How to Write Common types of essays

1. How to Write an Argumentative

Essay | Examples & Tips
An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement. The
author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

Argumentative essays are by far the most common type of essay to write at university.

When do you write an argumentative essay?

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a
composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may
include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

Example: Two-sided argumentative essay prompt Has the rise of the internet had a net positive or negative
impact on education? Support your argument with evidence.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Example: Open argumentative essay prompt What is the greatest challenge facing young people today?

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of
argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making
arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an
evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your
default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate
response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for
that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

Discuss the effects of globalization on the economy of Nigeria.

 Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.

 Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence
from sources.

Assess the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures in the last decade.

 Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.

 Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective,
and why.

Analyze the role of the doppelgänger in 19th-century Gothic fiction.

  Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
 Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their
thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

Approaches to argumentative essays

An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic
and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models
that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments
The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for
the argument:

1. Make a claim
2. Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
3. Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
4. Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you
have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific
terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and
the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures.
You might:

1. Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be
better spent on other approaches
2. Cite data to support your claim
3. Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
4. Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are
valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments
The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

1. Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
2. Highlight the problems with this position
3. Present your own position, showing how it addresses these problems
4. Suggest a possible compromise—what elements of your position would proponents of the
opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is
particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to
approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

1. Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia

2. Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
3. Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
 4. Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical
of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in
different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your
arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using
an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

Introducing your argument

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction. The
introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information,
present your thesis statement, and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the
body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

Introduction

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The
use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For
many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially
harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are
outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and
accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives;
and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body: Developing your argument

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here
you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis
statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five
paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into
sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence. Each of these
topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the
opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

Body

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its
prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students
surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common
objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine
academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage
as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic
sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but
Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide
references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the
site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing
that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the
article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students,
Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of
Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

Concluding your argument

An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the
arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all
conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

Conclusion

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its
value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet
opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning
shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators
should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been
documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on
its potential for good.

2. How to Write an Expository Essay |

Structure, Tips & Examples
“Expository” means “intended to explain or describe something.” An expository essay provides a
clear, focused explanation of a particular topic, process, or set of ideas. It doesn’t set out to prove a
point, just to give a balanced view of its subject matter.

Expository essays are usually short assignments intended to test your composition skills or your
understanding of a subject. They tend to involve less research and original arguments
than argumentative essays.

When should you write an expository essay?

In school and university, you might have to write expository essays as in-class exercises, exam
questions, or coursework assignments.

Sometimes it won’t be directly stated that the assignment is an expository essay, but there are
certain keywords that imply expository writing is required. Consider the prompts below.

Explain how the invention of the printing press changed European society in the 15th century.

The word “explain” here is the clue: An essay responding to this prompt should provide an
explanation of this historical process—not necessarily an original argument about it.

Define the term “free speech” and explore how it is used today.

Sometimes you’ll be asked to define a particular term or concept. This means more than just
copying down the dictionary definition; you’ll be expected to explore different ideas surrounding
the term, as this prompt emphasizes.

How to approach an expository essay

An expository essay should take an objective approach: It isn’t about your personal opinions or
experiences. Instead, your goal is to provide an informative and balanced explanation of your topic.
Avoid using the first or second person (“I” or “you”).

The structure of your expository essay will vary according to the scope of your assignment and the
demands of your topic. It’s worthwhile to plan out your structure before you start, using an essay
outline.

A common structure for a short expository essay consists of five paragraphs: An introduction, three
body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Introducing your essay

Like all essays, an expository essay begins with an introduction. This serves to hook the
reader’s interest, briefly introduce your topic, and provide a thesis statement summarizing
what you’re going to say about it.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

Expository essay example: Introduction

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval
period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the
Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be
literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted
circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

Writing the body paragraphs

The body of your essay is where you cover your topic in depth. It often consists of three
paragraphs, but may be more for a longer essay. This is where you present the details of
the process, idea or topic you’re explaining.

It’s important to make sure each paragraph covers its own clearly defined topic, introduced
with a topic sentence. Different topics (all related to the overall subject matter of the essay)
should be presented in a logical order, with clear transitions between paragraphs.

Hover over different parts of the example paragraph below to see how a body paragraph is
constructed.

Expository essay example: Body paragraph

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes
Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the
press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the
reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be reproduced and
disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in
the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following
decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other
things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

Concluding your essay

The conclusion of an expository essay serves to summarize the topic under discussion. It
should not present any new information or evidence, but should instead focus on
reinforcing the points made so far. Essentially, your conclusion is there to round off the
essay in an engaging way.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a conclusion works.

Expository essay example: Conclusion

The invention of the printing press was important not only in terms of its immediate cultural and
economic effects, but also in terms of its major impact on politics and religion across Europe. In the
century following the invention of the printing press, the relatively stationary intellectual
atmosphere of the Middle Ages gave way to the social upheavals of the Reformation and the
Renaissance. A single technological innovation had contributed to the total reshaping of the
continent.

3. How to Write a Narrative Essay |

Example & Tips
A narrative essay tells a story. In most cases, this is a story about a personal experience you had.
This type of essay, along with the descriptive essay, allows you to get personal and creative, unlike
most academic writing.

Narrative essays test your ability to express your experiences in a creative and compelling way, and
to follow an appropriate narrative structure. They are often assigned in high school or in
composition classes at university. You can also use these techniques when writing a personal
statement for an application.

What is a narrative essay for?

When assigned a narrative essay, you might find yourself wondering: Why does my teacher want to
hear this story? Topics for narrative essays can range from the important to the trivial. Usually the
point is not so much the story itself, but the way you tell it.

A narrative essay is a way of testing your ability to tell a story in a clear and interesting way.
You’re expected to think about where your story begins and ends, and how to convey it with eye-
catching language and a satisfying pace.

These skills are quite different from those needed for formal academic writing. For instance, in a
narrative essay the use of the first person (“I”) is encouraged, as is the use of figurative language,
dialogue, and suspense.

Choosing a topic
Narrative essay assignments vary widely in the amount of direction you’re given about your topic.
You may be assigned quite a specific topic or choice of topics to work with.

Specific prompts

 Write a story about your first day of school.

  Write a story about your favorite holiday destination.

You may also be given prompts that leave you a much wider choice of topic.

Open-ended prompts

 Write about an experience where you learned something about yourself.

 Write about an achievement you are proud of. What did you accomplish, and how?

In these cases, you might have to think harder to decide what story you want to tell. The best kind
of story for a narrative essay is one you can use to talk about a particular theme or lesson, or that
takes a surprising turn somewhere along the way.

For example, a trip where everything went according to plan makes for a less interesting story than
one where something unexpected happened that you then had to respond to. Choose an experience
that might surprise the reader or teach them something.

Narrative essays in college applications

When applying for college, you might be asked to write a narrative essay that expresses something
about your personal qualities.

For example, this application prompt from Common App requires you to respond with a narrative
essay.

College application prompt Recount a time when you faced a challenge, setback, or failure. How did it
affect you, and what did you learn from the experience?

In this context, choose a story that is not only interesting but also expresses the qualities the prompt
is looking for—here, resilience and the ability to learn from failure—and frame the story in a way
that emphasizes these qualities.

Interactive example of a narrative essay

An example of a short narrative essay, responding to the prompt “Write about an
experience where you learned something about yourself,” is shown below.

Hover over different parts of the text to see how the structure works.

Development
These sentences express in more detail how the class differed from the author’s expectations. The
two sentences beginning with “To talk” are similarly constructed, creating a rhetorical effect through
repetition. The final sentence summarizes the effect this had on the author.

Narrative essay example

Since elementary school, I have always favored subjects like science and math over the humanities.
My instinct was always to think of these subjects as more solid and serious than classes like
English. If there was no right answer, I thought, why bother? But recently I had an experience that
taught me my academic interests are more flexible than I had thought: I took my first philosophy
class.

Before I entered the classroom, I was skeptical. I waited outside with the other students and
wondered what exactly philosophy would involve—I really had no idea. I imagined something
pretty abstract: long, stilted conversations pondering the meaning of life. But what I got was
something quite different.
A young man in jeans, Mr. Jones—“but you can call me Rob”—was far from the white-haired,
buttoned-up old man I had half-expected. And rather than pulling us into pedantic arguments about
obscure philosophical points, Rob engaged us on our level. To talk free will, we looked at our own
choices. To talk ethics, we looked at dilemmas we had faced ourselves. By the end of class, I’d
discovered that questions with no right answer can turn out to be the most interesting ones.

The experience has taught me to look at things a little more “philosophically”—and not just because
it was a philosophy class! I learned that if I let go of my preconceptions, I can actually get a lot out
of subjects I was previously dismissive of. The class taught me—in more ways than one—to look at
things with an open mind.

4. How to Write a Descriptive Essay |

Example & Tips
A descriptive essay gives a vivid, detailed description of something—generally a place or object,
but possibly something more abstract like an emotion. This type of essay, like the narrative essay, is
more creative than most academic writing.

Descriptive essays test your ability to use language in an original and creative way, to convey to the
reader a memorable image of whatever you are describing. They are commonly assigned as writing
exercises at high school and in composition classes.

Descriptive essay topics

When you are assigned a descriptive essay, you’ll normally be given a specific prompt or choice of
prompts. They will often ask you to describe something from your own experience.

Personal descriptive essay prompts

 Describe a place you love to spend time in.

 Describe an object that has sentimental value for you.

You might also be asked to describe something outside your own experience, in which case you’ll
have to use your imagination.

Imaginative descriptive essay prompts

 Describe the experience of a soldier in the trenches of World War I.

 Describe what it might be like to live on another planet.

Sometimes you’ll be asked to describe something more abstract, like an emotion.

Conceptual descriptive essay prompt Describe the feeling of envy.

If you’re not given a specific prompt, try to think of something you feel confident describing in
detail. Think of objects and places you know well, that provoke specific feelings or sensations, and
that you can describe in an interesting way.

Tips for writing descriptively

The key to writing an effective descriptive essay is to find ways of bringing your subject to life for
the reader. You’re not limited to providing a literal description as you would be in more formal
essay types.
Make use of figurative language, sensory details, and strong word choices to create a memorable
description.

Use figurative language

Figurative language consists of devices like metaphor and simile that use words in non-literal ways
to create a memorable effect. This is essential in a descriptive essay; it’s what gives your writing its
creative edge and makes your description unique.

Take the following description of a park.

Literal description There are patches of woodland in the park.

This tells us something about the place, but it’s a bit too literal and not likely to be memorable.

If we want to make the description more likely to stick in the reader’s mind, we can use some
figurative language.

Figurative description Small groves are dotted across the face of the park like a patchy beard.

Here we have used a simile to compare the park to a face and the trees to facial hair. This is
memorable because it’s not what the reader expects; it makes them look at the park from a different
angle.

You don’t have to fill every sentence with figurative language, but using these devices in an
original way at various points throughout your essay will keep the reader engaged and convey your
unique perspective on your subject.

Use your senses

Another key aspect of descriptive writing is the use of sensory details. This means referring not
only to what something looks like, but also to smell, sound, touch, and taste.

Sensory details I feel the bonfire’s heat on my face, and smell the rich smoke filling the air.

Obviously not all senses will apply to every subject, but it’s always a good idea to explore what’s
interesting about your subject beyond just what it looks like.

Even when your subject is more abstract, you might find a way to incorporate the senses more
metaphorically, as in this descriptive essay about fear.

Sensory details used metaphoricallyFear is the smell of sweat, and the feeling you can’t breathe.

Choose the right words

Writing descriptively involves choosing your words carefully. The use of effective adjectives is
important, but so is your choice of adverbs, verbs, and even nouns.

It’s easy to end up using clichéd phrases—“cold as ice,” “free as a bird”—but try to reflect further
and make more precise, original word choices. Clichés provide conventional ways of describing
things, but they don’t tell the reader anything about your unique perspective on what you’re
describing.

Try looking over your sentences to find places where a different word would convey your
impression more precisely or vividly. Using a thesaurus can help you find alternative word choices.

 My cat runs across the garden quickly and jumps onto the fence to watch it from above.
  My cat crosses the garden nimbly and leaps onto the fence to survey it from above.

However, exercise care in your choices; don’t just look for the most impressive-looking synonym
you can find for every word. Overuse of a thesaurus can result in ridiculous sentences like this one:

 My feline perambulates the allotment proficiently and capers atop the palisade to regard it from
aloft.

Descriptive essay example

An example of a short descriptive essay, written in response to the prompt “Describe a
place you love to spend time in,” is shown below.

Hover over different parts of the text to see how a descriptive essay works.

Descriptive essay example

On Sunday afternoons I like to spend my time in the garden behind my house. The garden is narrow
but long, a corridor of green extending from the back of the house, and I sit on a lawn chair at the
far end to read and relax. I am in my small peaceful paradise: the shade of the tree, the feel of the
grass on my feet, the gentle activity of the fish in the pond beside me.

My cat crosses the garden nimbly and leaps onto the fence to survey it from above. From his perch
he can watch over his little kingdom and keep an eye on the neighbours. He does this until the
barking of next door’s dog scares him from his post and he bolts for the cat flap to govern from the
safety of the kitchen.

With that, I am left alone with the fish, whose whole world is the pond by my feet. The fish explore
the pond every day as if for the first time, prodding and inspecting every stone. I sometimes feel the
same about sitting here in the garden; I know the place better than anyone, but whenever I return I
still feel compelled to pay attention to all its details and novelties—a new bird perched in the tree,
the growth of the grass, and the movement of the insects it shelters…

Sitting out in the garden, I feel serene. I feel at home. And yet I always feel there is more to
discover. The bounds of my garden may be small, but there is a whole world contained within it,
and it is one I will never get tired of inhabiting.

Comparing and contrasting as a brainstorming tool

Comparing and contrasting can be a useful tool to help organize your thoughts before you
begin writing any type of academic text. You might use it to compare different theories and
approaches you’ve encountered in your preliminary research, for example.

Let’s say your research involves the competing psychological approaches of behaviorism
and cognitive psychology. You might make a table to summarize the key differences
between them.

Behaviorism Cognitive psychology

Dominant from the 1920s to the 1950s Rose to prominence in the 1960s

Mental processes cannot be empirically studied Mental processes as focus of study

Behaviorism Cognitive psychology

Focuses on how thinking is affected by conditioning and environment Focuses on the cognitive processes themse

Or say you’re writing about the major global conflicts of the twentieth century. You might
visualize the key similarities and differences in a Venn diagram.

These visualizations wouldn’t make it into your actual writing, so they don’t have to be very
formal in terms of phrasing or presentation. The point of comparing and contrasting at this
stage is to help you organize and shape your ideas to aid you in structuring your
arguments.

Structuring your comparisons

When comparing and contrasting in an essay, there are two main ways to structure your
comparisons: the alternating method and the block method.

The alternating method

In the alternating method, you structure your text according to what aspect you’re
comparing. You cover both your subjects side by side in terms of a specific point of
comparison. Your text is structured like this:

 Point of comparison A
o Subject 1
o Subject 2
 Point of comparison B
 o Subject 1
o Subject 2

Mouse over the example paragraph below to see how this approach works.

Alternating method example

One challenge teachers face is identifying and assisting students who are struggling without
disrupting the rest of the class. In a traditional classroom environment, the teacher can easily
identify when a student is struggling based on their demeanor in class or simply by regularly
checking on students during exercises. They can then offer assistance quietly during the exercise or
discuss it further after class. Meanwhile, in a Zoom-based class, the lack of physical presence
makes it more difficult to pay attention to individual students’ responses and notice frustrations, and
there is less flexibility to speak with students privately to offer assistance. In this case, therefore, the
traditional classroom environment holds the advantage, although it appears likely that aiding
students in a virtual classroom environment will become easier as the technology, and teachers’
familiarity with it, improves.

The block method

In the block method, you cover each of the overall subjects you’re comparing in a block.
You say everything you have to say about your first subject, then discuss your second
subject, making comparisons and contrasts back to the things you’ve already said about
the first. Your text is structured like this:

 Subject 1
o Point of comparison A
o Point of comparison B
 Subject 2
o Point of comparison A
o Point of comparison B

Mouse over the example paragraph below to see how this approach works.

Block method example

The most commonly cited advantage of distance learning is the flexibility and accessibility it
offers. Rather than being required to travel to a specific location every week (and to live near
enough to feasibly do so), students can participate from anywhere with an internet connection. This
allows not only for a wider geographical spread of students but for the possibility of studying while
travelling. However, distance learning presents its own accessibility challenges; not all students
have a stable internet connection and a computer or other device with which to participate in online
classes, and less technologically literate students and teachers may struggle with the technical
aspects of class participation. Furthermore, discomfort and distractions can hinder an individual
student’s ability to engage with the class from home, creating divergent learning experiences for
different students. Distance learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while
representing a step backwards in others.
Note that these two methods can be combined; these two example paragraphs could both
be part of the same essay, but it’s wise to use an essay outline to plan out which approach
you’re taking in each paragraph.

5. How to Write a Literary Analysis

Essay | A Step-by-Step Guide
Literary analysis means closely studying a text, interpreting its meanings, and exploring why the
author made certain choices. It can be applied to novels, short stories, plays, poems, or any other
form of literary writing.

A literary analysis essay is not a rhetorical analysis, nor is it just a summary of the plot or a book
review. Instead, it is a type of argumentative essay where you need to analyze elements such as the
language, perspective, and structure of the text, and explain how the author uses literary devices to
create effects and convey ideas.

Before beginning a literary analysis essay, it’s essential to carefully read the text and come up with
a thesis statement to keep your essay focused. As you write, follow the standard structure of
an academic essay:

1. An introduction that tells the reader what your essay will focus on.
2. A main body, divided into paragraphs, that builds an argument using evidence from the text.
3. A conclusion that clearly states the main point that you have shown with your analysis.

Step 1: Reading the text and identifying literary devices

The first step is to carefully read the text(s) and take initial notes. As you read, pay attention to the
things that are most intriguing, surprising, or even confusing in the writing—these are things you
can dig into in your analysis.

Your goal in literary analysis is not simply to explain the events described in the text, but to analyze
the writing itself and discuss how the text works on a deeper level. Primarily, you’re looking out
for literary devices—textual elements that writers use to convey meaning and create effects. If
you’re comparing and contrasting multiple texts, you can also look for connections between
different texts.

To get started with your analysis, there are several key areas that you can focus on. As you analyze
each aspect of the text, try to think about how they all relate to each other. You can use highlights or
notes to keep track of important passages and quotes.

Language choices
Consider what style of language the author uses. Are the sentences short and simple or more
complex and poetic?

What word choices stand out as interesting or unusual? Are words used figuratively to mean
something other than their literal definition? Figurative language includes things
like metaphor (e.g. “her eyes were oceans”) and simile (e.g. “her eyes were like oceans”).

Also keep an eye out for imagery in the text—recurring images that create a certain atmosphere or
symbolize something important. Remember that language is used in literary texts to say more than it
means on the surface.

Narrative voice
Ask yourself:

 Who is telling the story?

 How are they telling it?

Is it a first-person narrator (“I”) who is personally involved in the story, or a third-person

narrator who tells us about the characters from a distance?
Consider the narrator’s perspective. Is the narrator omniscient (where they know everything
about all the characters and events), or do they only have partial knowledge? Are they
an unreliable narrator who we are not supposed to take at face value? Authors often hint that their
narrator might be giving us a distorted or dishonest version of events.

The tone of the text is also worth considering. Is the story intended to be comic, tragic, or
something else? Are usually serious topics treated as funny, or vice versa? Is the story realistic or
fantastical (or somewhere in between)?

Structure
Consider how the text is structured, and how the structure relates to the story being told.

 Novels are often divided into chapters and parts.

 Poems are divided into lines, stanzas, and sometime cantos.
 Plays are divided into scenes and acts.

Think about why the author chose to divide the different parts of the text in the way they did.

There are also less formal structural elements to take into account. Does the story unfold in
chronological order, or does it jump back and forth in time? Does it begin in medias res—in the
middle of the action? Does the plot advance towards a clearly defined climax?

With poetry, consider how the rhyme and meter shape your understanding of the text and your
impression of the tone. Try reading the poem aloud to get a sense of this.

In a play, you might consider how relationships between characters are built up through different
scenes, and how the setting relates to the action. Watch out for dramatic irony, where the audience
knows some detail that the characters don’t, creating a double meaning in their words, thoughts, or
actions.

Step 2: Coming up with a thesis

Your thesis in a literary analysis essay is the point you want to make about the text. It’s the core
argument that gives your essay direction and prevents it from just being a collection of random
observations about a text.

If you’re given a prompt for your essay, your thesis must answer or relate to the prompt. For
example:

Essay question example

Is Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” a religious parable?
Your thesis statement should be an answer to this question—not a simple yes or no, but a statement
of why this is or isn’t the case:

Thesis statement example

Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” is not a religious parable, but a story about bureaucratic alienation.
Sometimes you’ll be given freedom to choose your own topic; in this case, you’ll have to come up
with an original thesis. Consider what stood out to you in the text; ask yourself questions about the
elements that interested you, and consider how you might answer them.

Your thesis should be something arguable—that is, something that you think is true about the text,
but which is not a simple matter of fact. It must be complex enough to develop through evidence
and arguments across the course of your essay.
Say you’re analyzing the novel Frankenstein. You could start by asking yourself:

How is the character of Frankenstein portrayed?

Your initial answer might be a surface-level description:

The character Frankenstein is portrayed negatively in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein.

However, this statement is too simple to be an interesting thesis. After reading the text and
analyzing its narrative voice and structure, you can develop the answer into a more nuanced and
arguable thesis statement:

Example thesis statement for a literary analysis essay

Mary Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly

negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist,
after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the
thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.
Remember that you can revise your thesis statement throughout the writing process, so it doesn’t
need to be perfectly formulated at this stage. The aim is to keep you focused as you analyze the text.

Finding textual evidence

To support your thesis statement, your essay will build an argument using textual evidence—
specific parts of the text that demonstrate your point. This evidence is quoted and analyzed
throughout your essay to explain your argument to the reader.

It can be useful to comb through the text in search of relevant quotations before you start writing.
You might not end up using everything you find, and you may have to return to the text for more
evidence as you write, but collecting textual evidence from the beginning will help you to structure
your arguments and assess whether they’re convincing.

Step 3: Writing a title and introduction

To start your literary analysis paper, you’ll need two things: a good title, and an
introduction.

The title
Your title should clearly indicate what your analysis will focus on. It usually contains the
name of the author and text(s) you’re analyzing. Keep it as concise and engaging as
possible.

A common approach to the title is to use a relevant quote from the text, followed by a
colon and then the rest of your title.

If you struggle to come up with a good title at first, don’t worry—this will be easier once
you’ve begun writing the essay and have a better sense of your arguments.

Example title for a literary analysis essay

“Fearful symmetry”: The violence of creation in William Blake’s “The Tyger”

The introduction
The essay introduction provides a quick overview of where your argument is going. It
should include your thesis statement and a summary of the essay’s structure.
A typical structure for an introduction is to begin with a general statement about the text
and author, using this to lead into your thesis statement. You might refer to a commonly
held idea about the text and show how your thesis will contradict it, or zoom in on a
particular device you intend to focus on.

Then you can end with a brief indication of what’s coming up in the main body of the
essay. This is called signposting. It will be more elaborate in longer essays, but in a short
five-paragraph essay structure, it shouldn’t be more than one sentence.

Example introduction for a literary analysis essay

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific
advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein
is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This
essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting
narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on.
While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative
Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the
creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in
the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third
volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.
Some students prefer to write the introduction later in the process, and it’s not a bad idea.
After all, you’ll have a clearer idea of the overall shape of your arguments once you’ve
begun writing them!

If you do write the introduction first, you should still return to it later to make sure it lines up
with what you ended up writing, and edit as necessary.

Step 4: Writing the body of the essay

The body of your essay is everything between the introduction and conclusion. It contains
your arguments and the textual evidence that supports them.

Paragraph structure
A typical structure for a high school literary analysis essay consists of five paragraphs: the
three paragraphs of the body, plus the introduction and conclusion.

Each paragraph in the main body should focus on one topic. In the five-paragraph model,
try to divide your argument into three main areas of analysis, all linked to your thesis. Don’t
try to include everything you can think of to say about the text—only analysis that drives
your argument.

In longer essays, the same principle applies on a broader scale. For example, you might
have two or three sections in your main body, each with multiple paragraphs. Within these
sections, you still want to begin new paragraphs at logical moments—a turn in the
argument or the introduction of a new idea.

Example body paragraph for a literary analysis essay

Robert’s first encounter with Gil-Martin suggests something of his sinister power. Robert feels “a
sort of invisible power that drew me towards him.” He identifies the moment of their meeting as
“the beginning of a series of adventures which has puzzled myself, and will puzzle the world when I
am no more in it” (p. 89). Gil-Martin’s “invisible power” seems to be at work even at this distance
from the moment described; before continuing the story, Robert feels compelled to anticipate at
length what readers will make of his narrative after his approaching death. With this interjection,
Hogg emphasizes the fatal influence Gil-Martin exercises from his first appearance.

Topic sentences
To keep your points focused, it’s important to use a topic sentence at the beginning of
each paragraph.

A good topic sentence allows a reader to see at a glance what the paragraph is about. It
can introduce a new line of argument and connect or contrast it with the previous
paragraph. Transition words like “however” or “moreover” are useful for creating smooth
transitions:

… The story’s focus, therefore, is not upon the divine revelation that may be waiting
beyond the door, but upon the mundane process of aging undergone by the man as he
waits.

Nevertheless, the “radiance” that appears to stream from the door is typically treated as
religious symbolism.
This topic sentence signals that the paragraph will address the question of religious
symbolism, while the linking word “nevertheless” points out a contrast with the previous
paragraph’s conclusion.

Using textual evidence

A key part of literary analysis is backing up your arguments with relevant evidence from
the text. This involves introducing quotes from the text and explaining their significance to
your point.

It’s important to contextualize quotes and explain why you’re using them; they should be
properly introduced and analyzed, not treated as self-explanatory:

Blake asks “What dread hand” could have created the tiger, subverting the usual sense of joy in
God’s creation and conveying instead a sense of fearful awe.

It isn’t always necessary to use a quote. Quoting is useful when you’re discussing the
author’s language, but sometimes you’ll have to refer to plot points or structural elements
that can’t be captured in a short quote.

In these cases, it’s more appropriate to paraphrase or summarize parts of the text—that is,
to describe the relevant part in your own words:

The initial and final sections of the novel consist of Walton’s letters to his sister, and it is significant
that the entirety of Frankenstein’s and the creature’s narratives are ostensibly transcribed by
Walton in these letters.

Step 5: Writing a conclusion

The conclusion of your analysis shouldn’t introduce any new quotations or arguments.
Instead, it’s about wrapping up the essay. Here, you summarize your key points and try to
emphasize their significance to the reader.

A good way to approach this is to briefly summarize your key arguments, and then stress
the conclusion they’ve led you to, highlighting the new perspective your thesis provides on
the text as a whole:

Example conclusion for a literary analysis essay

By tracing the depiction of Frankenstein through the novel’s three volumes, I have demonstrated
how the narrative structure shifts our perception of the character. While the Frankenstein of the first
volume is depicted as having innocent intentions, the second and third volumes—first in the
creature’s accusatory voice, and then in his own voice—increasingly undermine him, causing him
to appear alternately ridiculous and vindictive. Far from the one-dimensional villain he is often
taken to be, the character of Frankenstein is compelling because of the dynamic narrative frame in
which he is placed. In this frame, Frankenstein’s narrative self-presentation responds to the images
of him we see from others’ perspectives. This conclusion sheds new light on the novel,
foregrounding Shelley’s unique layering of narrative perspectives and its importance for the
depiction of character.

6. How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis |

Key Concepts & Examples
A rhetorical analysis is a type of essay that looks at a text in terms of rhetoric. This means it is less
concerned with what the author is saying than with how they say it: their goals, techniques, and
appeals to the audience.

A rhetorical analysis is structured similarly to other essays: an introduction presenting the thesis, a

body analyzing the text directly, and a conclusion to wrap up. This article defines some key
rhetorical concepts and provides tips on how to write a rhetorical analysis.

Key concepts in rhetoric

Rhetoric, the art of effective speaking and writing, is a subject that trains you to look at texts,
arguments and speeches in terms of how they are designed to persuade the audience. This section
introduces a few of the key concepts of this field.

Appeals: Logos, ethos, pathos

Appeals are how the author convinces their audience. Three central appeals are discussed in
rhetoric, established by the philosopher Aristotle and sometimes called the rhetorical triangle: logos,
ethos, and pathos.

Logos, or the logical appeal, refers to the use of reasoned argument to persuade. This is the
dominant approach in academic writing, where arguments are built up using reasoning and
evidence.

Ethos, or the ethical appeal, involves the author presenting themselves as an authority on their
subject. For example, someone making a moral argument might highlight their own morally
admirable behavior; someone speaking about a technical subject might present themselves as an
expert by mentioning their qualifications.

Pathos, or the pathetic appeal, evokes the audience’s emotions. This might involve speaking in a
passionate way, employing vivid imagery, or trying to provoke anger, sympathy, or any other
emotional response in the audience.

These three appeals are all treated as integral parts of rhetoric, and a given author may combine all
three of them to convince their audience.

Text and context

In rhetoric, a text is not necessarily a piece of writing (though it may be this). A text is whatever
piece of communication you are analyzing. This could be, for example, a speech, an advertisement,
or a satirical image.
In these cases, your analysis would focus on more than just language—you might look at visual or
sonic elements of the text too.

The context is everything surrounding the text: Who is the author (or speaker, designer, etc.)? Who
is their (intended or actual) audience? When and where was the text produced, and for what
purpose?

Looking at the context can help to inform your rhetorical analysis. For example, Martin Luther
King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech has universal power, but the context of the civil rights
movement is an important part of understanding why.

Claims, supports, and warrants

A piece of rhetoric is always making some sort of argument, whether it’s a very clearly defined and
logical one (e.g. in a philosophy essay) or one that the reader has to infer (e.g. in a satirical article).
These arguments are built up with claims, supports, and warrants.

A claim is the fact or idea the author wants to convince the reader of. An argument might center on
a single claim, or be built up out of many. Claims are usually explicitly stated, but they may also
just be implied in some kinds of text.

The author uses supports to back up each claim they make. These might range from hard evidence
to emotional appeals—anything that is used to convince the reader to accept a claim.

The warrant is the logic or assumption that connects a support with a claim. Outside of quite
formal argumentation, the warrant is often unstated—the author assumes their audience will
understand the connection without it. But that doesn’t mean you can’t still explore the implicit
warrant in these cases.

For example, look at the following statement:

Rhetorical statementNeither candidate was well liked; voter turnout in the election was very low.

We can see a claim and a support here, but the warrant is implicit. Here, the warrant is the
assumption that more likeable candidates would have inspired greater turnout. We might be more or
less convinced by the argument depending on whether we think this is a fair assumption.

Analyzing the text

Rhetorical analysis isn’t a matter of choosing concepts in advance and applying them to a text.
Instead, it starts with looking at the text in detail and asking the appropriate questions about how it
works:

 What is the author’s purpose?

 Do they focus closely on their key claims, or do they discuss various topics?
 What tone do they take—angry or sympathetic? Personal or authoritative? Formal or informal?
 Who seems to be the intended audience? Is this audience likely to be successfully reached and
convinced?
 What kinds of evidence are presented?

By asking these questions, you’ll discover the various rhetorical devices the text uses. Don’t feel
that you have to cram in every rhetorical term you know—focus on those that are most important to
the text.

The following sections show how to write the different parts of a rhetorical analysis.
Introducing your rhetorical analysis
Like all essays, a rhetorical analysis begins with an introduction. The introduction tells
readers what text you’ll be discussing, provides relevant background information, and
presents your thesis statement.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how an introduction works.

Rhetorical analysis introduction

Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech is widely regarded as one of the most important
pieces of oratory in American history. Delivered in 1963 to thousands of civil rights activists
outside the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the speech has come to symbolize the spirit of
the civil rights movement and even to function as a major part of the American national myth. This
rhetorical analysis argues that King’s assumption of the prophetic voice, amplified by the historic
size of his audience, creates a powerful sense of ethos that has retained its inspirational power over
the years.

The body: Doing the analysis

The body of your rhetorical analysis is where you’ll tackle the text directly. It’s often divided
into three paragraphs, although it may be more in a longer essay.

Each paragraph should focus on a different element of the text, and they should all
contribute to your overall argument for your thesis statement.

Hover over the example to explore how a typical body paragraph is constructed.

Rhetorical analysis body paragraph

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part
of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln
Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of
segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic
voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like
Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical
prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words;
standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be,
but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation
until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it
concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus
stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic
voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

Concluding a rhetorical analysis

The conclusion of a rhetorical analysis wraps up the essay by restating the main argument
and showing how it has been developed by your analysis. It may also try to link the text,
and your analysis of it, with broader concerns.

Explore the example below to get a sense of the conclusion.

Rhetorical analysis conclusion

It is clear from this analysis that the effectiveness of King’s rhetoric stems less from the pathetic
appeal of his utopian “dream” than it does from the ethos he carefully constructs to give force to his
statements. By framing contemporary upheavals as part of a prophecy whose fulfillment will result
in the better future he imagines, King ensures not only the effectiveness of his words in the moment
but their continuing resonance today. Even if we have not yet achieved King’s dream, we cannot
deny the role his words played in setting us on the path toward it.

7. How to Write Your Personal

Statement | Strategies & Examples
A personal statement is a short essay of around 500–1,000 words, in which you tell a compelling
story about who you are, what drives you, and why you’re applying.

To write a successful personal statement for a graduate school application, don’t just summarize
your experience; instead, craft a focused narrative in your own voice. Aim to demonstrate three
things:

 Your personality: what are your interests, values, and motivations?

 Your talents: what can you bring to the program?
 Your goals: what do you hope the program will do for you?

This article guides you through some winning strategies to build a strong, well-structured personal
statement for a master’s or PhD application. You can download the full examples below.

Want extra help crafting a strong personal statement?

Attend one of our upcoming livestreams and have your draft reviewed by an admissions essay
coach. We’ll tell you if you’re on the right track and explain how you can strengthen your case.

Want some extra inspiration? Watch recordings of past grad school essay livestreams.

Getting started with your personal statement

Before you start writing, the first step is to understand exactly what’s expected of you. If
the application gives you a question or prompt for your personal statement, the most
important thing is to respond to it directly.

For example, you might be asked to focus on the development of your personal identity;
challenges you have faced in your life; or your career motivations. This will shape your
focus and emphasis—but you still need to find your own unique approach to answering it.

There’s no universal template for a personal statement; it’s your chance to be creative and
let your own voice shine through. But there are strategies you can use to build a
compelling, well-structured story.

The introduction: Start with an attention-grabbing opening

The first paragraph of your personal statement should set the tone and lead smoothly into
the story you want to tell.

Strategy 1: Open with a concrete scene

An effective way to catch the reader’s attention is to set up a scene that illustrates
something about your character and interests. If you’re stuck, try thinking about:

 A personal experience that changed your perspective

 A story from your family’s history
 A memorable teacher or learning experience
 An unusual or unexpected encounter
To write an effective scene, try to go beyond straightforward description; start with an
intriguing sentence that pulls the reader in, and give concrete details to create a
convincing atmosphere.

ExampleEvery day on the bus home from work, we pass by a row of abandoned houses. Their windows are
boarded up, the paintwork on the front doors is faded and peeling, and the front yards are overgrown with
weeds. It always seems faintly tragic to me: a lonely, desolate scene of wasted potential. I think of the
people who must have lived in those houses once, and the people who still could if the right approach were
taken.

Strategy 2: Open with your motivations

To emphasize your enthusiasm and commitment, you can start by explaining your interest
in the subject you want to study or the career path you want to follow.

Just stating that it interests you isn’t enough: first, you need to figure out why you’re
interested in this field:

 Is it a longstanding passion or a recent discovery?

 Does it come naturally or have you had to work hard at it?
 How does it fit into the rest of your life?
 What do you think it contributes to society?

ExampleThe mind fascinates me: The way it develops, how it shapes reality, how the interactions of tiny
cells in the brain shape the course of our whole lives. I have always taken an interest in what was going on
inside other people’s heads, but as I’ve come to understand more about psychology, what fascinates me
the most is how blind we can be to the dynamics playing out in our minds every day.

Tips for the introduction

 Don’t start on a cliche: avoid phrases like “Ever since I was a child…” or “For as long as I
can remember…”
 Do save the introduction for last. If you’re struggling to come up with a strong opening,
leave it aside, and note down any interesting ideas that occur to you as you write the rest of
the personal statement.

The main body: Craft your narrative

Once you’ve set up the main themes of your personal statement, you’ll delve into more
detail about your experiences and motivations.

To structure the body of your personal statement, there are various strategies you can
use.

Strategy 1: Describe your development over time

One of the simplest strategies is to give a chronological overview of key experiences that
have led you to apply for graduate school.

 What first sparked your interest in the field?

 Which classes, assignments, classmates, internships, or other activities helped you
develop your knowledge and skills?
 Where do you want to go next? How does this program fit into your future plans?

Don’t try to include absolutely everything you’ve done—pick out highlights that are relevant
to your application. Aim to craft a compelling narrative that shows how you’ve changed
and actively developed yourself.
Example of describing your development over time

My interest in psychology was first sparked early in my high school career. Though somewhat
scientifically inclined, I found that what interested me most was not the equations we learned about
in physics and chemistry, but the motivations and perceptions of my fellow students, and the subtle
social dynamics that I observed inside and outside the classroom. I wanted to learn how our
identities, beliefs, and behaviours are shaped through our interactions with others, so I decided to
major in Social Psychology. My undergraduate studies deepened my understanding of, and
fascination with, the interplay between an individual mind and its social context.During my studies,
I acquired a solid foundation of knowledge about concepts like social influence and group
dynamics, but I also took classes on various topics not strictly related to my major. I was
particularly interested in how other fields intersect with psychology—the classes I took on media
studies, biology, and literature all enhanced my understanding of psychological concepts by
providing different lenses through which to look at the issues involved.

Strategy 2: Own your challenges and obstacles

If your path to graduate school hasn’t been easy or straightforward, you can turn this into a
strength, and structure your personal statement as a story of overcoming obstacles.

 Is your social, cultural or economic background underrepresented in the field? Show how
your experiences will contribute a unique perspective.
 Do you have gaps in your resume or lower-than-ideal grades? Explain the challenges you
faced and how you dealt with them.

Don’t focus too heavily on negatives, but use them to highlight your positive qualities.
Resilience, resourcefulness and perseverance make you a promising graduate school
candidate.

Example of owning your challenges and obstacles

Growing up working class, urban decay becomes depressingly familiar. The sight of a row of
abandoned houses does not surprise me, but it continues to bother me. Since high school, I have
been determined to pursue a career in urban planning. While people of my background experience
the consequences of urban planning decisions first-hand, we are underrepresented in the field itself.
Ironically, given my motivation, my economic background has made my studies challenging. I was
fortunate enough to be awarded a scholarship for my undergraduate studies, but after graduation I
took jobs in unrelated fields to help support my parents. In the three years since, I have not lost my
ambition. Now I am keen to resume my studies, and I believe I can bring an invaluable perspective
to the table: that of the people most impacted by the decisions of urban planners.

Strategy 3: Demonstrate your knowledge of the field

Especially if you’re applying for a PhD or another research-focused program, it’s a good
idea to show your familiarity with the subject and the department. Your personal statement
can focus on the area you want to specialize in and reflect on why it matters to you.

 Reflect on the topics or themes that you’ve focused on in your studies. What draws you to
them?
 Discuss any academic achievements, influential teachers, or other highlights of your
education.
 Talk about the questions you’d like to explore in your research and why you think they’re
important.

The personal statement isn’t a research proposal, so don’t go overboard on detail—but it’s
a great opportunity to show your enthusiasm for the field and your capacity for original
thinking.
Example of demonstrating your knowledge

In applying for this research program, my intention is to build on the multidisciplinary approach I
have taken in my studies so far, combining knowledge from disparate fields of study to better
understand psychological concepts and issues. The Media Psychology program stands out to me as
the perfect environment for this kind of research, given its researchers’ openness to collaboration
across diverse fields. I am impressed by the department’s innovative interdisciplinary projects that
focus on the shifting landscape of media and technology, and I hope that my own work can follow a
similarly trailblazing approach. More specifically, I want to develop my understanding of the
intersection of psychology and media studies, and explore how media psychology theories and
methods might be applied to neurodivergent minds. I am interested not only in media psychology
but also in psychological disorders, and how the two interact. This is something I touched on during
my undergraduate studies and that I’m excited to delve into further.

Strategy 4: Discuss your professional ambitions

Especially if you’re applying for a more professionally-oriented program (such as an MBA),
it’s a good idea to focus on concrete goals and how the program will help you achieve
them.

 If your career is just getting started, show how your character is suited to the field, and
explain how graduate school will help you develop your talents.
 If you have already worked in the profession, show what you’ve achieved so far, and
explain how the program will allow you to take the next step.
 If you are planning a career change, explain what has driven this decision and how your
existing experience will help you succeed.

Don’t just state the position you want to achieve. You should demonstrate that you’ve put
plenty of thought into your career plans and show why you’re well-suited to this profession.

Example of discussing your professional ambitions

One thing that fascinated me about the field during my undergraduate studies was the sheer number
of different elements whose interactions constitute a person’s experience of an urban environment.
Any number of factors could transform the scene I described at the beginning: What if there were
no bus route? Better community outreach in the neighborhood? Worse law enforcement? More or
fewer jobs available in the area? Some of these factors are out of the hands of an urban planner, but
without taking them all into consideration, the planner has an incomplete picture of their task.
Through further study I hope to develop my understanding of how these disparate elements
combine and interact to create the urban environment. I am interested in the social, psychological
and political effects our surroundings have on our lives. My studies will allow me to work on
projects directly affecting the kinds of working-class urban communities I know well. I believe I
can bring my own experiences, as well as my education, to bear upon the problem of improving
infrastructure and quality of life in these communities.

Tips for the main body

 Don’t rehash your resume by trying to summarize everything you’ve done so far; the

personal statement isn’t about listing your academic or professional experience, but about
reflecting, evaluating, and relating it to broader themes.
 Do make your statements into stories: Instead of saying you’re hard-working and self-
motivated, write about your internship where you took the initiative to start a new project.
Instead of saying you’ve always loved reading, reflect on a novel or poem that changed
your perspective.
The conclusion: Look ahead
Your conclusion should bring the focus back to the program and what you hope to get out
of it, whether that’s developing practical skills, exploring intellectual questions, or both.

Emphasize the fit with your specific interests, showing why this program would be the best
way to achieve your aims.

Strategy 1: What do you want to know?

If you’re applying for a more academic or research-focused program, end on a note of
curiosity: what do you hope to learn, and why do you think this is the best place to learn it?

If there are specific classes or faculty members that you’re excited to learn from, this is the
place to express your enthusiasm.

ExampleIn the course of this research program and beyond, I hope to pursue research into the relationship
between media consumption and conditions like ADHD and autism. The work of Bernard Luskin on media
psychology has been a major influence on my own research interests and was what first drew my attention
to the faculty; the prospect of working among researchers committed to interdisciplinarity is highly
attractive to me. I believe that the novel methods being developed in this department are crucial in
illuminating how our minds adapt to a world of mass media, and my ambition is to contribute to advancing
knowledge in this field.

Strategy 2: What do you want to do?

If you’re applying for a program that focuses more on professional training, your
conclusion can look to your career aspirations: what role do you want to play in society,
and why is this program the best choice to help you get there?

ExampleMy ambition as an urban planner is to work with impoverished urban communities. I want to draw
on my own and others’ experience of these spaces rather than impose a prefabricated plan from above. I
believe that by taking cues from the people affected, urban planning can more conscientiously shape the
future of our cities. This master’s degree is my path toward that goal.

Tips for the conclusion

 Don’t summarize what you’ve already said. You have limited space in a personal
statement, so use it wisely!
 Do think bigger than yourself: try to express how your individual aspirations relate to your
local community, your academic field, or society more broadly. It’s not just about what you’ll
get out of graduate school, but about what you’ll be able to give back.

Revising, editing, and proofreading your personal statement

You’ll be expected to do a lot of writing in graduate school, so make a good first
impression: leave yourself plenty of time to revise and polish the text.

Your style doesn’t have to be as formal as other kinds of academic writing, but it should be
clear, direct and coherent. Make sure that each paragraph flows smoothly from the last,
using topic sentences and transitions to create clear connections between each part.

Don’t be afraid to rewrite and restructure as much as necessary. Since you have a lot of
freedom in the structure of a personal statement, you can experiment and move
information around to see what works best.
Finally, it’s essential to carefully proofread your personal statement and fix any language
errors. Before you submit your application, consider investing in professional personal
statement editing. For $150, you have the peace of mind that your personal statement is
grammatically correct, strong in term of your arguments, and free of awkward mistakes.

8. How to Write a Statement of Purpose

| Example
When you apply for graduate programs or scholarships, the admissions committee is looking for
more than just a list of grades. The statement of purpose (also known as a statement of intent or
motivation letter) is your chance to stand out from the crowd and showcase your motivation, skills
and potential. It should:

 Outline your academic or professional interests and goals

 Discuss relevant skills, experience and achievements
 Demonstrate why you’d be a good fit for the program

Successful statement of purpose example

This statement of purpose, for a Classical Archaeology program at an Ivy League university, is
tightly focused on the author’s intellectual interests and her academic development. It emphasizes
her enduring enthusiasm for the field, and demonstrates her knowledge with detailed examples.
Hover over each part to see how it contributes to the overarching story.

Hook
The opening sentence is concise and intriguing.

Successful statement of purpose example

Successful statement of purpose example

The torment of the Founding Fathers is responsible for my interest in Classics. My desire to learn
Latin stemmed from reading American Revolutionary-era history during junior high and high
school, and particularly from the countless Latin quotations I found in John Adams’ writings.
Always eager for a challenge, I was intrigued by the American founders’ accounts of the torture of
learning such a difficult language. In my first semester at university, I started learning Latin and
thoroughly loved it. As I learned more and more about classical civilization through the language, I
realized that I was passionately interested in many aspects of the field of Classics. I have since
taken courses on mythology, art and archaeology, and religion, on ancient history, and on the
classical tradition. I have also learned Greek, of course, starting with an intensive two-semester
course at the university’s summer school. My experience studying abroad in Florence and traveling
through Italy and Greece intensified my zeal for the field and, in particular, fueled my ambition to
specialize in classical archaeology.

My personal philosophy of life is that everything is connected, and this conviction drives my desire
to study Classics. The most rewarding moments for me are discovering and investigating
connections – both broad ones, between fields and disciplines, and more specific ones, like the
relationship between a piece of literature and an object of material culture. My liberal arts education
has equipped me with a broad base of knowledge in the sciences, social sciences, humanities, and
arts, and in the honors program I pursued independent projects exploring academic and personal
connections, including a paper on ancient Mayan astronomy, a self-observation study on the effects
of nutrition and hydration on exercise performance, and a paper on the influence of political context
on the changing artistic representations of John Adams. By seeking out connections between
seemingly unrelated areas of academia, I have acquired a well-rounded outlook which helps me
approach new ideas with both a range of prior experiences and a mind always open to different
interpretations.

In accordance with my personal philosophy, I have also continued to explore connections within
Classics and between Classics and other fields. In 2007, I published an article in my university’s
undergraduate humanities journal; inspired by my studies in Florence, I compared representations
of the birth of Venus in ancient and Renaissance literature and art. My major academic achievement
to date, however, has been my senior honor thesis on John Adams’ connection to the Classics.
Funded by a Hilldale Research Fellowship, I conducted research in the Adams Papers at the
Massachusetts Historical Society and in John Adams’ personal library at the Boston Public Library
on the influence of the classical tradition on Adams’ worldview and how he consciously modeled
himself on classical ideals. It was particularly fulfilling to connect historical and classical research
in writing about the figure most responsible for instigating my study of the Classics.

As well as my research skills, I have demonstrated proficiency in the classical languages, winning
prizes for both Latin and Greek translation from the Classics Department, as well as receiving an
enthusiastic nomination from the department for the Pearson Fellowship from the American
Philological Association. I am also the president of the undergraduate Classics Society, which
allows me to share my enthusiasm for Classics with other students and the larger community.

One of the most appealing aspects of studying Classics is the vast range of topics encompassed by
the field. Because my interests are broad and I value an interdisciplinary approach, I would like to
pursue graduate study ultimately leading to a PhD in Classical Archaeology. Archaeology in itself
is, of course, a multi-faceted field, requiring knowledge of history, language, anthropology, and
various scientific and technological methods. I have already started building my skills in this area: I
participated in a microartifact analysis from the excavation of a Maya site in Belize as part of an
honors project, and this summer I will take part in two archaeological projects in Turkey after
working as a research assistant on related material in the spring semester. This PhD program
includes many other opportunities I am eager to explore, such as palaeography and papyrology
courses, and especially the variety of fieldwork and museum experiences available. I believe that
my strong background in the classical languages and wide range of courses on classical civilization
and archaeological methods have prepared me well for this program, and I am convinced that,
guided by my philosophy of interconnectedness, I will flourish in this program.

Requirements and prompts

The first step is to read the application instructions. These should include the length of the
document (usually 1-2 pages), any formatting requirements, and often a question or
prompt that indicates what you should focus on.

In some cases, you might also be asked to submit a personal statement. Similar advice
applies to both of these documents—both should give a sense of who you are, what
you’ve done and what you want to do. But a statement of purpose is often more formal,
tightly focused on your academic background and your suitability for the program.

If you are working on multiple applications, don’t try to write a one-size-fits-all text—tailor
your statement of purpose to each program. Make sure to respond to the prompt and
include all the information you’re asked for. A typical statement of purpose prompt looks
like this:

Example prompt from Berkeley Please describe your aptitude and motivation for graduate study in your
area of specialization, including your preparation for this field of study, your academic plans or research
interests in your chosen area of study, and your future career goals. Please be specific about why UC
Berkeley would be a good intellectual fit for you.

Your focus will be slightly different depending on whether you’re applying for research-
based academic programs (such as a PhD) or professional qualifications (such as an
MBA). But all statements of purpose should contain the following elements.

Personal introduction
This is your chance to introduce yourself to the admissions committee and let them hear
your voice. The statement of purpose shouldn’t tell your life story, but it should give a
glimpse into who you are.

Academic and personal background

Give an overview of your academic background, and show what drives your interest in this
field or profession. You might want to include some personal background too—your family
history, social circumstances, personal relationships and life experiences have all shaped
your trajectory and perspective. What unique insights will you bring with you?

Characteristics and personality

Think about aspects of your character that make you well-suited for graduate school. Don’t
just list generic adjectives—give examples that demonstrate your strengths and show why
they’re relevant.

 Are you organized enough to handle a high-pressure workload?

 Do you have the creativity needed to develop original ideas, or a systematic mindset
perfect for problem-solving?
 Do you have strong leadership skills, or are you great at working collaboratively?

Avoid including irrelevant autobiographical detail in the statement of purpose. Everything

you include should be aimed at showing why you’d be a strong candidate for the program.

Experience and achievements

Your experience shows that you have the necessary skills to succeed in graduate school.
Don’t just summarize everything you’ve done—pick out some highlights to build a clear
picture of your strengths and priorities, illustrating how you’ve learned and developed
along the way.

Academic experience
If you’re applying for a research-focused program, such as a PhD, show your knowledge
of the field and outline your research experience. This might include:

 A brief summary of your thesis or final project

 Courses that you found particularly valuable
 Projects you contributed to
 Awards
 Publications
 Presentations
 Extracurriculars that gave you relevant skills or experience

Professional experience
If you’re applying for a professional program, such as an MBA, outline your experience so
far and show how it relates to your career plans. This might include:
  Past or current job roles
 Projects you led or participated in
 Internships
 Voluntary work
 Training courses

In all cases, give specific examples with details of what you worked on, what you
achieved, and what you got out of the experience.

Goals and motivations

As well as showing that you’re prepared for the program, explain what you expect to get
out of it. What are your motivations for applying? How do you plan to make the most of its
opportunities, and how will it help you achieve your goals?

Academic motivations
For academic programs, indicate your research interests, showing how they follow from
and build upon what you have studied so far. This might include:

 A subfield that you want to strengthen your expertise in

 A specific problem or question that you’d like to address
 An initial idea for a research project
 A theoretical or methodological approach that you want to develop

This isn’t the place for an in-depth research plan, but it’s a chance to show your
enthusiasm and knowledge of your field.

Professional motivations
For professional programs, outline your career aspirations and show how your experience
informs your goals. This might include:

 The next step you want to take in your career. What position are you aiming for and how
will the program help you achieve it?
 Your motivations for a career change. Can you make a link between your previous
experience and your new direction?
 Your long-term goals. Where do you want to be in five or ten years, and how do you see
yourself getting there?

The admissions committee wants to know that you’re genuinely motivated to complete the
program, and the clearer your plans, the more convincing your commitment.

Fit with the program

It’s important to show not only why you want to study this subject, but also why you want to
do it in this particular institution and department.

 Do your research, and mention particular classes, specialisms or faculty that attracted you.
 Show why you’re a good fit. Do your priorities align with the values and culture of the
institution? What will you contribute to the department?
 Discuss the specific skills, knowledge and experience you expect to get from the program.

The statement of purpose isn’t only about selling yourself—it’s about illustrating an ideal
match between you and the program.
Tips for an effective statement of purpose
Once you’ve made sure to cover all the key elements, you can work on strengthening and
polishing the text. Follow these tips to make your application the best it can be.

Stay focused
It can be tempting to try to cram in everything you’ve done, but a good statement of
purpose requires careful selection to craft a focused narrative. One way to do this is by
building your text around a central theme—for example, a character trait, an intellectual
interest, or a career goal.

This strategy helps structure your text and puts your priorities centre stage. Link each
paragraph back to the central idea, making it clear how everything fits together.

Think about your structure

The structure of a statement of purpose is somewhat flexible, as long as you include all the
relevant information in an order that makes sense.

For example, you might start with a chronological story of where your interests began, or
you might open with your goals and then select a series of examples that show your
capacity to achieve them. If you’re desperate to study in this specific program, you could
lead with a summary of why it’s your ideal choice, and then elaborate on each aspect to
show why you’re a perfect fit.

The important thing is that the text showcases your strengths and motivations in a
compelling, coherent way. As in any other piece of academic writing, make sure
each paragraph communicates one main idea, and that each sentence flows smoothly and
logically from the last. Use transition words and topic sentences to move between
paragraphs.

Add meaning to your resume

The bare facts of your achievements—grades, prizes, work experience—are already
included in your graduate school resume and transcripts. Use the statement of purpose
not to repeat yourself, but to add personal meaning and texture to these facts.

If you got top marks for your thesis, describe the research process and demonstrate your
enthusiasm for the topic. If you completed an internship or participated in a project, explain
what new skills you learned and which aspects you found most valuable. If you already
have lots of experience in the field, show how each step developed your skills and shaped
your current plans.

Revise, edit, proofread

Your statement of purpose isn’t only about the content—it’s also a chance to show that
you can express yourself fluently, confidently and coherently in writing. Spend plenty of
time revising, editing and proofreading your text before you submit.

Make sure you stay within the recommended length, and check if there are any specific
formatting requirements. If not, use a standard 12pt font, 1-inch margins and 1.5 line
spacing.

When you have a final draft, our professional statement of purpose proofreading

service can offer an extra pair of eyes to make sure every sentence is perfect.
 Proofread my statement of purpose

Checklist
Checklist: Statement of purpose
0 / 9

 My statement of purpose clearly responds to the prompt.

 I have introduced my academic, professional and/or personal background.
 I have described any relevant experience and shown my development over time.
 I have highlighted key achievements that demonstrate my talents.
 There is a clear connection between my previous experience and my future plans.
 I have explained how the program will help me achieve my goals.
 I have mentioned specific aspects of the program, department and institution that appeal
to me.
 Every paragraph focuses on one central idea.
 The paragraphs are organized in a logical order and tell a clear, coherent story.

9. How (and Who) to Ask For a Letter of

Recommendation
Letters of recommendation often make or break a graduate school application. It’s important to
think carefully about who to ask and how to do it.

Ideally, you should approach former supervisors who know you and your work well. Different
programs require different types of recommendation letters, but the process of requesting them is
similar.

Follow these five steps to guarantee a great recommendation, including program-specific tips and
email examples.

Step 1: Choose who to ask

Your first step is to decide who you’ll ask to write a letter for you. Ideally, this should be someone
who you worked with outside of just the classroom context—for example, a former professor who
supervised your research.

It’s important to ask someone who knows you well, even if they are less well known than other
professors at your institution. Graduate admissions committees want to get a good sense of your
ability to perform well in their program, and this is difficult to accomplish if your recommender
only knows you as a face in the crowd.

Who you should ask also strongly depends on the type of program that you’re applying to. Different
programs prefer different qualities in their admitted students, and thus weigh types of
recommenders differently. Take a look at the program-specific tips below.

 Research
 

  Business
 

 Medical
 

 Law
For research programs (MPhil, DPhil, PhD, Research Master’s), graduate admissions committees
are looking for evidence of your potential as a future researcher.

Since this is tricky to assess from test scores and transcripts, letters of recommendation are often the
most important part of a graduate research program application.

Your letter should thus be from someone who can speak to your skills as a researcher. This could
be, for example, a professor who supervised you on an independent research project, or the head of
a lab that you worked in as an undergraduate.

If you worked as a full-time research or lab assistant after undergrad, ask your managers, who are
usually full-time researchers themselves and therefore experts on what makes a good researcher.

Step 2: Reach out and request a meeting

The next step is to get in contact with your potential recommender. If you haven’t talked to them in
a while, begin your email with a quick reminder to jog their memory. Be friendly, direct, and
concise.

If possible, it’s best to plan a meeting to discuss your request. However, if this isn’t practical (for
example, if you’ve moved far away from your undergrad institution), you can skip this step and
head straight to the third.

Email example: Requesting a meetingEmail example: Requesting a meeting

Hi Professor Smith!

I hope that everything is going well with you and that you’re still enjoying teaching your
seminar on the post World War II international order. I thoroughly enjoyed taking it with
you last year as a junior.

I’m currently thinking about what I want to do next year, which will hopefully involve
graduate work in political science, and was hoping to meet with you to discuss your
thoughts on graduate school. Do you have any time over the next few weeks to meet?

Best,

Janna

Step 3: Ask for a letter of recommendation

Make your request during your meeting or, if necessary, via email. Let them know what sort of
programs you are applying to and when the deadlines are. Make sure to give your recommenders
plenty of time!

Instead of just asking for a recommendation letter, specifically ask if they can write you a strong
recommendation. This allows your recommender an “out”—for example, if they don’t feel they
know you well enough. A bad or even lukewarm recommendation is the kiss of death for any
application, so it’s important to ensure your letters will be positive!

If they say they can’t give you a strong recommendation, don’t panic. This gives you the
opportunity to ask someone else who can provide you a better recommendation.

Email example: Requesting a recommendation letter

Hi Professor Jones!

How are you? I hope everything is going well and you’re still teaching Introduction to Labor
Economics to eager students!

I’ve been out of school for a year now, working as a full-time research assistant in New York
City. Come this fall, I’m hoping to apply to a few programs for graduate school, mostly
doctoral programs in Economics.

Since I took two economics classes with you (Introduction to Labor Economics in Spring
2018 and Industrial Organization in Fall 2019), I was hoping that you might agree to serve as
a letter writer for my graduate program. I wanted to highlight my work in labor economics,
since that’s what I’m hoping to study in graduate school. Also, since I loved your classes, I
thought you might be a good person to ask!

The letters of recommendation would be due to each individual program’s website in

December. I understand, of course, if you’re too busy this summer or if you don’t feel that
you would be the best fit to write a letter. My goal is simply to paint as complete a picture as
possible of my undergrad career at Western. If you’d like, we can also discuss this on the
phone.

I look forward to hearing back from you!

Best,

Mary
Email example: Requesting a recommendation letter

Hi Professor Jones!

How are you? I hope everything is going well and you’re still teaching Introduction to Labor
Economics to eager students!

I’ve been out of school for a year now, working as a full-time research assistant in New York City.
Come this fall, I’m hoping to apply to a few programs for graduate school, mostly doctoral
programs in Economics.

Since I took two economics classes with you (Introduction to Labor Economics in Spring 2018 and
Industrial Organization in Fall 2019), I was hoping that you might agree to serve as a letter writer
for my graduate program. I wanted to highlight my work in labor economics, since that’s what I’m
hoping to study in graduate school. Also, since I loved your classes, I thought you might be a good
person to ask!

The letters of recommendation would be due to each individual program’s website in December. I
understand, of course, if you’re too busy this summer or if you don’t feel that you would be the best
fit to write a letter. My goal is simply to paint as complete a picture as possible of my undergrad
career at Western. If you’d like, we can also discuss this on the phone.

I look forward to hearing back from you!

Best,

Mary
Step 4: Share your resume and other materials
You should send your resume or CV to your recommenders, along with any other material
that might jog their memory or aid in their recommendation.

For instance, you may want to send along your statement of purpose or writing sample if
one is requested in your application. Admission committees are looking for a cohesive
story that the letters of recommendation, personal statement, and CV work together to tell.

You should also check whether the school provides any prompts or guidelines for
recommenders. Many programs want your recommenders to comment on your potential to
serve in the specific role the graduate program prepares you for. See the program-specific
tips below.

 Research
 

  Business
 

 Medical
For a research program application, when updating your recommenders, make sure to emphasize
any publications or large research projects you’ve completed since you worked together.

Step 5: Remind your recommenders of upcoming deadlines

Finally, you should send an email to your recommenders a few weeks before the letters
are due, reminding them of the deadline and asking if there is anything else you can send
them to assist in writing the letter.

If any materials are late, programs will often reject your entire application, so it is
imperative that your recommenders get their letters in on time. However, you should also
keep in mind that your letter writers are probably quite busy, so don’t send too many
reminders!

Email example: Sending a reminder

Dear Professor Jones,

Hope the semester is going well! Thank you again for agreeing to serve as my recommender.
I just wanted to send you a quick reminder that recommendations for Program X, Y, and Z
are due in two weeks, on December 15. Please let me know if you need anything else from
me, and thank you again!

Best,

Mary

10. Grad School Interview Question &

How to Answer Them
Grad school interviews are the last step of the application process, so congratulations for making it
to this stage! Getting this far is a big accomplishment—graduate schools only conduct interviews
with those applicants they are seriously considering accepting.
Grad schools conduct interviews to assess your “fit” with their program and faculty, as well as your
interpersonal skills. In many cases, they may also be attempting to match you with a supervisor.

Before the interview, you should prepare by doing your research and reflecting on how you’ll
answer these common questions.

How to prepare for your interview

First, read the website of the program you’re interviewing for. They’ll usually have information on
job placement, curriculum, and expectations of graduate students.

If possible, talk to previous students about their experiences interviewing. Although no two
interview experiences are exactly alike, they may be able to provide you with valuable tips for
preparing.

You should prepare answers for certain, very common questions. You don’t need to memorize your
answers—you don’t want to sound scripted, but you should have a sense of what you’ll say.

Don’t be afraid to take a few seconds to gather your thoughts before answering a question.
Remember, the substance and quality of your answer are far more important than the quantity of
words.

Tips for specific programs

 Research
 

  Business
 

 Medical
 

 Law
If you’re interviewing for a research program, you should try to read as many papers in your field of
interest as possible. Reading others’ research helps you generate ideas of your own. You’ll also be
more prepared to answer questions about the topics you’re interested in researching, which could
come up during your interview.

Research programs may ask you about a current topic in your field and what methods you would
use for tackling it. Make sure you know some of the current open questions in your field and think
about how you would answer them, including dealing with any obstacles that might come up. One
potential tip is to talk to older students or professors that you know about these questions.

Focus on the CVs or biographies of professors that you’re particularly interested in working with.
Read any research they’ve authored and jot down questions that come to mind when reading. Try to
come up with a good argument for why they would be a good fit to supervise or work with you.

Questions about your background

Interviewers want to know how your previous experiences will serve you in this program and
ensure you have the relevant skills and knowledge to succeed.
What will you bring to this program/why should we admit you?
This is one of the most important questions you’ll be asked to answer. Focus on the skills and
background that you will uniquely bring to the program. Be prepared with specific anecdotes that
demonstrate your abilities.

You should also tailor your answer to the type of program you’re applying to:

 If you’re applying for a research-based master’s or doctoral program, you will want to focus
particularly on your academic and research background.
 If you’re applying to medical school, your academic background is important, but so is your
personal motivation.
 Business schools will want to hear about how your professional experience has prepared you to
manage others in a rapidly changing and increasingly global business climate.

Tell us about the research you’ve completed or contributed to

Because future potential as a researcher is difficult for graduate programs to assess, they will be
particularly interested in the background that you already have. Oftentimes resumes do not make it
clear what exactly someone did as a research assistant, so you should be prepared to discuss your
work and what you learned.

Example answer: Political Science PhD interview

As part of Dr. Jane Smith’s class on religion in politics, we were required to complete an
independent research project, so I looked at the influence of right-wing authoritarianism in anti-
Semitism. To measure anti-Semitism, I used an implicit bias test, which has been shown to measure
racial or gender bias in other studies. I found that tendencies towards right-wing authoritarianism
were associated with worse performance on the anti-Semitic test. The project was my first
introduction to performing independent research, writing literature reviews, and performing
statistical analysis using the coding language R.

I’ve also assisted Dr. Hannah Wilson on her research on the impact of globalization and job losses
on voting patterns in the United States. I wrote literature reviews and aided in data analysis using R.
I was a co-author on her latest paper, which used the recent tariffs on steel as an instrumental
variable to demonstrate that increased globalization led to a higher increase in votes for political
populist parties, since the choice of instrumental variable was originally my idea. The paper has
been accepted to a top journal of political science. I am currently completing an independent senior
thesis expanding our methodology to the United Kingdom and France, for which I have received a
competitive research grant from my university.

I believe that I have demonstrated strong research skills through my work with Dr. Wilson, in
addition to my strong academic performance. It is very rare for undergraduates to co-author with
professors at my university, let alone write a paper accepted by a top journal.

Specific questions about classes you took or skills you have

This depends on the program you’re applying to. Medical programs may ask about weak
grades that you’ve received in science or math subjects or about your personal
experiences shadowing doctors.

Business schools might want you to discuss any management experience you’ve had—
particularly experiences where you overcame obstacles or a difficult interpersonal
interaction.
Questions about your interests and motivations
You’ll be asked questions designed to assess your knowledge of the program and how
well it fits with your academic or professional interests.

What interests you about this program?

This is probably the most common question that you’ll be asked, so you should be sure
you have your answer down pat.

Stay away from answers like “because you’re a good program” or “I want to attend a
prestigious school.” While prestige matters, graduate programs want to hear more about
why you think you’re a good fit for their particular program.

If the program has a particular speciality that interests you—say a medical school that’s
particularly well known for their research on Alzheimer’s or a business school whose
marketing program is top notch—be sure to bring it up. This will demonstrate to the
interviewers that you have a genuine interest in their program.

Mention any professors you are especially interested in working with or any resources that
the school may have special access to. Perhaps they run an internship program in an area
you’re interested in or have strong connections in a particular industry.

Example answer: Business school interview

My experience working in marketing at X Marketing Agency has shown me that my future career
path lies in this field. Your program is arguably the best in the world for marketing, so you are my
top choice of business school.

I am particularly interested in taking classes under Dr. Jennifer Adams—I’m greatly interested in
her work showing that many companies use marketing to demonstrate a personal lifestyle brand that
customers want to align with. I would also love to participate in the semester-long San Francisco
internship program that you have, which I think would allow me to explore my interests in
marketing in the technology industry.

What topics are you interested in researching?

Graduate schools know that what you’ll end up researching is not yet set in stone,
particularly if you are applying to a doctoral program. However, they like to see that you
have some idea of what you would like to do, mostly as a way of demonstrating your
seriousness in pursuing research and knowledge of the field.

You should therefore come up with a few topics, preferably ones that are strengths of the
school’s faculty, to discuss during an interview.

Who would you like to work with in our program?

Most graduate programs, particularly those in research, will assign you some sort of
supervisor or advisor. You should have a few ideas of who you’d like to work with in this
case. Ensure that it’s not just a single person—faculty can and do often leave their
universities for other opportunities, so you’ll want to have a few back-up options.

Questions about your post-graduation plans

Interviewers may also ask about how this program fits into your longer-term goals.
What career are you interested in pursuing after graduation?
Be honest but realistic in your answer to this question. Importantly, you should not indicate
your interest in a career that doesn’t fit with the program—if you don’t want to be a lawyer,
don’t mention that in an interview with a law school!

Example answer: Law school

Ideally, I’d like to start off by gaining experience in a law firm, then move to a company where I
can work as an in-house lawyer. I’m not entirely sure which branch of law I’d like to pursue yet, but
I’m planning on taking classes in bankruptcy and corporate law to see if they interest me.
If you’re applying to a doctoral program, you will most likely be expected to continue in a
career in academia, although this may vary based on the program. If you don’t have a
perfect idea of what you want to do, don’t panic—that is part of what the program is
intended to do! Just answer with your current thoughts.

Example answer: Economics PhD interview

I’m interested in becoming a researcher in applied microeconomics, hopefully as a tenured

professor at a research university. I am particularly interested in applying the methodology of
behavioral and experimental economics and the rigor of econometrics to issues like the political
economy of housing policies and voting.

What to ask your interviewers

Interviews are a two way street. Interviews will almost always ask if you have questions for
them—make sure you have some good ones! Here are some examples of things you can
ask about:

 Funding opportunities: do they have funding available for research or projects you might
want to carry out? How accessible is it?
 Access to advisors: How often do advisors meet with their students? How hands-on are
advisors?
 Other access to resources: if you need computing resources for your projects, will you
have access to them? Do they have a library of books or academic articles that will be
available for you as a student?
 Placement record (if not available online): How do students normally place after
completing this program? What sort of jobs do they take? How long do they require to find a
full-time job? Do they normally go on to tenure-track positions or something else?

What not to discuss

Stay away from any questions that can be easily answered from looking at the program
website. Admissions officers want to know that you’ve done at least a little bit of research
on the program!

Although personal considerations (such as what it’s like to date or live in the city where the
school is located) are vitally important to the choice of a graduate program, you should
generally ask these questions only of current and former students, not faculty or
admissions officers. Try to keep your questions on the theme of academic or professional
experiences.

There are also some questions that interviewers should not ask you. Although it rarely
occurs, be aware that you don’t have to answer questions that are inappropriate, or
possibly even illegal, including anything that relates to your marital status or pregnancy,
age, disability status, race, or gender. If asked a question that falls into this category, you
should inform the interviewer that you’re not comfortable answering and report the incident
to an admissions officer afterwards.