an attacker can gain access to a
system. An attacker can penetrate a target network and execute a
malicious code that will do some damage and, in some cases, create a
backdoor for future use. All this will have been made possible through
deceiving the people in charge of or those using a given network. Social
engineering can be of different forms. For instance, an attacker using a
phone can pretend to be a network administrator prompting a user to
disclose their account information. Another form of social engineering is
an e-mail phishing scam, which is used by malicious users to steal the
account details of your bank. Physically, a person can imitate a legitimate
user to gain access to a physical location. This is also social engineering.
From these examples, we can see that the possibilities for achieving a
required goal are immense. To make any penetration testing exercise
successful, it is important that the tester or attacker takes time to
understand human psychology as it is a skill that will help them improvise
accordingly in their targeting. Note that most countries have laws
regulating this, and as such, it is good to know the laws before attempting
anything lest you end up in jail.

7. Target exploitation

After we have studied the vulnerabilities we have uncovered, we can go

ahead and penetrate our target based on the available types of exploits.
Most of the time, modifications or additional research on existing exploits
are needed to ensure the exploits work as intended. The task is, of course,
daunting. However, Kali Linux comes prepackaged with advanced
exploitation tools that can help in the simplification of the exercise.
Further, a tester is at liberty to employ client-side exploitation tactics in
addition to some little social engineering to enable them assume control of
a target system. A keen reader should, by now, see that this phase
concentrates more on the process of target acquisition. Target exploitation
encompasses three key areas. These are pre-exploitation, exploitation, and
post-exploitation activities.
 8. Privilege escalation

After target acquisition, the penetration exercise will be deemed

successful. The penetration tester or auditor will now be able to roam in
the system freely based on their access privileges. Using local exploits
matching the environment of the system, a tester can escalate these
privileges. Once these exploits are executed, a hacker or a penetration
tester will now be able to get system-level or super-user privileges. From
here onwards, a tester can carry out additional attacks on the local network
systems. Based on a target's scope, this process can either be non-
restricted or restricted. It is also possible to get more information
regarding a compromised target through cracking passwords to various
services, network traffic sniffing, and employing spoofing tactics on local
networks. This implies that the main objective of privilege escalation is to
enable one to acquire the highest-level access to the targeted system.

9. Maintaining access

A penetration tester, in some instances, can be requested by a client to

maintain their access in the system for a specified period. This can be used
as a demonstration to the network managers to show how illegal access to
the system can be done without the need for a penetration process again.
Also, it serves to save resources, time and cost that is spent in gaining
access to the system for purposes of assessing its security. One can choose
to use secret tunneling methods that utilize proxy, protocols, or end-to-end
connection strategies. This way, a tester can create backdoor access, which
will assist them in maintaining their presence in a target system for as
long as they are required to. This technique of accessing the system gives
us an indication of how an attacker can keep their presence in a targeted
system without raising suspicion.

10.
Reporting and Documentation

A penetration testing exercise will not be complete if a presentation of

disclosed vulnerabilities is not done. Verified and exploited vulnerabilities
should be well documented, reported and presented. Ethically speaking,
this is crucial as it will help the network and system administrators and
managers to direct their resources towards sealing any security loopholes
present in their infrastructure. The reports will have different outlooks
based on the needs of the different contracting organizations. The
customizations of the report will help technical staff and businesses get to
know and analyze points of weaknesses existing in their IT infrastructure.
In addition to that, the reports can be used in the comparison of the
integrity of a target system after and before the penetration process.

Let us look at the Ethics

To ensure that everything remains legal, we have rules of engagement.
These must be adhered to by the auditors and other information security
professionals.
These rules describe the way the penetration testing should be given, the
way testing is to be performed, the determination of legal negotiations and
contracts, definition of the testing scope, test plan preparation, the process
the test should follow, and the management of a reporting structure that is
consistent. A keen examination is required to address each of these areas.
The making of formal procedures and practices need to be adhered to
throughout the engagement period. These rules include but are not limited
to, the following:

1. The test schedule should be chosen in a way that does not affect
or interrupt the normal operation of a business. It is prudent to
create a schedule that does not cover the typical working hours.

2. The rules governing the test process clearly outline a set of

steps to be followed during the testing exercise. The
organization’s managers and technicians participate in the
formulation of these rules for purposes of restricting the testing
process with its environment and people.
 3. It is forbidden to provide testing services to a client after
hacking their systems prior to coming up with any formal
agreement. This is akin to unethical marketing, and in some
cases, it may lead to failure of the normal business operations
and can cause one to face excruciating legal repercussions
based on the country’s rules and laws.

4. It is strictly prohibited to conduct a penetration test past the

scope of testing or breaching the set limits without a clients’
express permissions.

5. A legally binding contract should be agreed upon by parties

involved so that it limits the liability of a job unless there is
evidence of illegal activity. It must clearly state the conditions
and terms of the test procedure, the emergency contact
information, the description of work, and any conflicts of
interest if present.

6. The scope of the penetration test should be clearly defined,

indicating the contractual entities and any restrictions that have
been imposed on them during the procedure.

7. On completion of the testing, reports and results must be

presented in a consistent and clear fashion. It should include all
the vulnerabilities that are known and unknown. Furthermore, it
needs to be confidentially delivered to authorized personnel
only.

Terminologies
In this book, we are going to encounter commonly used terms in the field
of penetration testing. The terms are normally understood differently by
members, technicians and professionals in the same field, and that is the
reason we need a working definition to avoid any misunderstanding.
Below are the terms and associated definitions we shall be using.

Penetration Testing
We define it as the process, methodology and procedures that are used in
the attempt to bypass the safeguard mechanisms of the information
systems, including overcoming the integrated security set up of that
system. Normally, the entire process follows approved and specific
guidelines. Penetration Testing is concerned with examining the
administrative, technical, and operational controls and settings of a
system. The testing assesses the security of a particular information
system exactly as it is configured. The system administrators and staff of
the targeted network may or may not know that such an exercise is
happening.

Ethical Hacking
This is a professional penetration tester whose main job is to carry out an
attack on the computer or network systems for an organization or a
particular owner of the information system. In this book, you will note that
Ethical Hacking and Penetration Testing are used interchangeably.

White Hat
This terminology is synonymous with computer security professional or
an Ethical Hacker who is specialized in the security testing of information
systems so as to provide security where it is lacking or improve it where it
is possible.

Black Hat
This is a terminology used to describe a person who uses his IT skills for
bypassing the security of information systems without permission. The
intention of black hats is normally to commit computer crimes. Red Team
members, together with Penetration Testers, normally employ techniques
used by Black Hats in their work. This is to simulate the malicious fellows
in security testing while they are carrying out legitimate tests or exercises.

Grey Hat
In life, we have the good guys, the bad guys and those who lie in between.
In hacking, grey hats are those in the middle. Normally, they will try to
circumvent the security features of an information system in most cases
without prior permission. They do this normally to bring to light the
discovered weaknesses to the system administrators. In most cases, they
are not after profit. What makes them illegitimate is the fact that they do
not seek prior permission from the owners before carrying out their
activities.

Vulnerability Assessment/Analysis
This is an exercise done to evaluate the security configurations of a
system. The forms of the assessments that can be carried out comprise the
evaluation of security patches that have been applied to a system and those
that are missing. The team that carries out Vulnerability Assessment can
either be external or it can be part of an organization’s IT team.

Malicious User Testing

In this scenario, the assessor will act as if they were an insider acting
maliciously. Of course, being an insider makes them a trusted entity. What
happens is that the assessor will be given legitimate login credentials
belonging to an authorized user; this will be a test account. They will then
go ahead and use the credentials to try and circumvent laid down security
measures. They can do this by modifying settings that are not supposed to
be changed, viewing settings and documents that the account is not
authorized to and escalating their permissions and privileges beyond the
level the test account should have. In summary, a malicious user test
attempts to simulates actions that a rogue insider can carry out using their
trusted credentials.

Phishing
In this type of attack, attempts will be made to get the targeted entities to
reveal personal information such as passwords, account numbers, and user
names. Normally, this is done by the use of authentic-looking emails that
are fake. The emails can be from customer support staff, banks and
corporations. A different type of phishing attack is where users are
prodded to click on phony hyperlinks. This will make it possible for
malicious codes to be installed on the target system without the owner’s
knowledge. Once this has been done, the malware can be used to attack
other computers or for obtaining data stored on the computer. Phishing
attacks are by nature, not directed to a specific target. Targets can be all
the people in a mailing list or those whose email addresses have a specific
extension, such as those with a “@kali.com” extension.
Spear Phishing
This is a type of phishing attack whereby the targets are specific. For
instance,
An attacker can perform reconnaissance to discover email addresses of
top-level management of an organization. They can go ahead then to carry
out the phishing attack on only these individuals.

Dumpster Diving
In this technique, the penetration tester will make attempts to filter
through a systems’ discarded trash. This trash might be from any of the
users and the system administrators. Any information obtained here will
be of great help in understanding a particular target. A penetration tester
might recover information detailing network diagrams, system settings
and configurations, the hardware components and the software versions
that are being used. On a good day, one might even get user credentials
such as passwords and user names. Dumpster Diving is a term used to
explain the process of entering a large trash container. Also, garbage cans
from small offices normally have some lucrative information.

LiveOS, Live Disk, Live CD

The terms above are used to refer to an optical disk containing a complete
operating system. Live disks are a crucial asset to penetration testers and
assessors since it is possible to modify them to suit the needs at hand. One
can customize them to have specific settings, tools and software
components. Many of the live disks in distributions are normally Linux
based, although, over the years, we have had numerous Microsoft
Windows versions being released. In most assessments, it is sufficient for
an assessor to only bring with them a live disk. The systems under
assessment can be directly booted to the live disk, effectively turning the
information systems assets against the system itself.
 Chapter 2: The Basics of Kali Linux

Downloading Kali
In the introduction, we pointed out that Kali Linux is a Linux distribution
and can be downloaded as an ISO file. You will be required to download it
from a different computer, after which you will burn it onto a disk before
installation. You can download this interesting distribution of Linux from
this link http://www.kali.org/downloads/ . To know how to install it, you
can get the documentation for configurations, advanced operations, and
special cases on http://www.kali.org/official-documentation/ . If you need
any additional help, we have an active community where you can make
any inquiries or you can help other members solve their problems.
Offensive Security manages these community boards, and new users are
required to register to enable them to obtain access.

The security company is the makers of Kali Linux. Occasionally,

Offensive Security will provide messages pertaining to their products,
community information and updates. When downloading Kali Linux,
ensure that you select the proper architecture for your computer (either
amd64564-bit or i386532-bit). I do not wish to talk about the images of
Kali Linux in this book since that information is well captured in the links
I have provided. Tap on the correct link to select and download the image.
For those of you that are using Microsoft Windows, you will need to burn
the image using the Burn ISO or any other application (I can think of
Rufus). Proceed with the burning process until it is complete. Similarly,
Linux users can use a disk burning application (say K3b) to convert the
ISO image.

Installation of Kali Linux on the Hard Drive

You are going to learn how to do a graphical and textual installation of this
operating system. The graphical interface has been designed to be as
simple as possible. You will be required to configure your Basic Input
Output System
(BIOS) to boot from the optical disk you have created. First, load your
optical disk or flash drive containing Kali onto the computer and start. For
advanced users, there is an option of using virtualization technology like
Oracle’s VirtualBox or VMware’s Player.

First Time Booting of Kali Linux

The screenshot below shows a computer that has successfully booted to
the Kali Linux disk. 64-Bit Kali Linux version 1.0.5 has been used in this
book. With time, you will observe that versions of Kali Linux that are
downloaded at different times will appear different, albeit slightly. That
aside, graphical installations are similar.

At http://www.kali.org/ , you will find up to date guides for all the latest
releases of Kali Linux. As such, it is important to check out this site before
you carry out an installation. Kali Linux, besides being installed on a
computer’s hard drive, it can be run straight from the disk having the
converted image. This is what we call a Live CD. This enables the
operating system to boot. The tools that come with Kali will also execute.
The only thing to note here is that the operating system from the live CD
is nonpersistent. This terminology is used to mean that upon shutting
down the computer, any memory, documents, saved settings and any other
essential research or work is likely to be lost. A great way to learn Kali
Linux is by running it in a nonpersistent state. Additionally, your current
operating system will not be affected in any way. You can see that we have
an option for installation with Speech Synthesis. We will not be going into
the intricate details for that, but you should know that it is a recent
upgrade feature to the Debian operating system and Kali. Users can
control the installation procedure vocally if their hardware can support
speech synthesis. How exciting! Like I have said before, let us concentrate
on the graphical installation for
now. Using the directional keys, scroll and highlight Graphical Install and
bang the Enter key.

Setting the Defaults

You will be required to select default settings for your location, keyboard
layout, and language in the next few screens. After you have made the
appropriate selections, click on continue to proceed to the next step. You
will notice various bars denoting progress on your computer’s screen
throughout the installation as the computer begins the actual installation
of Kali. Picking the default settings is a good choice for most of the
selection screens.

Initial Network Setup

See the image below. In this stage, you will be required to do a basic
configuration and an initial setup of your primary network interface card.
Select a Hostname. Do this simply by typing in the provided box and hit
the continue button to proceed. Make sure you pick a unique hostname to
avoid having different computers with similar hostnames on the same
network.

That will help to minimize networking complications. Once you are done
choosing a hostname, hit the Continue button to proceed. On the next
screen, you are going to provide a fully qualified domain name, FQDN.
For most lab environments, this is not necessary unless you wish to join a
domain environment. Let us leave it blank for now. We will click on the
Continue button to move ahead.
Setting Up Passwords
The next screen that comes up will prompt you for a root-level password.
In Kali Linux, the default password is toor. I recommend that you create a
new password that is strong, have no traceability to the user and that it
should not be easy to guess. On keying in the password twice, tap the
Continue button to move on to the next step. Are you still with me? Let us
now configure the system clock.

Configuring the System Clock

You will be prompted to select a time zone of your choice, as shown in the
figure below. Choose appropriately and then press the Continue button to
proceed onto the next installation step.
 Configuration of the clock.

Partitioning Disks
We have several ways of configuring partitions for setting up a Linux OS.
We are going to focus on Guided Partitioning, which is the most basic
installation. The figures below display the settings that are normally
highlighted by default. You do not have to select anything till you reach
the figure under partition disks - 5. All you need to do is click on the
continue button until partitioning is complete. Let us take some time and
understand what is happening at each step of the installation wizard.

Below, you will see the various options that you can choose for
partitioning your computer’s hard drives during the installation.

Partition disks - 1.
For laptop SD card or thumb drive installation, it is not recommended to
use Logical Volume Management (LVM). Advanced users normally use
LVM for managing many hard drives. The option that you should select is
“Guided - user entire disk.” Hit the Continue button to move onto the next
step of the installation process. The figure below will indicate which drive
has been picked for installation. Click on Continue to proceed.

Partition disks - 2.

If you are a new Kali Linux user, select the option “All files in one
partition (recommended for new users).” This is the best option for you.
Hit the Continue button to proceed with the installation.

Partition disks - 3.

Keep clicking on the continue button to advance the installation.

 Partition disks - 4.

The wizard will take you through the above steps and present you with a
screen for your review. Now, a partition having all the system, scripting,
and user files, known as the primary partition, will be created as a single
partition. A second partition will be made for swap space. This is a virtual
memory in the system that is used for paging files to and from the
computer’s random-access memory and the central processing unit. It is
recommended that all systems running Linux have a swap area. The
common practice is to configure the swap area be one and a half times or
even equal to the amount of the computer’s installed physical random-
access memory (RAM).

You will come to a screen looking like this.

Partition disks - 5.

From the figure above, you will be asked to “Finish partitioning and write
changes to disk.” Pick the Yes option and click on the Continue button to
proceed with the installation process. Take note that that will be the last
chance you will have to review your partitioning options prior to the
installation of the operating system on the hard drive. Should a need to
amend the sizes of the partition arise in the future, it is still possible to do
that. However, changing the partition sizes can destroy your operating
system if it is not carried out properly.

Installation in progress.
The partitioning of the hard drive and installation will begin after you
click continue (at the figure at partition disks – 5). The installation can
take an hour or even a few minutes depending on your computer’s
hardware.

Setting Up the Package Manager

This is the update repository where your operating system will derive its
security patches and updates from. As such, the package manager is very
important in the functioning of the operating system. You can use the
network mirror, which comes together with the Kali Linux image. It is
recommended to use it since it contains the latest for package management
sources. A “YES” option will be picked for you by default, as shown in the
figure below. Proceed with the installation process by clicking on the
Continue button.
 Configuration of the package manager.

Suppose you are utilizing a proxy; you will need to input the configuration
information on the next prompt the installation wizard will bring up. You
can leave it blank as below. Hit the Continue button to proceed to the
installation of the GRUB loader.

Configuring a proxy.

Install the GRUB Loader

GRUB is an abbreviation for Grand Unified Bootloader, and it is the main
screen you will see each time you start the computer. GRUB provides a
platform where a user can verify specific settings during the booting up,
make changes where it is necessary and adjust settings prior to the loading
of the operating system. GRUB is highly recommended for most Linux
installations even though there are advanced users who do not necessarily
need it. The figure below indicates that “YES” has been picked for you to
install the GRUB. To advance to the next installation stage, click on the
Continue button.

Installing the GRUB loader.

Completing Installation for Kali Linux

Your installation will now be complete. Take out the optical disk or flash
drive from the computer and reboot. The computer will prompt you to
reboot. Select the Continue button to complete your installation. See the
figure below. Upon rebooting, you will be met with a welcome screen
requiring you to log in. Use the credentials you set up earlier. That will be
it. Welcome to Kali Linux!

Completing the installation.

Why You Should Use Kali Linux
As we have said before, Kali Linux comes with just about every tool pre-
installed that can be used for any of the above purposes. It is for this
reason that Security Auditors, Forensics Investigators, Penetration Testers
and Researchers prefer it.
Kali can be used in the breaking of WiFi networks, to hack websites and
networks, to run Open Source Intelligence on an entity, among others. Kali
Linux possesses tools that can be used for forensic investigation besides
ethical hacking. This is becoming an equally essential branch of security
that primarily collects evidence, analyze it and uses the results to
backtrack Cyber Criminals. Forensic Investigation makes it possible to
locate and eradicate malicious effects emanating from malicious
activities. It also comes in handy in the calculation and management of
loss that occurs after a Cyber Attack. A key feature in Kali is the stealth
Live mode mostly used in forensics and that it does not leave traces
(fingerprints and footprints) on a host’s system.

The Terminal
The very initial step in using Kali is to open the terminal, which is the
command-line interface we’ll use in this book. In Kali Linux, you’ll find
the icon for the terminal at the bottom of the desktop. Doubleclick this
icon to open the terminal or press CTRLALTT. The terminal opens the
command line environment, known as the shell, which enables you to run
commands on the underlying operating systems and write scripts.
Although Linux has many different shell environments, the most popular
is the bash shell, which is also the default shell in Kali and many other
Linux distributions. To change your password, you can use the command
passwd.

Basic Commands in Linux

To begin, let’s look at some basic commands that will help you get up and
running in Linux.

Finding Yourself with pwd

The command line in Linux does not always make it apparent which
directory you’re presently in, unlike that in Windows or macOS. To
navigate to a new directory, you usually need to know where you are
currently. The present working directory command, pwd, returns your
location within the directory structure. Enter pwd in your terminal to see
where you are:

kali >pwd
/root

In this case, Linux returned /root, telling me I’m in the root user’s
directory. And
because you logged in as root when you started Linux, you should be in the
root user’s directory too, which is one level below the top of the filesystem
structure (/). If you’re in another directory, pwd will return that directory
name instead.

Checking Your Login with whoami

In Linux, the one “all-powerful” superuser or system administrator is

called root, and it has all the system privileges needed to add users, change
passwords, change privileges and so on. Of course, you do not want just
anyone to have the ability to make such changes; you want someone who
can be trusted and has proper knowledge of the operating system. As a
hacker, you usually need to have all those privileges to run the programs
and commands you need, so you may want to log in as root. A Linux user
can see which user they are logged in as using the “whoami” command as
below:

kali >whoami
root

Here, the user is logged in as root.

Navigating the Linux Filesystem

Navigating the filesystem from the terminal is an essential Linux skill. To

get anything done, you need to be able to move around to find
applications, files and directories located in other directories. In a GUI-
based system, you can visually see the directories, but when you’re using
the command-line interface, the structure is entirely text-based and
navigating the filesystem means using some commands.

Changing Directories with cd

To change directories from the terminal, use the change directory

command, cd. For example, here’s how to change to the /etc. directory
used to store configuration files:

kali >cd /etc

root@kali:/etc#

The prompt changes to root@kali:/etc, indicating that we’re in the /etc.

directory. We can confirm this by entering pwd

root@kali:/etc# pwd
/etc

To move up one level in the file structure (toward the root of the file
structure, or /), we use cd followed by double dots (..), as shown here:

root@kali:/etc# cd ..
root@kali:/# pwd
/
root@kali:/#

This moves us up one level from /etc. to the /root directory, but you can
move up as many levels as you need. Just use the same number of double
dot pairs as the number of levels you want to move:

You would use .. to move up one level.

You would use .. .. to move up two levels.
You would use .. .. .. to move up three levels, and so on.

So, for example, to move up two levels, enter cd followed by two sets of
double dots with a space in between:
kali >cd .. ..

You can also move up to the root level in the file structure from anywhere
by entering cd /, where / represents the root of the filesystem.

Listing the Contents of a Directory with ls

To see the contents of a directory (the files and subdirectories), we can use
the ls (list) command. This is very similar to the dir command in
Windows.

This command lists both the files and directories contained in the
directory. You can also use this command on any particular directory, not
just the one you are currently in, by listing the directory name after the
command; for example, ls /etc. shows what’s in the /etc. directory. To get
more information about the files and directories, such as their
permissions, owner, size and when they were last modified, you can add
the -l switch after ls (the l stands for long). This is often referred to as the
long listing. See the example below:
 Getting Help

Nearly every command, application or utility has a dedicated help file in

Linux that guides its use. For instance, if I needed help using the best
wireless cracking tool, aircrack-ng, I could type the aircrack-ng command
followed by the --help command:

kali >aircrack-ng --help

Note the double dash here. The convention in Linux is to use a double dash
(--) before word options, such as help, and a single dash (-) before single
letter
options, such as –h. When you enter this command, you should see a short
description of the tool and guidance on how to use it. In some cases, you
can use either -h or -? to get to the help file. For instance, if I needed help
using the hacker’s best port scanning tool, Nmap, I would enter the
following:

kali >nmap -h

Unfortunately, although many applications support all three options, there

is no guarantee of the application you are using will. So if one option
refuses to work, please try another.

Finding Files
Until you become familiar with Linux, it can be frustrating to find your
way around, but knowledge of a few basic commands and techniques will
go a long way toward making the command line much friendlier. The
following commands help you locate things from the terminal.

Searching with locate

Probably the easiest command to use is locate. Followed by a keyword

denoting what it is you want to find, this command will go through your
entire filesystem and locate every occurrence of that word. To look for
aircrack-ng, for example, enter the following:
The locate command is not perfect, however. Sometimes, the results of
locate can be overwhelming, giving you too much information. Also,
locate uses a database that is usually only updated once a day, so if you
just created a file a few minutes or a few hours ago, it might not appear in
this list until the next day. It’s worth knowing the disadvantages of these
basic commands so you can better decide when best to use each one.

Finding Binaries with whereis

If you’re looking for a binary file, you can use the whereis command to
locate it. This command returns not only the location of the binary but also
its source and main page if they are available. Here’s an example:

Finding Binaries in the PATH Variable with which

The which command is even more specific: it only returns the location of
the binaries in the PATH variable in Linux. For example, when I enter
aircrack-ng on the command line, the operating system looks to the PATH
variable to see in which directories it should look for aircrackng:

kali >which aircrack-ng

/usr/bin/aircrack-ng
Here, which was able to find a single binary file in the directories listed in
the PATH variable. At a minimum, these directories usually include
/usr/bin, but may consist of/usr/sbin and maybe a few others.

Performing More Powerful Searches with find

The find command is the most powerful and flexible of the searching
utilities. It is capable of beginning your search in any designated directory
and looking for several different parameters, including, of course, the
filename but also the date of creation or modification, the owner, the
group, permissions and the size.
Here is the basic syntax for find:

find directory options expression

Filtering with grep

Very often, when using the command line, you may want to search for a
particular keyword. For this, you can use the grep command as a filter to
search for keywords. The grep command is often used when output is
piped from one command to another.

In the above example, the command will display all the services that are
running and then pipe that output to grep. What grep does is it will search
the received output for the keyword we asked it to look for. In our case, the
keyword is apache2. Grep will go ahead and output only the relevant
results. This command saves time.

Modify Files and Directories

After finding the directories and files you were looking for, you may need
to carry out several operations on them. We are going to learn the creation
of directories and files, copy files, rename files, plus delete the files and
directories.

Creating Files

There are many ways to create files in Linux, but for now, we will look at
two simple methods. The first is the cat, which is short for concatenate,
meaning to combine pieces (not a reference to your favorite domesticated
feline). The cat command is generally used for displaying the contents of a
file, but it can also be used to create small files. For creating bigger files,
it’s better to enter the code in a text editor such as vim, emacs, leafpad,
gedit or kate and then save it as a file.

Concatenation with cat

The cat command followed by a filename will display the contents of that
file, but to create a file, we follow the cat command with a redirect,
denoted with the > symbol, and a name for the file we want to create. Here
is an example:

kali >cat > kalilinux

Hacking with Kali Linux!

File Creation with touch

The second command for file creation is touch. This command was
initially developed so a user could touch a file to change some of its
details, such as the date it was created or modified. However, if the file
does not already exist, this command creates that file by default. Let’s
create newfile using the touch command:

kali >touch newfile

Now when I then use ls –l to see the long list of the directory, I see that a
new file has been created named newfile. Note that its size is 0 because
there is no content in the newfile.
 Creating a Directory

The command for creating a directory in Linux is mkdir, a contraction of

make directory. To create a directory named newdirectory, enter the
following command:

To navigate to this newly created directory, do enter this:

Copying a File

To copy files, we use the cp command. This creates a duplicate of the file
in the new location and leaves the old one in place. Here, we are going to
create the file oldfile in the root directory with touch and copy it to
/root/newdirectory, renaming it in the process and leaving the original
oldfile in place:

Renaming the file is optional and is done simply by adding the name you
want to give it to the end of the directory path. If you don’t rename the file
when you copy it, the file will retain the original name by default. When
we then navigate to newdirectory, we see that there is an exact copy of
oldfile called newfile:

kali >cd newdirectory

kali >ls
newfile oldfile

Renaming a File
Unfortunately, Linux doesn’t have a command intended solely for
renaming a file, as Windows and some other operating systems do, but it
does have the mv (move) command. The mv command can be used to
move a file or directory to a new location or to give an existing file a new
name. To rename newfile to newfile2, you would enter the following:

Now when you list (ls) that directory, you see newfile2 but not newfile,
because it has been renamed. You can do the same with directories.

Removing a File

To remove a file, you can use the rm command, like so:

kali >rm newfile2

If you now do a long listing on the directory, you can confirm that the file
has been removed.

Removing a Directory
The command for removing a directory is similar to the rm command for
removing files but with dir (for directory) appended, like so:

It is important to note that rmdir will not remove a directory that is not
empty but will give you a warning message that the “directory is not
empty,” as you can see in this example. You must first remove all the
contents of the directory before removing it. This is to stop you from
accidentally deleting objects you did not intend to delete. If you do want to
remove a directory and its content all in one go, you can use the -r switch
after rm, as shown below:

kali >rm -r newdirectory

Just a word of caution, though: be wary of using the -r option with rm, at
least at first, because it is straightforward to remove valuable files and
directories by mistake. Using rm -r in your home directory, for instance,
would delete every file and directory there, that is certainly not what you
were intending.

Searching for tools/packages

Before you download a software package, you can check whether the
package you need is available from your repository, which is a place where
your operating system stores information. The apt tool has a search
function that can check whether the package is available. The syntax is
straightforward:

Note that we use the apt-cache command to search the apt cache or the
place it stores the package names. So if you were searching for the
intrusion detection system Snort, for example, you would enter the
command shown below.

As you can see, many files have the keyword snort in them, but near the
middle of the output, we see snort – flexible Network Intrusion Detection
System. That is what we are looking for.

Adding Softwares
Now that you know the snort package exists in your repository, you can
use apt-get to download the software. To install a piece of software from
your operating system’s default repository in the terminal, use the apt-get
command, followed by the keyword install, and then the name of the
package you want to install. The syntax looks like this:

apt-get install packagename

Let us try this out by installing Snort on your system. Enter apt-get install
snort as a command statement, as shown below.

The output you see tells you what is being installed. If everything looks
correct, go
ahead and enter Y when prompted, and your software installation will
proceed.

Removing Softwares
When removing software, use apt-get with the remove option, followed by
the name of the software to remove. An example is listed below.
Again, you will see the tasks being done in real-time, and you will be
asked whether you want to continue. You can enter Y to uninstall, but you
might want to keep Snort since we will be using it again. The remove
command does not remove the configuration files, which means you can
reinstall the same package in the future without reconfiguring. If you do
want to remove the configuration files at the same time as the package,
you can use the purge option, as shown below.

Enter Y at the prompt to continue the purge of the software package and
the configuration files. To keep things small and modular, many Linux
packages are broken into software units that many different programs
might use. When you installed Snort, you installed several dependencies
or libraries with it that Snort requires so that it can run. Now that you are
removing Snort, those other libraries or dependencies are no longer
needed, so they are removed, too.
Updating Packages
Software repositories will be periodically updated with new software or
new versions of existing software. These updates do not reach you
automatically, so you need to request them to apply these updates to your
system. Updating is different from upgrading: updating updates the list of
packages available for download from the repository, whereas upgrading
will upgrade the package to the latest version in the repository. You can
update your system by entering the apt-get command, followed by the
keyword update. This will search through all the packages on your system
and check whether updates are available. If so, the updates will be
downloaded. See the example below.

kali >apt-get update

Get:1 http://mirrors.ocf.berkeley.edu/kali kali-rolling InRelease [30.5kb]
Get:2 http://mirrors.ocf.berkeley.edu/kali kali-rolling/main amd64
Packages
[14.9MB]
Get:3 http://mirrors.ocf.berkeley.edu/kali kali-rolling non-free amd64
Packages
[163kb]
Get:4 http://mirrors.ocf.berkeley.edu/kali kali-rolling/contrib amd64
Packages [107kB]
Fetched 15.2 MB in 1min 4s (236 kB/s)
Reading package lists... Done

The list of available software in the repository on your system will be

updated. If the update is successful, your terminal will state Reading
package lists... Done, as you can see above. Note that the name of the
repository and the values, time, size and so on might be different on your
system.

Upgrading Packages
To upgrade the existing packages on your system, use apt-get upgrade.
Because upgrading your packages may make changes to your software,
you must be logged in as root or use the sudo command before entering an
apt-get upgrade. This command will upgrade every package on your
system that apt knows about, meaning only those stored in the repository,
as shown below. Upgrading can be time-consuming, so you might not be
able to use your system for a while.

You should see in the output that your system estimates the amount of
hard drive space necessary for the software package. Go ahead and enter Y
if you want to continue and have enough hard drive space for the upgrade.
 Chapter 3: The Hacking Process
In short, Ethical hacking, performed by white hat hackers, is a term used
to describe defense hacking for companies and organizations, which
involves the identification of potential threats on a computer or network.

Like all good projects, ethical hacking also has a set of distinct phases. It
helps hackers to make a structured ethical hacking attack.Different
security training manuals explain the process of ethical hacking in
different ways, but in my experience, the entire process can be categorized
into the following six phases:

1. Reconnaissance.
2. Scanning.
3. Access Gain.
4. Maintain Access.
5. Clearing your Tracks.
6. Reports.
Reconnaissance
What is Reconnaissance? From the dictionary meaning, it is a preliminary
survey that is carried out to obtain information. An example is the
exploratory surveys that militaries conduct on the territory belonging to
the enemy. When it comes to cyber-security, Reconnaissance is a way of
gathering information on a target using different techniques. When
performing this exercise, there are three main information that is of
interest to an ethical hacker;

1. The Network.
2. The Host.
3. Users/People involved.

Steps in Performing a Reconnaissance Exercise.

In ethical hacking, the first step is normally meant to help a penetration
tester better understand their targets. This is done under a category that is
collectively known as Information Gathering. Hereunder, we have
something known as Reconnaissance, which we define as being a set of
techniques and processes that are utilized in the discovery and collection
of crucial information about a target. They include Scanning, Enumeration
and Foot-printing. In an exercise meant for Reconnaissance, an ethical
hacker tries to gather as much information about a target system as
possible, following the seven steps listed below;

1. Collecting first information.

2. Determine a network’s range.
3. Identification of active machines.
4. Discovering of Access Points and open ports that are available.
5. Operating System Fingerprinting.
6. Scanning for services running on various ports.
7. Network Mapping.

Reconnaissance is categorized into two major parts.

1. Active Reconnaissance: Active reconnaissance involves direct contact

with your target’s computer system to gain information, and information
gotten directly is actually accurate. There is the risk of being caught in the
process of active reconnaissance without permission. But most hacking
activities require active recon.
2. Passive Reconnaissance: In this process, you will not be directly
connected to a computer system. This process is used to gather essential
information without ever interacting with the target systems.

Enumeration
Enumeration, in the actual sense, is the complete listing of things in an
orderly manner with regards to items in a collection. Enumeration is the
act of making a list of policies, user accounts, shares and other resources.
This step happens just before vulnerability assessment and after scanning.
This helps the attacker put together the best strategy for gaining access.
Enumeration can be used to gain information on:

1. Users and Groups

2. Networks and shared paths
3. Hostnames
4. Route Tables
5. Service Settings
6. SNMP port scanning
7. DNS Details Applications and Banners.

Enumeration can be done with the following tools. In the Windows

Operating System, the use of many tools is done to enumerate NetBIOS
names with commands like:
• Net accounts,
• Net config server,
• Net config workstation,
• Net view.

Scanning
This is a procedure that is used in the identification of services, active
hosts and the ports that are used by the target application. Let us say you
wish to unearth the vulnerabilities in a system, what you will need is a
point you can attack in the System. In ethical Hacking, Network Scanning
is employed to find out these points. These are points that Black Hats use
to penetrate a system. After discovering these points, the relevant teams
will then direct their efforts to improve the system. We know that all
organizations have networks. They can either be internal or even
connected to the internet. To hack these networks, you must first find a
vulnerable point within them so that you can use it to carry out exploits.
Network Scanning is the method we employ to help us discover such
points within a network.

Network Scanning Objectives

1. It helps in the discovery of open ports, live computers or hosts

and the IP address of the victim.
2. Network scanning makes it possible to identify the services
which are running on the host computer.
3. It also aids in the discovery of the system architecture and the
operating system of the target.
4. Scanning Live hosts enables us to unearth and mitigate
vulnerabilities.

How is Network Scanning different from Reconnaissance ?

To help you understand the difference between the two, I am going to use
this analogy. Assume that you are commander in the army and you have
been tasked together with your team to go and carry out an attack on a
terrorist camp. We are going to assume that you already have an idea of
the camps’ location and the details about the vicinity of the camp. Now,
this is information normally obtained through Reconnaissance. You will
still be required to identify an entry point to the terrorist camp so that you
can launch your attack. This is now what we are calling Network Scanning.
We can confidently conclude that Reconnaissance is a technique you will
use for gathering information to help you know more about your target. On
the other hand, Network Scanning is a technique you will employ to help
you locate possible vulnerable points within the network. It is through
these points that one can penetrate a targeted network. Based on the
information revealed by the scan, Network Scanning can be divided into
two main categories:
 Port Scanning
Vulnerability Scanning

Port Scanning
From the name, we can deduce that Port Scanning is a way of identifying
active ports on the network. A Port Scanner works by transmitting requests
from a client to the range of ports located on a network that they are
targeting. The details about the ports will be saved and then a response
will be transmitted back. This, good readers, is how active ports are found.
Upon acquiring a target’s IP address (through scanning a victim
organization’s UDP and TCP ports), the hacker will proceed to map the
organization’s network under his/her grab.

Types of Port Scanning

SYNScan: In this mode of scanning, the TCP three-way handshake

technique is not completed. Here, a hacker or penetration tester will send a
victim the SYN packet. In case the response of an SYN/ACK frame is
received, a connection will be completed by the target and the port will be
able to listen. Receiving an RST from the target can mean that the port is
not activated or it is closed. This type of scan has an advantage in the
sense that only a few IDS systems will log this as a connection attempt or
an attack.

XMASScan: The scan transmits a packet containing PSH (push), URG

(urgent), and FIN (finish) flags. Suppose we have an open port; we do not
expect a response; the target will respond with an RST/ACK packet if the
port is closed. (RST=reset)

FINScan: This scan is almost similar to an XMAS scan with one

exception. FINScan transmits packets with just the FIN (finish) flag. The
scan does not have the other two flags (URG and PSH flags). The response
is similar to that of XMAS scans. Also, the two scans have similar
limitations.

IDLEScan: This kind of scan utilizes a spoofed IP for the transmission of

a SYN packet to the target through the determination of the responses
from the port scan together with the IP header sequence number. The port
is considered opened or closed based on the response of the scan.

Inverse TCP Flag Scan: In this case, a hacker will transmit TCP probe
packets with a TCP flag (FIN, URG PSH) or with no flags. If there is no
response, then it indicates that the port is open and RST means the port is
closed.

ACK Flag Probe Scan: In this type of port scanning, an intruder will
transmit TCP probe packets to a point where an ACK flag is set to a
remote device that is used for the analysis of the header information. This
information comprises of WINDOW and the TTL field. To know if the
port is open or closed, one uses the RST packet. You can also use this scan
for checking a target's filtering system.

Vulnerability Scanning
Essentially speaking, this is a type of Network Scanning that we use in our
search for a network’s weak points. Vulnerability Scanning unearths the
vulnerabilities which can arise because of a misconfiguration of the
network or due to poor programming. Before we go far, let us have a look
at a few tools used for Network Scanning.

Tools for scanning networks and ports

Nmap: is utilized in the extraction of information, for instance, operating
systems, type of packet filters/firewalls, live hosts on the network,
services and the operating system versions.

Angry IP Scanner: this tool can be used to scan for IP addresses on

systems available in each input range.

Superscan: this is a powerful tool developed by Mcafee. Besides being a

TCP port scanner, it can also be used for pinging.

ZenMap: this scanner has a very powerful Graphical user interface tool
that can help one detect the type of OS version, port scanning, OS, ping
sweep, etc.
Net Scan Tool Suite Pack: this refers to a collection of different utilities
and tools that are used for performing web rippers, port scans, mass
emailers and flooding. Note that the tool is a trial version, but paid
versions are also available.

Omnipeak and Wireshark are famous and powerful tools that are used
for listening to network traffic. Both tools can be used as a network
analyzer.

Countermeasures against scanning

1. System administrators can set up IDS and firewalls not only

detect, but also block any probing attempts.
2. Employing custom rules which will lock down the network and
bar any ports not wanted.
3. A user can run tools for port scanning so as to ascertain if the
firewall detects any port scanning activities accurately.
4. Security Experts are required to make sure that there is a
correct setting up of anti-spoofing and anti-scanners rules.
5. System and network managers need to ensure that the firewall
firmware IDS and routers are up to date.

Gaining Access
Gaining access is by far the most critical phase of an attack. I am talking
in terms of potential damage. Malicious actors do not always require to
have access to a system to cause damage. For example, a denial-of-service
attack can be carried out remotely with the potential to cause an abrupt
termination of the services that are actively being executed on the target or
in some cases, exhaust available resources. To stop a service, one can kill
processes. This can be accomplished by the use of a logic/time bomb.
Also, a reconfiguring and crashing of the system can achieve similar
results. Network resources can be exhausted locally via the filling up
outbound communication links. Such exploits can be done over a LAN or
the Internet, locally, or offline as a deception or theft. Let us list some
examples of these below:
 Session hijacking
Buffer overflows that are Stack-based
Denial-of-service and distributed denial-of-service

Sophisticated attackers normally carry out spoofing so that they can

exploit a target’s system by way of pretending to be different systems or
strangers.

Using this approach, they can transmit a malformed packet having a bug.
This bug will attempt to exploit vulnerabilities that are found in the target
system.

A technique known as packet flooding can be employed to remotely stop

the availability of essential services. We have a different type of attack
known as smurf attacks. These attacks attempt to elicit a response from
the available network users. Their legitimate addresses will then be used
to flood the victim. The success of gaining access to a target system by an
attacker is heavily dependent on the following:

The initial level of access gained.

The level of skill of the attacker and
The configuration and architecture of the target system.

The most damaging type of denial-of-service attack is the distributed

denial-of-service attack. This happens when an attacker employs the use of
zombie software that is spread over many machines on the Internet to
initiate a coordinated large-scale denial of services.

Maintaining Access
After a hacker gains access to his target system, he/she will need to
dedicate their efforts to ensure their boat remains afloat, metaphorically
speaking. The attacker can decide to exploit the hijacked system while
being in stealth mode, use it as a launching pad for attacks such as DDoS
or spam campaigns or use it for scanning and exploiting other systems. All
these actions can be damaging. Let me show you a practical example. A
hacker can create a sniffer to help them intercept all network traffic (both
inbound and outbound). Part of the traffic can include the telnet sessions
with other systems and file transfer protocols to enable them to send the
captured data to any destination. Those who do not wish to be detected
will be required to take steps that will help to conceal their presence. We
have many techniques to do this. The preferred method is where the hacker
installs hidden infrastructure based on covert channels, rootkits, Trojan
horses and backdoors to enable them to have unfettered access to those
systems.

Tools and Methods

A Trojan or backdoor is one such way to establish quick access to a system
that has already been breached. A Trojan horse allows a hacker
application-level access. The downside to this is that the Trojans need to
be installed locally on a target system. In systems running Windows, it is
possible for Trojans to install themselves as a service. After that, they will
have administrative access. This means that they can run as a local system.
A malicious individual can use these Trojans to steal credentials,
passwords and any other sensitive information on the system. As the case
with remote access Trojans, the backdoors attackers normally install come
with inbuilt download and upload functionality. This technique relies on
port 80 in the case of HTTP, 443 for HTTPS and port 53 for DNS for
covering up their traffic.

A Covert Channel
This is a scenario where secret communication tunnels are used for
transmitting data. Examples of such paths include HTTP tunnels, DNS
tunnels, ICMP tunnels and VoIP. Take note that the covert channels we
have mentioned can be used for transporting encrypted data as well.
Detection of covert channels is possible. Only that it requires substantial
efforts on the victim’s part. There are indicators of anomalies in the traffic
going out, such as protocol analysis, network signatures and flow data
analysis. These require special tools to come across. Take note that the
detection of a covert channel is one thing, but blocking it is a different ball
game. You can employ one or more of the following measures.
 Barring outbound ICMP at the corporate information border;

Blocking requests that are DNS related to servers outside

corporate networks. The requests can be allowed for internal
DNS servers;

HTTP tunnels disposing through the leveraging of Web proxies;

You can schedule a delay in the delivery of voicemails in cases

of exfiltration tunneling using VoIP RTR. This will allow for
sending the voicemail to an audio processor for the examination
of every packet to find any encoded data in the same way an
antispam software works.

Rootkits
This is a malware that is highly adept at concealing itself from a computer
system. It is this feature that distinguishes rootkits from other malware
types. Their heightened capability to hide gives them the ability to
circumvent security measures that have been put in place on the computer.
The main idea behind their creation is the very fact that they are not easily
detected by normal malware detection software. Normally, Trojan horses
are used to load rootkits beginning with “user” level access on the
platform that is being targeted. Once in the target system, the rootkits will
spy on login details such as passwords so that they can get “administrator”
level access. Keen readers will say this is privilege escalation. That is
correct. Despite this, the real specialty of the rootkits is to maintain
access.

Rootkits will tend to hang around a targeted system slowly and

progressively undermining it. This is unlike the norm with ordinary
viruses that are designed to cause maximum damage in as little time as
possible. The keyword here is ‘secrecy.’ For instance, keyloggers
possessing rootkits are purposely built to capture all the words an
unknowing victim keys in using their keypad. It will collect sensitive
information for as long as it remains undetected. This makes identity theft
highly probable. A good analogy is a parasite which, through various
means, enters the body. It will stay dormant for a very long time. After it
has mustered up enough energy to surmount over the body’s immune
system, it will now go ballistic.

A computer system can be broken down into three basic layers. These are
the operating system, the kernel and the hardware level. The kernel is the
backbone of the operating system, essentially speaking. Many a time, low-
priority processes are used by user-level rootkits to compromise the
software tasked with safeguarding a computer. A dangerous and stealthier
rootkit is the kernel-level rootkit. This is majorly due to the following
reasons:

Time and again, the removal of boot-level and kernel-level

rootkits have been proven to be difficult.
The rootkits that have made a residence in the kernel memory
do not leave any traces on the hard disk normally. Additionally,
these rootkits normally change parts of the disk, files and
sometimes modify the kernel to enable them to become “reboot
resistant.”
Rootkits can camouflage their presence in cases where they
make the addition of their code to sectors of the kernel;
Kernel-level rootkits can run even before the operating system
starts;
This category of rootkits can bypass encryption through the
creation of secret channels to allow them unfettered access to
the compromised system.

Rootkits that are installed at the kernel level will acquire complete
administrator access to the targeted systems. Rootkits normally create an
access path right to the operating system level, unlike Trojan horses.

Removing rootkits
The typical security measures, for instance, antivirus software, cannot
sufficiently deal with rootkits on their own. Alternatively, we have
purpose-built programs such as Malwarebytes Anti-rootkit, TDSSKiller,
Sophos Anti-Rootkit, and GMER that you can use to eradicate rootkits
from your system. Note that, in some cases, the rootkit cannot be removed
from your system for good. The programs above can only reduce the
adverse effects that the rootkit leaves all over your system. In addition to
using software to deal with rootkits, a user can also opt to initiate the clean
slate procedure. Here, the important files are backed up, and a clean re-
installation of the operating system is done. Normally, this will ensure that
the rootkit is removed from your system. Again, this is not a guarantee
that the removal will be 100%. We have BIOS-level rootkits, which are
rare but can survive the re-install. We will always have signs indicating a
presence of rootkits in any system, no matter how hard they try to hide.
This is major because they are designed to keep an ingress path for an
attacker from outside.

Data Exfiltration
This can be described as an unauthorized transfer of data to an external
device or system. The data can originate from IT servers or a computer
system. The process can either be manual (copy-pasting) or automatic
(through malware). Back in 2015, the security organization, McAfee,
reported that the majority of the data exfiltration cases (Around 60%)
were carried out through direct electronic means. The remaining 40%
happened via physical media, for example, stealing a laptop or using a
USB drive to download data. Interestingly, a significant portion of that
40% involved mobile phones. The data categories which were most
exfiltrated were personal health information, personally identifiable
information, financial data and intellectual property. Different kinds of
tunneling protocols, file transfers, web protocols or email transfers are
used in the electronic exfiltration of data. We know that the file transfer
protocol is a standard network protocol meant to help us transfer files. It
can also come in handy in data exfiltration campaigns.

Peripheral devices on the targets and other components such as

microphones and webcams can be rigged to enable the monitoring of the
target’s activities. To stay anonymous, the hacker can use the Tor network
or make use of HTTP file transfers. To prevent hackers from exfiltrating
your data and staying safe from Advanced Persistent Threats, early
detection is what will make the difference. It is important that
organizations possess a working threat intelligence mechanism that will
aid in the identification of suspicious activities relating to data
exfiltration. Linking the local threat intelligence system to the global
threat intelligence network will help in keeping abreast of the latest trends
in the security realm. Let me list some notable indicators of data
exfiltration. These can be used as a platform to launch a comprehensive
investigation. They are:

Port activities that are not approved/sanctioned.

Multiple email transmissions to non-corporate domains

Excessive email sending by hosts

Above normal DNS queries

Web upload activity by the users. The uploads will normally be

directed to non-corporate sites.

As I conclude this sub-topic, you have learned that for an attacker to

obtain meaningful information, they will have to linger around their
targets for some time. That implies that “Maintaining Access” is a key
cycle of the hacking process which you will be required to master. This is
easier said than done. Kali Linux comes with plenty of tools that can help
you maintain access to a targeted system. Maintaining access is like
getting into somebody else’s house without their permission. You will
quickly realize that getting inside the house is just one part. Maintaining
your presence without being detected is another. It may be even more
difficult than the former task.

Clearing Tracks
In this step, we will be learning about how hackers cover their tracks with
the objective of erasing any digital signs they may have left behind. It is
obvious that this as an unethical activity. Simply put, it is concerned with
the deletion of logs of the activities which took place during the hacking
process. I am going to be very detailed in the covering of this sub-topic
since it is of immense importance to the readers who seek to be
professional hackers. There is one more process after clearing tracks, that
is report writing, which is mostly paperwork. To know if a system has been
targeted, we can carefully examine digital signs left behind by an intruder.
It is in a hacker’s interest to clear any traces of such activity that can lead
to them. You may have noticed that in the previous phases, a penetration
tester or hacker successfully avoided detection by intrusion detection
systems and firewalls. In this phase, however, the objective is to conceal
any hints that are likely to disclose the nature of the hacker’s deeds.

The key components of covering/clearing tracks are:

1) Anti-Incident Response – these are measures that are meant to

prevent real-time detection and,

2) Anti-Forensics – these are measures aimed at thwarting the

collection of digital evidence during a possible post factum inquiry.

Anti-Incident Response
The main objective of Anti-Incident Response is to disrupt, confuse and
out-maneuver the incident response team at work in the company, which
was targeted. Additionally, activities falling under this category make it
possible for a hacker/penetration tester to obtain a long-term foothold
within their target even after they have been detected. Crucial tasks that
can be carried out under anti-incident response include:

Deployment of backdoors secretly

Configuration of infrastructure to allow for agility in lateral
movement
Constantly updating the number of infected hosts. Also, their
numbers should not be too large.
Using a wide variety of malware on the network.
Preventing investigators or responders from keeping up with
what is going on by way of picking up the pace yourself.
A perfect cover for internal hop-points can be provided by busy
servers
You can also use busy file servers as avenues for data staging.
Using a VPN for communication in some cases may circumvent
some measures put in place for network monitoring.
 Camouflaging the origin of malware transmission

The actions are undertaken in the prevention of immediate detection of an

ongoing, or a continuous cyberattack is what matters when it comes to the
working of an anti-incident response. The deliberate measures undertaken
by hackers or penetration testers to destroy any evidence present and lead
to a digital investigation to die out during the initial stages, anti-forensics,
on the other hand, is designed to handicap the investigators’ ability in
obtaining adequate digital evidence that will be submitted before a court
of law during later stages. This, therefore, implies that activities under
anti-incident response are urgent since a large portion of the action occurs
on a live, running system in real-time. The countermeasures that the
incident responders are likely to take are presumably much more time-
constrained as compared to those by investigators in a potential digital
investigation in the future.

Anti-Forensics
Before we start devouring this topic, let us first understand what forensics
is. We define computer forensics as a discipline whose main objective is to
enable the acquisition, preservation, analysis and presentation of digital
evidence in a court of law by forensic experts. We define anti-forensics as
a discipline that encompasses all the existing means and tools for purposes
of deleting, modifying, or hiding digital evidence. The main objective of
anti-forensics is the destruction, erasure, or manipulation of digital
evidence. Anti-forensics has also been described by some as the “Attempts
made to negatively compromise the quality, amount, and the existence of
evidence from a crime scene or to complicate the examination and
analysis of evidence so that it is impossible or difficult to conduct.” One
can tell from the name that this is involved with the techniques or actions
that are supposed to create obstructions to an eventual digital investigation
and to reduce both the quantity and quality of digital evidence. Cyber
terrorists, hackers, counterfeiters, online pedophiles and other
cybercriminals are among the typical users of anti-forensic techniques and
tools. It is obvious that their intentions are to erase any existing traces
capable of incriminating them.
Deleting Evidence
There are those of us who are so paranoid to the extent that they have
invested resources on privacy protection tools and commercial disk
cleaners solely to wipe data they do not wish others to lay their eyes on. It
is believed that these tools can permanently delete everything from the
hard disk. The specific information that can be deleted include:

Web browsers history and cache

Instant messengers chat logs including Skype and others
Giving users a “secure delete” option with which they can wipe
files
Carry out the cleaning of these: registry items, thumbnails,
jumplists, Skype chatsync and so on.

A forensic expert can use specific forensic tools to outsmart many of these
clean-up programs. For example, pictures of interest to a forensic expert
can be recovered. This is because even with the erasure of the original
image, Windows Thumbnails will still have a smaller version of this
picture. Even with the removal of the thumbnail, forensic can restore it by
doing what we call file carving. Jumplists can also give information
pertaining to pictures, applications, documents and numerous other types
of files that the user has interacted with. The jumplists are normally
created even for externally accessed files.

They will stay intact, regardless of whether there has been an erasure of
the original file or that the external device has been removed. These lists
will typically have a MAC address, the name, the path to the file being
accessed, the application used to view the file, the computer name,
alongside the time and date that the item was accessed. This implies that
jumplists can be used as an excellent proof of access. Deleting Skype
history manually will not clean internal data stored in the “chatsync”
folder. The folder’s content can be used to unearth bits of user
conversations. Despite the methods imperfectness (Deleting), when it is
done properly, it can dispose of evidence irreversibly, leading the forensics
experts to come out empty-handed.
Hiding, Moving, Renaming or Altering Files
This may sound naïve even though some of the wrongdoers can use this
method to evade detection. The method used to cover tracks here can
include renaming files, moving files containing conversation histories or
changing file extensions. This, my friends, is not an easy task. There exist
programs which can be used to break large files into small partitions.
These partitions can be concealed at the end of other files. Using
specialized programs, a hacker can use the unused file space, which is
known as slack space, for hiding crucial information from plain sight.
Additionally, a hacker can conceal a file inside another (You may have
heard of stenography). This method works fine with executable files.

Timestamping
Many a time, the investigators do not normally examine all the files in a
computer system. In most cases, they sort the information chronologically
so that they can prioritize their search for potentially relevant information.
They will want to view the information just at the time an attack occurred
in cases where it is known. Criminals will typically attempt to counter this
approach through the modification of the metadata belonging to the files
they require. Usually, they alter the times and the dates when each file was
last accessed, last modified and when it was created. This anti-forensic
technique is known as time stamping. Once the modification or
transformation of a file has been done, the computer or device will think
that the file is a different one. For instance, renaming an mp4 file to make
it look like a .gif file.

Despite this, forensic investigators will normally depend on their

experience and skills to find moved or renamed files. Also, we have
methods for information forensics that can assess hard drives for
suspicious discrepancies automatically. An example of such a method is
data carving. This is a method that is used for carrying out a
comprehensive and sequential scan of media. Data carving is effective in
the sense that it can directly read low-level data from the media. It does
not depend on the manner in which the file locations and names appear on
the file system. For instance, an mp3 file is identified based on the
contained actual data stream that is inherent to mp3 files and not based on
the file’s name.
Finally, encryption is a wonderful security measure a hacker can use. As
far as digital forensics is concerned, encryption is a nightmare. Utilizing a
strong encryption algorithm can result in the data being unreadable and
will, therefore, be useless to the investigators.

Log Tampering
In computers running Windows, log files are typically kept in the event
viewer. You can easily find it using the “Search” bar. The logs are stored in
the/var/log directory in most Linux/UNIX operating systems.

System administrators can view any malicious activities that have

occurred in their systems simply by examining the log files. We have two
types of log files, the application generated and the system-generated log
files. In log manipulation, a hacker normally has two options. One way is
to completely delete the logs and the other way is to modify the contents
of the log files. Here, a hacker can also replace the system binaries with
malware such as Trojans to make sure that any evidence of cyber intrusion
will not be detected. Deleting log files is not normally a good idea as it
will create a gap in the logs files and this will raise suspicion. The log files
can be used in the detection of malicious activities. They can be used as a
warning system on the health and the actual state of a system. Any
discrepancies in the logs will likely draw unwanted attention. A wise
attacker will likely carry out his attacks when the probability of viewing
the log data is minimal say on weekends or during nighttime. An attacker
will need to have root privileges to tamper with the information on log
files. After escalating their privilege, a hacker can modify the log data
associated with their activities within the log file itself. Any scrutiny by a
system administrator will, therefore, not display any unusual activity.
Prudent system administrators normally set up their system in a way that
they will send all the log files to a remote server.

In summary
One precondition for success is being stealthy. Therefore, preventing
detection during the hacking process is not enough. The process should
continue even after the actual attack has been carried out. Any missteps
will likely set off the radar detection and the forensics team will be
quickly brought in to identify the attacker. This implies that the final step
of covering tracks is of immense significance and should not be
underestimated. If you wish to break into sophisticated systems,
maintaining a low profile is a key skill that you will be required to have.
We can say that covering tracks is a fail-safe technique that hackers
employ to keep them out of trouble. The trouble can be immediate or after
some time, say during an investigation.
 Chapter 4: Wireless Network Hacking

Wireless Hacking
There are many advantages to using wireless networking. However, this
kind of technology comes with a host of threats and vulnerabilities that
hackers can take advantage of. Since information is sent over the air via
radio frequencies, it is easier for hackers to intercept it compared to wired
connections. This is more so when the information being sent is not
encrypted or the encryption algorithm is weak.

Wireless networks consist of for basic elements:

A wireless access point that connects to the network

Data being transmitted via radio frequencies
The Client device used, such as a laptop, tablet, etc.
The users

Every one of these elements can be targeted by a hacker to compromise at

least one of the three major objectives of a secure network: availability,
integrity and confidentiality.

Wireless Network attacks

1. Accidental association

It is possible for a wireless network to be hacked accidentally. In some

cases, one wireless network overlaps with another, thus enabling any user
to jump into another unintended network accidentally. This may seem
benign, but a malicious hacker can take advantage of this and gain access
to information that should not have been exposed in such a manner. If the
overlapping networks belong to organizations, then the link can be used to
steal proprietary data.

2. Malicious Association
This occurs when malicious hackers gain access to a private network using
their own device rather than through the legitimate access point (AP). A
hacker can create a "soft AP," which can be a laptop with software that
makes its wireless network card appear to be a genuine access point. This
allows the hacker to steal passwords, attack computers or send users
Trojan horse programs. A hacker can effectively have full control of every
computer that joins the fake network.

3. Ad-hoc Networks

These are networks between two wireless computers with no access point
separating them. Such networks can be attacked quite easily since they
rarely have adequate protection.

4. Non-traditional networks

These include Bluetooth devices, wireless printers, handheld PDAs and

barcode readers. These kinds of networks are rarely secured by IT
personnel since all the focus is usually on laptops or access points. This
makes them fair game for malicious hackers.

5. MAC Spoofing

This is a form of identity theft where a hacker monitors network traffic to

identify which computer has network privileges. The aim is to steal the
MAC (Media Access Control) address of that computer within the
network. Many wireless systems have a MAC filter that allows only
specific computers with specific MAC addresses to access and use the
network. A hacker may get software that is able to "sniff" the network to
find these authorized computers and their IDs and then employ other
software that allows the hacker's computer to use these stolen MAC
addresses.

6. Man-in-the-middle Attacks

This occurs when a malicious hacker sets up their laptop as a soft access
point and then lures other users to use it. The hacker then connects the soft
access point to a genuine access point using a different wireless card, thus
forcing users to go through the fake AP to reach the real one. This enables
the hacker to sniff out whatever information they want from the traffic.
This type of attack has been made easier by software such as AirJack and
LANjack. Wireless Hotspots are a great place to launch this kind of attack
since there is hardly any meaningful security on such networks.

7. Denial of Service Attacks

This is where a hacker continuously sends numerous requests, commands

and messages to a specific access point until the network crashes or just to
prevent genuine users from getting onto the network.

8. Network Injection Attack

A malicious hacker injects counterfeit networking re-configuration

commands into an access point that does not filter traffic. These fake
commands bring down the entire network or switches, routers and hubs,
forcing a reboot or reprogramming of every networking device.

Wireless Network Authentication

Wireless networks are designed to be accessible to anyone who has a
wireless-enabled device. For this reason, most networks are protected
using passwords. There are two common authentication techniques used:
WEP and WPA.

WEP
This stands for Wired Equivalent Privacy and was developed to provide
users with the same level of privacy as wired networks. It adheres to IEEE
802.11 WLAN standards. WEP encrypts data that is being sent over a
network to prevent eavesdropping.

WEP vulnerabilities
There are significant flaws in the design of this type of authentication
technique:
1. It uses Cyclic Redundancy Check 32 to verify the integrity of packets.
The problem with CRC32 is that a hacker only needs to capture two
packets to crack into the network. They can also modify the checksum and
encrypted stream to force the system to accept the packet.

2. It uses an RC4 encryption algorithm to make stream ciphers composed

of a secret key and an Initial Value (IV). The IV length is fixed at 24 bits,
but the secret key can be 40 to 104 bits in length. If a secret key of a lower
length is used, the network becomes easier to hack.

3. Since it is a password-based authentication technique, a hacker can

successfully deploy a dictionary attack.

4. It does not have a central key management system, thus making it very
difficult to change keys in big networks.

Due to the numerous security flaws, WEP has fallen out of favor and
replaced by WPA.

How to crack WEP networks

Exploiting the numerous security vulnerabilities on a WEP network is
possible either through passive attacks or active cracking. If a passive
attack is launched, the network traffic is not affected until WEP
authentication has been successfully cracked. This makes it harder to
detect. Active cracking tends to increase the load on the network, thus
making it easier to detect, though it is also more effective.
The tools that can be used for cracking WEP include:
Aircrack — This is also a network sniffer and can be downloaded from
www.aircrack-ng.org/

Kismet — This multi-purpose tool can sniff network packets, detect

invisible and visible networks and even identify intrusions. It can be
downloaded from www.kismetwireless.net/

WEPCrack — This open-source tool can crack secret keys and can be
downloaded at www.wepcrack.sourceforge.net/

WebDecrypt — It cracks WEP keys using a dictionary attack and

generates its own keys. Get it at www.wepdecrypt.sourceforge.net/
WPA
WPA is an abbreviation for Wi-Fi Protected Access. It was primarily
developed to mitigate the weaknesses of WEP. WPA uses greater IV than
WEP, 48 bits to be precise. Packets are encrypted using temporal keys.

WPA vulnerabilities
1. Hackers can easily overcome it using denial of service attacks.
2. Its keys rely on passphrases and if weak passphrases are used, a
dictionary attack can be successfully launched.

How to crack WPA networks

Since WPA uses passphrases to authenticate user logins, a well-
coordinated dictionary attack makes it vulnerable, especially if short
passphrases are used. The tools for cracking WPA include:
Cain and Abel — It is used to decode files that have been sniffed by other
programs like Wireshark.
CowPatty — This is a brute force attack tool that cracks pre-shared keys.
Download from wirlessdefenc.org/Contents/coWPAttyMain.htm

How to crack network WPA and WEP keys

You are going to need the right software, hardware and patience in order to
crack the keys to a wireless network. However, successfully doing so is
dependent on the activity levels of users within the network you have
targeted.
Backtrack is a great security operating system that is based on Linux. It
contains many well-known tools that are very effective for collecting data,
evaluating weaknesses and exploiting networks. Some of these tools
include Metasploit, Ophcrack, Wireshark, Nmap and Aircrack-ng.

Cracking network authentication keys requires the following:

Wireless network adapter able to inject packets.

Backtrack OS, downloadable from backtrack-
linux.org/downloads/
Proximity to the network radius.
 Adequate knowledge of Linux OS and how to use the scripts in
Aircrack.
Patience, as there are factors that you may not be able to
control.

Remember, the greater the number of people actively accessing the

network, the faster this will work.

How to perform MAC spoofing

To carry out MAC spoofing, you will have to bypass the MAC filtering
that the target network is using. MAC filtering is commonly used to
lockout MAC addresses that have not been authorized to connect to a
wireless network. This is usually an effective way to prevent people who
may somehow acquire the password from connecting to the network.
However, MAC filtering is not an effective security measure when it
comes to locking out hackers.
The steps below will show you exactly how to go about spoofing the MAC
address of a client who is authorized to connect to the network. The Wi-Fi
adapter should be in monitoring mode. Airodump-ng on Kali Linux will be
used to recover the MAC address. After this, the Macchanger program will
be used to do the spoofing, bypass the filter and connect to the network.

Instructions:
1. Make sure your Wi-Fi adapter is in monitoring mode. To find the
wireless network that is being targeted as well as any clients connected to
it, enter this command:

Airodump-ng—c [channel]-bssid [target router MAC Addres]-l wlan0mon

A window will open up, displaying a list of clients who are connected to
the network. Their whitelisted MAC addresses will also be shown. These
are the addresses you need to spoof to enter the network.
2. Pick one of the whitelisted MAC addresses from the list to use to spoof
your own address. Before you can perform the spoofing, you must take
down the monitoring interface. Enter the command:

Airmon-ng stop wlan0mon

3. The next step is to take down the wireless interface of the MAC address
you intend to spoof. Enter the command:

Ifconfig wlan0 down

4. Then you use the Mcchanger software to change the address. Enter the
command:

Macchanger —m [New MAC Address] wlan0

5. Remember, you had taken down the wireless interface in step 3. Now it
is time to bring it back up. Use the command:

Ifconfig wlan0 up

Now that the MAC address of your wireless adapter has been changed to
that of an authorized user, test and see if the network will authenticate
your login. You should be able to connect to the wireless network.

Transmissions
Hacking of wireless networks poses three main threats: Disruption,
Alteration and Interception. To prevent malicious hackers from
eavesdropping on wireless transmission, you can use:

Signal-hiding methods — Before a malicious hacker can intercept

wireless transmissions, they first have to locate the wireless access point.
An organization can make this more difficult by switching off the SSID
(service set identifier) being broadcast by the access point, assigning a
cryptic name to the SSID, lowering signal strength to provide just enough
requisite coverage or stationing access points away from exterior walls
and windows. There are also more effective but expensive techniques,
such as employing directional antennas to restrict the signal within a
specific area or using TEMPEST (a technique to block the emission of
wireless signals).
Stronger encryption of all wireless traffic — This is very important,
especially for organizations that must protect the confidentiality of their
information being broadcast wirelessly. This measure reduces the risks of
a man-in-the-middle attack.
Stronger authentication procedures — This should apply to users as
well as their devices. This minimizes man-in-the-middle attacks.
Countermeasures against Denial of Service Attacks
Malicious hackers may, at times, attempt to bring down the servers of an
organization, but in some cases, a DOS attack may be unintentional. There
are certain steps that can be taken to minimize the risks of this form of
attack:

Performing site surveys carefully to determine the location of

signals emanating from other devices. This should be used as a
guide in deciding where the access points should be located.

Conducting regular audits of network performance and activity

to determine areas with problems. If there are any offending
devices, they should be removed. Measures should also be
taken to enhance signal coverage and strength in problem areas.

Access Points
Wireless access points that are poorly configured are a major vulnerability
and may allow malicious hackers unauthorized access to confidential
information. To secure wireless access points, the following
countermeasures must be taken:

Eliminate all rogue access points — The best way to do this is

to use 802. Ix to prevent any rogue devices from plugging into
and connecting to the wireless network.

Ensure all authentic access points are properly configured —

Make sure that all default settings are changed since they are
publicly available and hackers can easily exploit them.
 Authenticate every device using 802. Ix protocol — a strong
authentication system will prevent unauthorized devices from
setting up backdoors. This protocol ensures stringent
authentication before assigning any device to an IP address.

Devices
There are two perspectives when it comes to assessing security threats
against wireless devices: Theft/Loss and Compromise. Laptops and PDAs
usually contain a lot of confidential and sensitive information and
therefore must be protected from theft or loss. Wireless client devices can
also be compromised when a malicious hacker gains access to stored data
in the device. Hackers can also use the device to launch attacks on other
systems and networks.

Networks

Encryption — This is the best way to secure a wireless network.

Most base stations, access points and wireless routers come
with inbuilt encryption mechanisms that enable scrambling of
network communications. Always make sure that the router you
buy comes with an encryption feature. Most manufacturers turn
this feature off, so ensure that you manually turn it on before
you start using your router.

Anti-spyware, anti-virus and firewalls — Make sure that your

wireless network is protected in the same way as a wired
connection. Keep all your software updated and always check
whether your firewall is switched on.

Switch off your router's identifier broadcasting - This is the

mechanism that a wireless router uses for broadcasting its
presence in an area. However, there is no need to announce the
presence of a network if the users know that it is already there.
Malicious hackers tend to search for the identifier broadcast to
zero in on potential targets.
 Change default identifier — Every router has a default ID given
to it by its manufacturer. You may have switched off the
identifier broadcaster, but hackers can still attack the network if
they find out the default ID, which is publicly accessible.
Change the identifier and do not forget to configure the new ID
into your computer.

Change the default password — Every router is assigned a

default password by the manufacturer. This is for purposes of
configuring the device initially. These default passwords are
easy to find, so make sure that you change your router password
to something that will be very difficult to crack. Also, try to
make your password as long as possible.

Specify the devices authorized to connect to the network —

Configure your router to only allow specific Mac addresses to
connect to the network. However, do not rely on this technique
alone, as Mac spoofing is still possible.

Shut the network down when unused — Whenever a wireless

network is not being used, make sure that it is switched off.
This will limit the window of opportunity that hackers can use
to penetrate the network.

Be vigilant in W-Fi hotspots — Most people love to use the free

Wi-Fi at airports, cafes, hotels and other public places. These
wireless networks are rarely secured, so do not assume that they
are.

The Users
There is no greater way to secure a wireless network than educating and
training all users. Users are not just people who connect to the network but
IT personnel and administrators as well. It is very important to teach
people how to behave in a way that will maintain the security of the
wireless network. This user training and education must be a periodic
endeavor.
Let us face it. It is not possible to completely eliminate every risk that a
wireless network comes with. Eventually, a hacker will get through.
However, there are actions that can be taken to maintain a reasonable level
of general security. This is possible using systematic risk evaluation and
management techniques. Every component of a wireless network must be
considered when establishing countermeasures against malicious hackers.
 Chapter 5: Uses and Applications of Kali Linux
The uses of Kali Linux are wide-ranging. Below, I have outlined and
discussed some of them. Feel free to download the documentation from
the links provided in chapter 2. Now let us get down to the serious stuff.

Penetration testing
This is a mechanism that is utilized by organizations to ascertain the
robustness of their security infrastructure. Here, security professionals
will play the role of the attackers, whereby they will attempt to discover
flaws and vulnerabilities in a system before the malicious fellows do. One
key objective is the identification and reporting of vulnerabilities to
companies and organizations. As organizations become increasingly
security conscious and the cost of security breaches rises exponentially,
many large organizations are beginning to contract out security services.
One of these critical security services is penetration testing. A
penetration test is essentially a legal, commissioned hack to demonstrate
the vulnerability of a firm’s network and systems. Generally, organizations
conduct a vulnerability assessment first to find potential weaknesses in
their network, operating systems and services. I emphasize potential, as
this vulnerability scan includes a significant number of false positives
(things identified as vulnerabilities that are, in reality, not vulnerabilities).
It is the role of the penetration tester to attempt to hack, or penetrate, these
vulnerabilities. Only then can the organization know whether the weakness
is real and decide to invest time and money to close the vulnerability.

Espionage and military

Cyber espionage can be said to be the practice of accessing information
and secrets without the knowledge and permission of the entities being
targeted. They can be ordinary individuals, rivals, competitors, groups,
governments or even enemies. The objectives here are broad. They can be
political, economic, personal or even military-related. The techniques
used, too, are diverse. Hackers can use malicious software, cracking
techniques, proxy servers, among others, to attain their stated objectives.
Espionage can be carried out online by professionals from their computer
desks or it can be done by infiltration using trained moles and
conventional spies. In some circumstances, it can be carried by amateurish
hackers with malicious intent and software programmers. It is common
knowledge that every nation on earth carries out some form of cyber
espionage or even cyber warfare, albeit covertly. Gathering intelligence on
military activities of other countries has been made more cost-effective by
hacking. Thus, a hacker has their place cut out in the defense systems of
any nation.

Forensics:
For years, the popularity of Forensic Linux Live Boot environments has
become well known. There are so many forensic tools that are Linux based
on this distribution. Using Kali, forensic experts can do all that pertains to
their tradecraft starting from the initial triage, data imaging all the way to
case management and full analysis.

Reverse Engineering:
Recently, reverse engineering has become an indispensable skill in various
sectors, including law enforcement. Reverse Engineering is a primary
method that is used in the identification of vulnerabilities and the
development of exploits. That is on the offensive side of it. Defensively
speaking, reverse engineering can be utilized in the analysis of malware
that has been used to target a given system. Here, the objective will be to
establish the capabilities of a given piece of tradecraft.

Wireless Attacks:
Kali supports a wide range of wireless hacking tools. What makes wireless
networks a commonly attacked vector is their pervasive nature. Kali Linux
also supports multiple wireless cards and is a hacker’s favorite choice for
conducting attacks against different types of wireless networks.

Password Attacks:
Kali Linux can be used for conducting password attacks where a user
encounters an authentication system. The OS comes with numerous useful
tools and utilities for this purpose. We have both offline and online
password attack tools that a Kali Linux user can use to deal with hashing
and encryption systems.
Database Assessment:
Kali Linux is capable of database attacks such as SQL injection and
attacking credentials. All this is made possible by the tools present in
Kali’s vast repositories that can be used for testing attack vectors ranging
from data extraction and analysis to SQL injection.

Sniffing and Spoofing:

Again, Kali Linux has plenty of tools an aspiring hacker or a professional
one can use to get access to data as it is being transmitted over the
network. You can use spoofing tools to impersonate a networks’ legitimate
user and then use the sniffing tools if you wish to capture and analyze data
you have just captured. These tools are a lethal combination when used
together.

Stress Testing
To check whether your system is stable, you carry out a stress test on it. In
this scenario, you will use the numerous tools provided by Kali Linux to
generate more than normal traffic. This way you will be able to know the
limits of your system. The tools for stress testing can either be proprietary
or open-source. As an expert, it is essential that you know all the tools that
are used for testing a system’s availability.

Hardware Hacking
Another application of Kali Linux is in hardware hacking. Kali Linux
comes with the following tools that can be used to accomplish this task.

android-sdk - The Android SDK provides you the API libraries

and developer tools necessary to build, test and debug apps for
Android.

apktool - It is a tool for reverse engineering 3rd party, closed,

binary Android apps. It can decode resources to the nearly
original form and rebuild them after making some
modifications; it makes possible to debug smali code step by
step. Also, it makes working with the app easier because of
project-like files structure and automation of some repetitive
tasks like building apk, etc.
Arduino - This is an electronics prototyping platform that is
open-source. It is based on easy-to-use, flexible software and
hardware.

Sakis3G - Sakis3G is a tweaked shell script that is supposed to

work out-of-the-box for establishing a 3G connection with any
combination of modem or operator. It automatically setups your
USB or Bluetooth™ modem and may even detect operator
settings. You should try it when anything else fails.

Smali - smali/baksmali is an assembler/disassembler for the

dex format used by dalvik, Android’s Java VM implementation.
The syntax is loosely based on Jasmin’s/dedexer’s syntax and
supports the full functionality of the dex format (annotations,
debug info, line info, etc.)
 Chapter 6: Introduction to Cybersecurity

Introduction
We define cybersecurity as being the protection of computer systems,
computer networks, and their associated programs from attacks that are of
a digital form. Typically, cyberattacks are carried out with the intent of
gaining access, modification or even destruction of information that is
sensitive. They also attempt to extorting money from victims and are
meant to interrupt the normal processes of a business.

Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability

The three are famously referred to as the CIA triad. We can describe it as a
model whose purpose is to guide information security policies within any
given organization. To prevent confusing the triad with the American
Central Intelligence Agency, we sometimes refer to it as the AIC triad. The
three elements are the most critical components of security. In our case,
we can say that availability is defined as a guarantee of access that is
reliable to information by people with authorization, confidentiality is said
to be a set of protocols that are used to limiting access to information and
integrity is the undertaking given to show that the information at hand is
both accurate and trustworthy.

Confidentiality:
This is a rough equivalent of privacy. While ensuring that the right people
can have access to crucial information, it is also prudent that vigorous
measures are undertaken to make sure that there is confidentiality. There
should be restricted access to the data in question by those who are
authorized to view it. Out there, it is not uncommon to categorized data
based on the type and amount of damage that can result from it falling into
unauthorized persons. Stringent measures can more or less be
implemented depending on these categories. Guarding the confidentiality
of data sometimes requires specialized training for authorized to view/use
persons. It would generally involve security risks that could harm that
information. It can, without a doubt, help people with the proper
authorization to get to know the various risk factors and equip them with
countermeasures. Additional aspects of the training may comprise best
practices in password-related issues alongside social engineering
mechanisms.

This will help them avoid breaching rules governing data-handling with
potentially disastrous results in as much as they may have intentions we
can describe as being noble. For example, using a routing number or an
account number is an effective measure that can be used to ensure
confidentiality. We can also employ the use of data encryption to make
sure that there is confidentiality. Passwords and user IDs are part of a
standard procedure that is becoming a common phenomenon, two-factor
authentication. There are different options. They include security tokens
(soft tokens or key fobs) and biometric verification.

Furthermore, it is incumbent upon the users to take precautions in

ensuring that locations where their information appears and the number of
times required to send it to complete a transaction is at a minimal. In cases
where we have critical data, extra measures may be necessary. Such
actions can involve storing the information on disconnected storage
devices on air-gapped computers or it can even be stored in the form of
hard copies only.

Integrity:
This component of the triad comprises ensuring the trustworthiness,
consistency, and accuracy of data throughout its complete life cycle. It is
of immense importance that data that is in transit is not altered. Solid
steps need to be taken to make sure that no modification on the data by
unauthorized people happens. For instance, in cases where we have a
confidentiality breach. Here, the countermeasures can involve user access
controls and file permissions. To prevent accidental deletion or erroneous
changes by authorized users, we can employ the use of version control. In
place, there also need to exist mechanisms to help in the detection of data
changes, which may result from non-human events, including a server
crash or an electromagnetic pulse. We can include checksums and
cryptographic checksums to help with the integrity verification of data.
Lastly, it may be necessary to have some form of redundancies and
backups that will help in the restoration back to its former state.

Availability:
The rigorous maintenance of all the hardware ensures that there will
always be availability fo the services rendered by this hardware. Failing
equipment should be promptly and adequately repaired to keep in order a
properly functioning operating system environment that is devoid of any
software conflicts. One aspect of maintenance that should also be carried
out is updating all the necessary system components. It will also be to
provide ample bandwidth for communications and to ensure a minimal
occurrence of bottlenecks. Mitigation of hardware failures and their
repercussions can be done using high-availability clusters, redundancy,
RAID and even failovers.

For the worst-case scenarios that occur, disaster recovery that is both
adaptive and fast is essential. For this to be possible, the disaster recovery
plan laid down has to be comprehensive. Prevention of data loss or
connection interruptions needs to also account for unpredictable events.
Examples include fire and natural disasters. Copies of back up data can be
securely stored at a location that is geographically-isolated to prevent loss
of data resulting from such occurrences. Such sites also need to be water
and fire-resistant. To guard against issues such as downtime and
inaccessibility of data due to denial-of-service attacks and network
intrusions, we can employ the use of extra security equipment, for
instance, proxy servers, firewalls and software.

Issues arising from the CIA:

The CIA paradigm faces immense challenges where big data is involved.
This is primarily because of the sheer volume needing to be kept safe, the
variety of formats of the data, and, finally, the multiplicity of the
originating sources. Disaster recovery plans and duplicate sets of data all
make the already high cost even higher. Additionally, oversight is often
lacking since the main objective of big data is for analytics purposes, i.e.,
gathering data and using it to make some kind of useful interpretation. We
all know this fellow, Edward Snowden, who brought this issue to light.
Security agencies carry out the collection of enormous volumes of
peoples’ private data throughout the world. To safeguard individual
information from exposure in the IoT environment, we have special
considerations known as the Internet of Things privacy. This means that
almost any logical or physical entity can be assigned a unique identifier to
enable autonomous communications over a network, including the
Internet.

The transmitted data from a particular endpoint may not, on its own,
necessarily result in any privacy issues. The catch is, however, when the
fragmented data from multiple endpoints is accessed, gathered and
analyzed, sensitive information can be obtained. Securing the Internet of
Things is itself a formidable challenge since it comprises numerous
Internet-enabled devices besides computers. Such devices are, in most
cases, often set up with default passwords that are weak or in some cases,
the devices are unpatched. Unless IoT is protected adequately, there is a
likelihood that it may be used as a separate vector of attack or be made a
part of a thingbot. Recently, it has been demonstrated by researchers that it
is possible to compromise a network just by using a Wi-Fi-enabled light
bulb. It is essential for us that we consider the security of the numerous
network-capable products that are under development.

Encryption
We define encryption as a mechanism through which plaintext or other
data type are changed from their currently readable form to an encoded
way. It is only an entity having access to a decryption key that can decode
the data. This is an important measure that usually is used to provide end-
to-end data security across networks. Encryption, as a proactive security
measure, is commonly used all over the internet for purposes of protecting
crucial information belonging to users, which is being exchanged between
servers and browsers. That can include private information such as
payment information, passwords and other personal information.
Individuals, together with organizations, may also opt to use encryption to
ensure the safety of sensitive data that is stored on mobile devices, servers
and computers.

How encryption works

Plaintext data, also known as unencrypted data, is encrypted through the
use of an encryption algorithm plus an encryption key. The result of this is
a ciphertext that can be seen only in its original form if decrypted with the
correct key. On the other hand, decryption is the reverse of encryption. The
steps used in encryption are followed in a reverse fashion. In the modern
age, we have two commonly used encryption algorithms. They are
symmetric and asymmetric encryptions.

When it comes to the symmetric encryption mechanism, a single key is

utilized for encryption. The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is one
of the most used symmetric-key ciphers. It was designed primarily to
protect classified information for governments. This mechanism is faster
in comparison to asymmetric encryption. The sender must, however, share
the encryption key with the recipient. The keys need to be managed in a
secure fashion. This uses an asymmetric algorithm in most cases.

On the other hand, we have asymmetric cryptography. We can also refer to

it as public-key cryptography. Here, two different keys are used. They are,
however, mathematically linked. The keys are as follows; one key is
public and the other one private. The public key many times can be shared
with anyone. The private key has to be kept secret. In asymmetric
cryptography, the commonly used encryption algorithm is the RSA. The
reason is to some extent that the two keys can encrypt a message, which is
to imply the key that is opposite to the one used for the encryption is used
to decrypt it. This feature offers a way of ensuring that we not only have
confidentiality but also authenticity, non-reputability and integrity of
electronic communications and data.

Benefits of Encryption
Confidentiality of digital data, which is stored on computer systems or
that which is sent through the internet or any other computer network, is
protected by using encryption. Organizations such as Payment Card
Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) require that sensitive data be
encrypted to keep unauthorized entities from accessing the data. We also
have some standards requiring or recommending data encryption.
Nowadays, modern encryption algorithms serve an integral role in making
sure that the security of communications and IT systems possess not only
confidentiality but also the under listed key elements of security:
 Authentication: the origin of a given message should be able to
be verified.
Integrity: This has got to do with keeping the message intact.
That is, the contents of messages have not been altered or
deleted from the time it was sent.
Nonrepudiation: Here, non-repudiation means that a particular
sender cannot dispute that they send the message.

Backup and Redundancy

Usually, we use backup where copies of data are created in anticipation of
a catastrophic loss. On the other hand, redundancy is a lot more than just
data storage. Redundancy aims to provide a continuity of service
regardless of what will happen. Data redundancy ensures that the storage
of data is done at multiple and heterogeneous locations. We also have what
we call network redundancy whereby a given network is configured in
such a way that it has numerous alternative systems. The alternative
systems serve to ensure continuity of service regardless of what happens.

Data Redundancy
For any organization, it is essential first that regular services are restored
as soon as possible after there has been a security breach. Data should be
able to be reconstructed as quickly as possible. To this end, businesses
have come up with various ways to make sure there is data redundancy. It
is common knowledge that these methods come with their own merits in
terms of cost-effectiveness, speed and management. The most common
way is using off-site tape backups. In this method, magnetic tapes are
used to store a complete bit-for-bit copy of a storage volume. The tapes
can be transferred to an off-site storage facility where they can be easily
retrieved whenever there is a catastrophic failure. Besides, we can use
Cloud Backup to safeguard data against losses.

Network Redundancy
Most of the infrastructure we use for our networks are unbelievably
fragile. For instance, when a router burns out due to one reason or another,
the result is that there will be a prolonged period of network downtime. To
mitigate against this, businesses make sure that networks they use have an
adequate redundancy so that they can survive and provide services in cases
of an emergency. Fundamentally, network redundancy means that no
matter what type of failure occurs, a network will still be up and running.
To be able to do this, we can have multiple network devices such as hubs,
routers and switches configured to stand in for one of them that fails. We
also have ISP redundancy, where a gateway in the network is joined to
more than one separate ISP. Just like with the devices, one ISP will take
over whenever there is a failure. In cases where a network is functioning
correctly, we can use the ISPs to share the traffic resulting in reduced
congestion of the network. This here is called load sharing.

Preventing a SPOFF
SPOFF is full for a single point of failure. We do not desire that one
critical part of a system failure can render the entire system unusable. Any
planning needs to mitigate this phenomenon. A single point of failure can
be reduced or eliminated by way of redundancy. This will make sure that
there is not a single component that can prevent the proper working of a
system.
 Chapter 7: Network Scanning and Management
Introduction
The ability to scan for and connect to other network devices from your
system is crucial to becoming a successful hacker, and with wireless
technologies like WiFi
and Bluetooth becoming the standard, finding and controlling WiFi and
Bluetooth connections is vital. If someone can hack a wireless connection,
they can gain entry to a device and access to confidential information. The
first step, of course, is to learn how to find these devices. In this chapter,
we are going to examine two of the most common wireless technologies in
Linux: WiFi and Bluetooth.

Network Scanning
We say that it is the utilization of a computer network for purposes of
collecting information about IT systems. We carry out scanning of
networks primarily to help us do system maintenance or a security
assessment. Hackers can also conduct a network scanning exercise before
launching their attacks. The following are some of the reasons we scan
networks:

Identification of the present TCP and UDP network services,

which may be actively being executed on the targets.
To get to understand the systems for filtering that are in
between the targeted hosts and the user.
Discover the operating systems that are being used through the
assessment of their IP responses.
Analyze a particular host that is being targeted for its number
predictability of the TCP sequence. This is to enable the TCP
spoofing and attack sequence prediction.

Network scanning comprises of two key aspects: vulnerability scanning

and network port scanning. The latter denotes a way of sending data
packets through a network over to a systems’ specific port numbers. The
goal is to discover network services that are present in that particular
system. It is an excellent way for troubleshooting issues that a given
system has. That way, the problems can be dealt with so that the system is
secure. For us to discover known vulnerabilities present in network
systems, a method known as vulnerability scanning is used. Through it, we
can identify weak spots both in the operating system and the application
software. It is these weak points that are usually used to compromise
computing systems.

Both vulnerability scanning and network port scanning can be said to be

techniques that are used in information gathering. On the flip side, they
can be a prelude to an attack when they are put to use by anonymous
entities. Such entities usually have malicious intentions. The inverse
mapping is another technique for network scanning. It is useful when it
comes to collecting IP addresses that are not mapped to live hosts. By
doing so, it will be aiding in the focussing attention on addresses that are
worth focussing on, that is, those that are feasible. There are three stages
in which information gathering can be accomplished.

i. The footprinting stage

ii. The scanning stage
iii. The enumeration stage

This, therefore, implies that network scanning is among the crucial steps
an attacker needs to be able to gather information.

Network scanning with ifconfig

The ifconfig command is one of the essential tools that can be used for
examining and interacting with active network interfaces. You can use it to
query your active network connections by simply entering ifconfig in the
terminal.

Scanning Wireless Networks with iwconfig

If you have a wireless adapter, you can use the iwconfig command to
gather crucial information for wireless hacking, such as the adapter’s IP
address, its MAC address, what mode it’s in and more. The information
you can glean from this command is particularly important when you’re
using wireless hacking tools like aircrackng.
Changing your network information
Being able to change your IP address and other network information is a
useful skill because it will help you access other networks while appearing
as a trusted device on those networks. For example, in a denial of service
(DoS) attack, you can spoof your IP so that that the attack appears to come
from another source, thus helping you evade IP capture during forensic
analysis. This is a relatively simple task in Linux and it’s done with the
ifconfig command.

Changing Your IP Address

To change your IP address, enter ifconfig, followed by the interface you
want to reassign and the new IP address you want to be assigned to that
interface. For example, to assign the IP address 192.168.181.115 to
interface eth0, you would enter the following:

Kali >ifconfig eth0 192.168.181.115

kali >

When you do this correctly, Linux will go back to the command prompt
and say nothing. This is a good thing! Then, when you again check your
network connections with ifconfig, you should see that your IP address has
changed to the new IP address you just assigned.

Changing Your Network Mask and Broadcast Address

You can also change your network mask (netmask) and broadcast address
with the ifconfig command. For instance, if you want to assign that same
eth0 interface with a netmask of 255.255.0.0 and a broadcast address of
192.168.1.255, you would enter the following:

Kali >ifconfig eth0 192.168.181.115 netmask 255.255.0.0 broadcast

192.168.1.255
kali >

Once again, if you’ve done everything correctly, Linux responds with a

new command prompt. Now enter ifconfig again to verify that each of the
parameters has been changed accordingly.

Spoofing Your MAC Address

You can also use ifconfig to change your MAC address. The MAC address
is globally unique and is often used as a security measure to keep hackers
out of networks —or to trace them. Changing your MAC address to spoof
a different MAC address is almost trivial and neutralizes those security
measures. Thus, it’s an instrumental technique for bypassing network
access controls. To spoof your MAC address, use the ifconfig command’s
down option to take down the interface (eth0 in this case). Then enter the
ifconfig command followed by the interface name (hw for hardware, ether
for Ethernet) and the new spoofed MAC address. Finally, bring the
interface back up with the up option for the change to take place.

IP Addresses assignment
Linux has a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server that
runs a daemon, a process that runs in the background, called dhcpd or the
dhcp daemon. The DHCP server will carry out the assignment of IP
addresses to all of the systems that are located on the subnet. It also keeps
a log of which IP address is allocated to which machine at any one time.
This makes it an excellent resource for forensic analysts to trace hackers
after an attack. For that reason, it’s useful to understand how the DHCP
server works. Usually, to connect to the internet from a LAN, you must
have a DHCP-assigned IP.

Therefore, after setting a static IP address, you must return and get a new
DHCP-assigned IP address. To do this, you can always reboot your system,
but I will show you how to retrieve a new DHCP without having to shut
your system down and restart it. To request an IP address from DHCP, all
that is required is to call the DHCP server using dhclient, followed by an
interface that you wish to assign the address. The different Linux distros
use different DHCP clients. Kali, for instance, is based on Debian that
uses dhclient.

Manipulating the Domain Name System (DNS)

Hackers can find a treasure trove of information on a target in its Domain
Name
System. This is a key element of the internet and although it’s designed to
translate domain names to IP addresses, a hacker can use it to garner
information on the target.

Examining DNS with dig

DNS is the service that translates a domain name like google.com to the
appropriate IP address. This way, your system knows how to get to it.
Without DNS, it would mean that we would be required to remember the
thousands of IP addresses that belong to the websites we visit frequently.
Dig is one of the commands any aspiring hacker needs to know. It offers a
way to gather DNS information about a target domain. The stored DNS
information can be a crucial piece of early reconnaissance to obtain before
attacking. This information could include the IP address of the target’s
nameserver (the server that translates the target’s name to an IP address),
the target’s email server and potentially any subdomains and IP addresses.
You can also use the dig command to get information on email servers
connected to a domain by adding the mx option (mx is short for mail
exchange server). This information is critical for attacks on email systems.

Changing Your DNS Server

In some cases, you may want to use another DNS server. To do so, you will
edit a plaintext file named /etc/resolv.conf on the system. Open that file in
a text editor. Then, on your command line, enter the precise name of your
editor, followed by the location of the file and the filename.

Wi-Fi Networks
Firstly, let us look at WiFi. Before doing so, here is a small introduction to
the various WiFi security protocols that usually are frequently used. The
original, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), was severely flawed and easily
cracked. Its replacement, WiFi Protected Access (WPA), was a bit more
secure. Finally, WPA2PSK, which is much more secure and uses a
preshared key (PSK) that all users share, is now used by nearly all WiFi
AP’s (except enterprise WiFi).

Basic Wireless Commands

ifconfig
To perform a network interface configuration in Unix-based operating
systems, one needs ifconfig. It is an administration utility that is found in
the system. Ifconfig has utilities that are utilized in the configuration,
querying and controlling of the parameters of the TCP/IP interface. As an
interactive tool, ifconfig can be used to show settings of the network
interface and analyze them.
In summary, ifconfig does the following:

The command enables the viewing of settings of a network;

Carrying out enabling of a network Interface and also disabling
it;
Network Interface IP address assigning ;
Assigning network interfaces a netmask ;
Allocating a Broadcast to Network Interface;
Assigning an IP, Netmask and Broadcast to Network Interface;
Changing MTU for a Network Interface;
Enabling and disabling Promiscuous Mode;
Addition and removal of New Alias to Network Interface;
Changing the MAC address of Network Interface.

iwevent
This command displays Wireless Events received through the RTNetlink
socket. Each line shows the specific Wireless Event, which describes what
has happened on the specified wireless interface. This command doesn't
take any arguments.

iwlist
This command can be used for scanning wireless networks available and
also for displaying any other information about the wireless networks
which are not displayed when the iwconfig command is used. Iwlist is
utilized in the generation of wireless access points that are nearby together
with their SSIDs and their MAC addresses.
iwspy
This command is used for monitoring nodes in a network. It can also be
used for recording the link quality of the nodes.

ifrename
This command is used for renaming wireless network interfaces depending
on multiple criteria that are static to allocate names consistently to each
interface. The interface names usually are dynamic by default. This
command helps users decide the name of the network interface.
iwgetid
This is used in the reporting of the NWID, ESSID or address of the access
point of the wireless network presently being used. By default, iwgetid
will display the devices’ ESSID. Suppose that it is unavailable, it will
output its NWID instead. The information reported is the same as the one
shown by iwconfig. In comparison, it is easier to do integration in various
scripts.

Detecting and Connecting to Bluetooth

In recent times, nearly all gadgets, systems and devices have inbuilt
Bluetooth. The devices can be computers, iPods, smartphones, speakers,
game controllers, keyboards, tablets, among others. The ability to break
into Bluetooth networks can result in the compromising of the information
on the device, assuming a devices’ control and acquisition of a platform to
transmit privileges information from and to the device, among other
things. We, therefore, need to understand how Bluetooth works if we are to
exploit this technology. From this book, you will be able to acquire some
basic knowledge that will come in handy during the scanning and
connecting to Bluetooth devices in preparation for hacking them.

How Bluetooth Works

First, we can define Bluetooth as a wireless communication technology
that enables devices to transmit voice or data wirelessly. This happens
over a relatively short distance. This technology was meant to replace the
ubiquitous cables that were being used to connect devices while still
securing the communications across them. The process of joining two
Bluetooth devices is known as pairing. Pretty much any two devices can
pair if they are set to a discoverable mode. In the discoverable mode, a
Bluetooth device will broadcast the following information about
themselves:

Technical information
Name
List of services
Class

Upon pairing, two Bluetooth devices will exchange a link key. The devices
will store the key to be used in the identification of the other device in
future pairings. Every device has a unique identifier and usually a
manufacturer-assigned name. These will be useful pieces of data when we
want to identify and access a device.

Bluetooth Scanning and Reconnaissance

Linux has an implementation of the Bluetooth protocol stack called BlueZ
that we are going to use to scan for Bluetooth signals. Most Linux
distributions, including Kali Linux, have it as an inbuilt feature by default.
BlueZ possesses utilities that can help us scan and manage Bluetooth
capable devices. Examples of the utilities are outlined below:

hciconfig: this is an equivalent of ifconfig in Linux, but made

for Bluetooth capable devices.
hcitool: this is a tool that we use to perform inquiries. The
inquiries can be the device ID, name, class or even its clock
information. This helps the devices to work in sync.
hcidump: sniffing of Bluetooth communications is carried out
by this tool, it, therefore, gives us a chance to capture data that
is being sent over the Bluetooth signal.
The first scanning and reconnaissance step with Bluetooth is to check
whether the Bluetooth adapter on the system that we are using is
recognized and enabled so we can use it to scan for other devices.

Scanning for Bluetooth Devices with hcitool

Now that we know our adapter is up, we can use another tool in the BlueZ
suite called hcitool, which is used to scan for other Bluetooth devices
within range.
With the simple scan command, we can find out Bluetooth devices that are
transmitting using their discover beacons. That is, the devices set to their
discovery mode. Most of the tools for Bluetooth hacking you are likely to
encounter will be using these commands in a script. You should be able to
create your tools from these commands using Python script or even bash
script.

Using the sdptool to scanning for services

The service discovery protocol, SDP, as it is commonly known, is a
protocol of Bluetooth that is used in the searching of Bluetooth services
(Bluetooth is a suite of services), and, helpfully, BlueZ provides the
sdptool tool for browsing a device for the services it offers. It is also
important to note that the device does not have to be in discovery mode to
be scanned. The syntax is as follows:

sdptool browse MACaddress

Seeing Whether the Devices Are Reachable with l2ping

Once we have gathered the MAC addresses of all nearby devices, we can
send out pings to these devices, whether they are in discovery mode or not,
to see whether they are in reach. This lets us know whether they are active
and within range. To send out a ping, we use the l2ping command with the
following syntax:

l2ping MACaddress

Summary
Wireless devices represent the future of connectivity and hacking. Linux
has developed specialized commands for scanning and connecting to Wi-
Fi APs in the first step toward hacking those systems. The aircrack-ng
suite of wireless hacking tools includes both airmon-ng and airodump-ng,
which enable us to scan and gather vital information from in-range
wireless devices. The BlueZ suite includes hciconfig, hcitool and other
tools capable of scanning and information gathering, which are necessary
for hacking the Bluetooth devices within range. It also includes many
other tools worth exploring.
 Chapter 8: Web Security

Web Security
Just like physical stores, homes, government locations, web applications
alongside websites are also susceptible to their security arrangements and
protocols being circumvented. What is needed to counter cyber-crimes and
the compromising of web applications is robust and reliable security
measures.

Web security does this exactly. A functional definition of web security for
us can be that it is a set of protocols and protection measures employed in
the safeguarding of your website together with your web applications
against hacking and against unsanctioned access by personnel who are
unauthorized. The integral division of Information Security can protect
web services, websites and web applications. This provides crucial
security for anything that is carried out on the Internet.

Normally, there exist multiple considerations that are involved when we

are dealing with web protection and/or web security. For an application on
the web or a website to be said to be secure, it must be backed up by a
variety of techniques and checkpoints to guarantee its security. We always
have standards of security that need to be adhered to. OWASP is
responsible for the highlighting and implementation of these standards.
Web developers who have plenty of experienced normally adhere to
OWASP standards and keenly study the Web Hacking Incident Database to
be able to know vulnerabilities that lead to websites being hacked and how
they are hacked.

Common website security threats

Websites can be attacked in more than one way. Before proceeding, we
need to understand some common threats to website security. These are
what we shall be looking to avoid and be prepared for during the planning
of security measures. Some of these include Spam, Viruses and malware,
WHOIS domain registration, and DDoS attacks, among many others.
How to safeguard your website
After getting to know common security threats, let us now focus on how
we can prevent them. The assumption that your website is secure is not
correct. As long as you have not instituted any safeguard mechanisms,
there is a high chance that it can be attacked. Here are a few steps you are
required to effect to better the security of your website:

Restrict file uploads

It is risky to let visitors on your website upload files. The uploads may
contain a script meant to exploit vulnerabilities present on your website.
All uploads need to be treated as a threat to the security of the website.

Use HTTPS protocol

This tells the visitors of a given website that essentially, they are dealing
with a proper server. This translates to “no one can intercept the
interactions they are having or the content they are viewing.”

Secure your personal computer

Security starts with you! It is important that you take care of the security
of your devices. Hackers can use your PC as a gateway to your website.
Ensure that you have antivirus software that is updated with the latest
definitions. This will protect you from many malicious attacks including
from file downloads. It is also possible to inject malware to the websites
through stolen FTP login credentials. It is important that you frequently
scan your devices for malware and viruses regularly.

Change your default CMS settings

We have seen that numerous attacks are normally automated these days.
Malicious users do program bots to help them locate sites still using their
default settings. Make it hard for them. Upon installation of a CMS you
own, modify the settings which are still on default mode:
✓ Settings required for comments
✓ Controls that users require
✓ Information visibility
✓ Permissions for files

Above are settings you can change right away.

Software updates

All the software must stay up to date. This includes the CMS, plugins,
Word Press software, among many others. The updates bring improved
functionality, security patches to cover vulnerabilities, fixes for bugs and
software glitches, and so on.

Select a web hosting plan that is safe

Web hosting plans that are shared have higher chances of getting
compromised. In as much as they are appealing to users due to the
potential cost savings, the levels of protection are reduced. As such, they
are not a secure option. Remember, cheap is expensive!

Limit access to users

Errors caused by human beings account for a majority of cybersecurity

attacks. Reducing or limiting humans can contribute greatly to error
reduction. It is not necessary for every employee to access your website.
Guests, web designers and consultants likewise, do not deserve automatic
access. The least privilege principle needs to be implemented to secure
your website.

Do a password change

Password changing is a significant shot in the arm for web security. So,
change your password. Changing the password alone is even not enough;
make it a habit to change it often.

Monitor your security

You can get utilities that can help you monitor your websites’ security
online. Such utilities can help you with conducting security audits, which
can help to expose potential vulnerabilities. In so doing, you can launch
countermeasures before an attack happens.

Make a backup for your website

It is said that when you have been forewarned, you should forearm
yourself. It is good to always be prepared for the worse. In this case, the
worst that can happen is your website getting compromised. A backup
ensures you are at peace since there will be no data that is lost in the event
of a compromise.
 Conclusion
May I take this opportunity to thank you for being able to make it to the
end of this informative book, Kali Linux. I want to believe that it has been
edifying, and through it, you are now able to hit the ground running in
matters revolving around hacking. Also, I hope that you have gained the
relevant expertise to enable you to begin your hacking career or better
your skills if you are already one. I sincerely hope that you have enjoyed
turning pages right from the first topic which was Introduction to Kali
Linux, all through The Basics of Kali Linux, The Hacking Process,
Wireless Network Hacking, Uses and Applications of Kali Linux,
Introduction to Cybersecurity, Network Scanning and Management and
Web Security. I trust that by studying this book, you have gotten to learn
plenty of practical concepts that you need to become a hacking expert.

By now, you must have been able to get access to a vast body of theoretical
knowledge regarding the various types of attacks that can be launched on
your systems, the reason for launching them and how you are able to
safeguard your infrastructure against such attacks. These are your first
steps towards becoming a professional hacker. The book covers topical
issues like wireless network attacks, cyber-attacks and penetration testing,
among others. It, therefore, means that you are now in a good position to
discern network attack mechanisms that occur in the real world and
prescribe appropriate remedies.

I have also given you a few security measures you can implement to keep
your networks safe. The formatting is such that the language is a user-
friendly language that you can understand the importance of securing your
networks. Going forward, the next step is to put the concepts you have
acquired from this book into practice. They say practice makes perfect and
it is by practicing that one can become an expert in the field of hacking,
more so using Kali Linux. Let the knowledge you have acquired from the
book work for you.

Finally, if you found this book useful in any way, a review on Amazon is
always welcome!