1

Unit 1
How do
organisms
Getty Images/Pimenta Gabriel

regulate
their
functions?

Area of Study 1: How do cells function?

Area of Study 2: How do plant and animal

systems function?

Area of Study 3: How do scientific investigations

develop understanding of how organisms
regulate their functions?

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 2

1 Cellular structure and function

By the end of this chapter you will have covered the following material.

Key knowledge
Cellular structure and function
»» cells as the basic structural feature of life on Earth, including the distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells, pp. 7–10
»» surface area to volume ratio as an important factor in the limitations of cell size and the need for internal
compartments (organelles) with specific cellular functions, pp. 11–17
»» the structure and specialisation of plant and animal cell organelles for distinct functions, including chloroplasts
and mitochondria, pp. 17–27
»» the structure and function of the plasma membrane in the passage of water, hydrophilic and hydrophobic
substances via osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active transport, pp. 27–42

Key science skills

Develop aims and questions, formulate hypotheses and make predictions
»» identify, research and construct aims and questions for investigation, pp. 15–16
»» identify independent, dependent and controlled variables in controlled experiments, pp. 15–16
»» formulate hypotheses to focus investigation, pp. 15–16
»» predict possible outcomes, pp. 15–16

Plan and conduct investigations

»» design and conduct investigations; select and use methods appropriate to the investigation, including
consideration of sampling technique and size, equipment and procedures, taking into account potential
sources of error and uncertainty; determine the type and amount of qualitative and/or quantitative data to be
generated or collated, pp. 15–16
»» work independently and collaboratively as appropriate and within identified research constraints, adapting or
extending processes as required and recording such modifications, pp. 15–16; 30–31

Comply with safety and ethical guidelines

»» demonstrate safe laboratory practices when planning and conducting investigations by using risk assessments
that are informed by safety data sheets (SDS), and accounting for risks, pp. 15–16; 30–31
»» apply relevant occupational health and safety guidelines while undertaking practical investigations, pp. 15–16
»» demonstrate ethical conduct when undertaking and reporting investigations, pp. 15–16

Generate, collate and record data

»» record and summarise both qualitative and quantitative data, including use of a logbook as an authentication of
generated or collated data, pp. 15–16; 30–31

VICscience Biology VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170452465

 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 3

»» organise and present data in useful and meaningful ways, including schematic diagrams, flow charts, tables, bar
charts and line graphs, pp. 15–16; 30–31
»» plot graphs involving two variables that show linear and non-linear relationships, pp. 15–16

Analyse and evaluate data and investigation methods

»» process quantitative data using appropriate mathematical relationships and units, including calculations of ratios,
percentages, percentage change and mean, pp. 15–16
»» identify and analyse experimental data qualitatively, handing where appropriate concepts of: accuracy,
precision, repeatability, reproducibility and validity of measurements; errors (random and systematic); and
certainty in data, including effects of sample size in obtaining reliable data, pp. 30–31

Analyse, evaluate and communicate scientific ideas

»» use appropriate biological terminology, representations and conventions, including standard abbreviations,
graphing conventions and units of measurement, pp. 15–16
»» discuss relevant biological information, ideas, concepts, theories and models and the connections between
them, pp. 15–16; 30–31
»» analyse and explain how models and theories are used to organise and understand observed phenomena and
concepts related to biology, identifying limitations of selected models/theories, pp. 30–31
© (2021). The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA). Used with permission.

To access resources below, visit www.nelsonnet.com.au

Online Chapter Map: Online Worksheets:

• Chapter 1 map (p. 4) • Introduction to cells: the grand cell tour (p. 23)
Online Key Terms: • Cytoplasmic streaming (p. 24)
• Chapter 1 flashcards (p. 6) Video:
Weblinks: • Why are our cells so small (p. 11)
• Amoeba sisters (p. 23) Online Key Concepts:
• Cytoplasmic streaming (p. 24) • Chapter 1 summary of key concepts (p. 44)

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 4 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

Online Chapter
Online
Chapter
Map
Resource
Resource1name
map
1 Cellular structure and function

Every living organism is made up of one cell or many, even up to 30 trillion cells.
The basic structure and function become more specialised depending on what the cells do.

1.1
Cells are the
basic structural unit p. 7
of life
Every organism is made of
cells. Prokaryotic cells are simple
in structure with no nucleus.
Eukaryotic cells are more complex
in structure with a nucleus
and membrane-bound
organelles.

p.11 1.3
1.2 p.17
What’s inside
Size and a cell?
shape of cells
Eukaryotic cells have a plasma
Cells take in their requirements membrane that encloses its
from the outside and release cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm,
their waste through their plasma many different membrane-
membrane. They need enough bound organelles, such as nuclei,
plasma membrane to service their mitochondria and chloroplasts,
cytoplasm – a balancing enable cells to perform many
act called surface area different functions at the
to volume ratio. same time.

VICscience Biology VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170452465

 CHAPTER 1 MAP 5

1.4 p. 27
Plasma
membrane
The plasma membrane
bounds the cell. It holds
everything in, and controls what
enters and leaves. It is made up
of two layers of phospholipid
molecules with proteins
embedded within them.

p. 39 p. 32
1.6 1.5
Movement Passive
across membranes movement across
using energy the membranes
Sometimes energy is required Some materials can move across
to pump certain substances in or membranes without requiring
out of the cell. This is because some energy to push or pull them
substances are too big or are moving across. This is passive movement.
against a concentration gradient Diffusion and osmosis are
or are moved in bulk. Proteins passive movement
come into action at processes.
this point.

The cell is the basic unit of biology. Ensure you have sound understanding of how a cell
is structured and how it functions before you proceed in this course. It all comes back to
the cell!

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 6 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

Know your key terms

Online
OnlineKey Terms
Resource
Chapter 1 flashcards
Resource name active transport endoplasmic reticulum microfilament receptor protein
adenosine enzyme microtubule recognition protein
  triphosphate (ATP) equilibrium mitochondria ribosome
adhesion protein eukaryotic mitochondrial matrix ribonucleic acid (RNA)
amino acid exocytosis multicellular rough endoplasmic
carrier protein external environment nanometre (nm)  reticulum
cell extracellular selectively permeable
nuclear envelope/
cellular respiration facilitated diffusion  membrane smooth endoplasmic
cellulose nucleolus  reticulum
flaccid
centriole solute
fluid mosaic model nucleus
channel protein solution
glycoprotein organelle
chlorophyll solvent
Golgi apparatus osmosis
chloroplast spindle fibres
grana passive transport
cholesterol stroma
haemolysis permeable
chromosome surface-area-to-
hydrophilic phagocytosis
concentration gradient   volume ratio (SA : V)
hydrophobic phospholipid
contractile vacoule synthesise
hypertonic phospholipid bilayer thylakoid membrane
crenation
hypotonic photosynthesis tonoplast
cristae
intercellular phytosterol transmembrane
cytoplasm
internal environment pinocytosis  protein
cytoplasmic streaming
cytoskeleton intracellular plasma membrane transport protein
cytosol ion plasmolysis turgid
diffusion isotonic plasmid unicellular
deoxyribonucleic acid lysosome plastid vacuole
 (DNA) membrane prokaryotic vesicle
endocytosis metabolism receptor

Remember
This chapter will build on the following concepts that you will have already met during your study of
science. Take the time to refresh these concepts before you start this chapter.
1 Cells are the basic units of living things.
WB 2 Cells have specialised structures and functions.
3 Organisms can be single-celled (unicellular) or have many cells that work together (multicellular).
REMEMBER
PAGE 2 4 There are six kingdoms of living things: Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protista, Eubacteria and
Archaeabacteria.
5 Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 7

All organisms are composed of the basic unit of living things – the cell. The organism could be made up of
only one cell (unicellular) (Figure 1.1a) or many cells (multicellular) (Figure 1.1b) working together. Within
the cell, many functions need to take place simultaneously for the survival of the cell and, if multicellular,
the organism of which it is a part. These functions have their own inputs, outputs and processes that need
to occur. It makes sense that these different processes are kept separate. It is a bit like making a two-course
dinner with a friend in your home kitchen. Your friend prepares the dessert of cheesecake on the kitchen table
while you prepare the main course of roast beef on the kitchen bench. You don’t want the roast beef mixing
with the cheesecake so you carry out your preparation in different areas. It is the same within cells. Cellular
respiration occurs in one area of the cell and protein synthesis in another. Each area is kept separate from the
other as they have different inputs, processes and outputs. This separation is achieved through membranes
that act as a boundary around the individual compartments within the cell.

a
b
Getty Images/De Agostini Picture Library

Shutterstock.com/Nils Versemann

Figure 1.1a Although a Paramecium is only a single cell it has complex

internal structure. b A flame tree is made up of many cells and takes on a
very different shape to a Paramecium.

1.1 Cells are the basic structural unit of life

Over the past 180 years we have come to understand that all organisms are made up of cells, the basic
structural and functional unit of an organism. A cell’s structure is highly organised and many chemical
processes and reactions occur within it at the same time. Cells can be found in many shapes and sizes
depending on whether the organism is unicellular or multicellular, where they are located individually
in the environment or are part of a multicellular organism, and the function that they have to perform.
In 1665, Robert Hooke, an English natural philosopher using a very simple microscope, became
the first person to make observations of the walls of empty plant cells. He coined the term ‘cell’ for
the first time and described his observations of the walls of dead and empty plant cells. ‘Cell’ was
roughly translated from the Latin word ‘cellula’ and means ‘little compartment’. Five years later, a
Dutch businessman and self-taught scientist, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, made his own single-lensed
microscope and started observing and recording the living cells that he called ‘tiny animals’; these were
the first bacteria to be observed and drawn. He was not only the first to observe and document bacteria,
but he also made the first drawings of muscle fibres, spermatozoa and red blood cells.
In 1838, Matthias Schleiden saw that each individual cell within a whole plant developed as an
independent unit. He thought that the obvious distinct area that we now know as the nucleus probably

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 8 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

had something to do with the development of each cell. In 1839, Theodor Schwann used his extensive
knowledge of zoology and animal tissues to theorise that ‘Animals as well as plants consist of cells and cell
products – and even though the cells are part of a whole organism, they have, to some extent, an individual
life of their own.’
These observations, along with microscopic examinations of a great variety of different materials, led
Schleiden and Schwann to the belief that the majority of organisms are composed of cells. This belief is
embodied in the cell theory, which was proposed by these two scientists in 1839. The cell theory states that all
living things are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the smallest entity that retains the properties of life.
Cell division was described for the first time in 1849 and this led to more information being added to
the cell theory. In later years, Rudolf Virchow proposed that all cells come from pre-existing cells. This
had not been appreciated before. Schwann had thought that new cells arose from tiny particles in the fluid
WB between cells.
In summary these observations led to the cell theory, which states:
1.1.1
THE CELL 1 The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of an organism
THEORY
PAGE 3 2 All new cells are produced by pre-existing cells.

a b

Shutterstock.com/Mark William Kirkland

Getty Images Plus/iStock/ilviaggiatore

c d

Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

Shutterstock.com/AB Photographie

Figure 1.2 The various organisms on Earth can look very different but they are all made up of cells. a fern, b jellyfish,
c giraffe and d bacteria

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 9

Prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cells

WB
All living things are grouped into Kingdoms. These Kingdoms are called Animal, Plant, Fungi, Protista,
1.1.2
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. These groupings are initially based on cell structure. There are two PROKARYOTIC
AND EUKARYOTIC
different types of cell structure: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. CELLS
PAGE 5

Prokaryotic cells
The cells with the simplest structure, called prokaryotic cells, are found in the Kingdoms EXAM TIP
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. These are cells that have no internal membrane-bound structures or Do not get
compartments, including no membrane-bound nucleus. These cells still contain genetic material but the plasmid confused
with plastid.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is not contained inside a nucleus. Rather, it is packaged together with
Plasmids are
proteins in a region of the cell called a nucleoid and as extra-chromosomal DNA in circular plasmids. circular pieces
Prokaryotic cells are considered to be the oldest in evolutionary history. of DNA found
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a bacterium that inhabits the large intestines of humans. It is used as an in prokaryotic
indicator of faecal contamination at beaches. When you hear that a beach is unfit to swim in, it is usually because cells. Plastids are
membrane-bound
the E. coli count is over an accepted level. Being a bacterium, E. coli is prokaryotic in structure (Figure 1.3).
organelles found
The term ‘membrane’ is often used to describe any thin layer, whether in relation to living things or in eukaryotic
not. The membrane that surrounds all cells is called the plasma membrane. As a protective boundary, the plant and some
plasma membrane keeps internal contents confined in one area, preventing them moving away from each fungi cells.
other. The plasma membrane is important in keeping out foreign molecules that could damage or destroy the
cell’s components.

Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

Figure 1.3 Escherichia coli cell, showing internal

structure. Note the nucleoid region in the top middle
of the cell.

Eukaryotic cells
More complex cells, called eukaryotic cells, contain membrane-bound organelles that are suspended in
a fluid called the cytosol. Eukaryotic cells have DNA enclosed by a nuclear envelope, which is a double
membrane, forming what is known as a true nucleus. DNA is the genetic material that codes information used
in the synthesis of proteins. Members of the Animal, Plant, Fungi and Protista Kingdoms are all composed of
eukaryotic cells. Yet even these types of cells differ in the types of organelles they possess (p. 27).

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 10 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

a b
Pili Vacuole
Plasmid DNA Nuclear
membrane
Cytoplasm
Ribosome Plasma
Capsule
membrane
Chromosomal Cell wall
Cytoplasm
DNA in the Plasma
membrane Rough Nucleolus
nucleoid
endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Flagella Nucleus

Centriole
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Golgi apparatus

Figure 1.4 The difference between a a prokaryotic cell and b a eukaryotic animal cell

KEY CONCEPTS
»» The cell theory states that all living things are »» Prokaryotic cells do not contain membrane-bound
composed of one or more cells and all cells come from organelles.
pre-existing cells. »» Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus
»» All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. and membrane-bound organelles.

Concept questions 1.1

1 List the characteristics that all living things have in Some Archaean species, for example, have the
b 
common. following properties: commensals, methanogens
2 Living things are made up of cells and the products of (methane-producing strains), inhabit the
cells. Explain what this means. gastrointestinal tract in humans and ruminants,
3 What is the cell theory? where their vast numbers aid digestion. Some
4 What are the differences between prokaryotic cells can endure high temperatures and organic
and eukaryotic cells? solvents (extremophiles). Rarely found to be
5 A student makes the statement that ‘Prokaryotic cells pathogens.
probably evolved before eukaryotic cells’. Explain if this   A company is exploring whether such organisms
statement is supported or not. might be useful to manufacture to sell to remote
hot locations to help with sewage treatment and
HOT Challenge to produce biogas for onselling. What aspects
6 a Kingdoms Eubacteria and Archaebacteria are made of the listed properties make these Archaea a
up of prokaryotic cells. Compare some of the suitable candidate to be used in this way?
characteristics of these organisms.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 11

1.2 Size and shape of cells

It is not a coincidence that cells were first described with the invention of the microscope. They are not
visible to the naked eye (unless it is the world’s largest single-celled organism, an aquatic alga called
Caulerpa taxifolia). The first living organisms to evolve on Earth were single celled. To thrive in the CONNECT
environment of early Earth, these cells needed to obtain requirements (nutrients and gases) and expel Multicellular
wastes. Being such a small size allowed nutrients, gases and wastes to cross their plasma membrane at a organisms and
how they obtain
rate that sustained life within the cell. As organisms became larger, the cells did not get larger; rather,
their requirements
the cells divided and increased in number. Multicellular organisms became the next evolutionary step; are discussed in
however, unicellular organisms still persist. Chapters 3 and 4.
Unicellular organisms survive successfully as an independent single cell. All their waste products
and input requirements pass across the plasma membrane. Complex multicellular organisms such
as the plant in Figure 1.1b are made up of many different specialised cells, which may have different
functions to keep the plant alive. Their requirements and waste products still need to pass across
plasma membranes.

Surface-area-to-volume ratio
There is a delicate balance between the size of the cell and its ability to gain enough requirements and
remove enough wastes across its plasma membrane to sustain life. It is important for the plasma membrane
(the surface of the cell) to have a large enough area for this to happen in a manner that can sustain a
Video
Online Resource
healthy cell. All substances must be able to move to and from the inside of the cell (its volume) at a rate Why are cells so
Resource small?
name

that ensures the survival of the cell. This can best be explained by comparing the volume of the cell to its
external surface area.
This important concept relating to the exchange of materials across plasma membranes is the
surface-area-to-volume ratio (SA : V). It represents an important relationship between the surface WB
area of the plasma membrane surrounding a cell and the volume of its contents. So, for example, if a cell 1.2.1
has a surface-area-to-volume ratio of 3 : 1, this means that there are three parts of surface area of a cell SURFACE AREA TO
VOLUME RATIO
servicing 1 part of volume of that cell. This is a much better ratio than 2 : 1 or 1 : 1. PAGE 7

For a cell to be able to supply its contents with metabolic requirements and remove wastes, it needs a
large surface area in relation to its volume.
As a cell grows larger, both its surface area and volume increase, but its volume grows faster than its
surface area. This is shown in Figure 1.5. Cell A has a volume of 1.0 mm3 and a surface area of 6 mm2 to service
it. This is a surface-area-to-volume ratio of 6 : 1. Cell C, however, has a volume of 27 mm3 and a surface area
of 54 mm2 to service it, a surface-area-to-volume ratio of only 2 : 1.

1 mm 2 mm 3 mm

Surface area = 6 mm2 Surface area = 24 mm2 Surface area = 54 mm2

Volume = 1 mm3 Volume = 8 mm3 Volume = 27 mm3

Figure 1.5 Three hypothetical cells. Cell A has a SA : V = 6 : 1,

Cell B = 3 : 1 and Cell C = 2 : 1. Cell A is the smallest cell but has the
largest SA : V and Cell C is the largest cell with the smallest SA : V.
Note that the nucleus remains the same size in all three cells.

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 12 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

As the size of a cell increases, the surface-area-to-volume

ratio decreases. This means the efficiency with which a cell
obtains its nutrients and removes its wastes is reduced as its
size increases. A cell increasing in size reaches a point where
the inward movement of essential substances and the outward
movement of wastes across the surface area by diffusion are
Nucleus
not efficient enough to service the increasing volume of the
Cell wall cell. For this reason, individual cells tend to be very small.
Plasma
membrane How big can cells grow?
Cytoplasm Because of the restrictions of the surface-area-to-volume
ratio, most cells are too small to see without the aid of
Vacuole
a microscope. Red blood cells, for example, are about
8 millionths of a metre wide; approximately 2000 of them
would fit across your thumbnail. However, some eukaryotic
cells can be observed with the unaided human eye, such as the
yolks of bird eggs, cells in some algae, and the eggs of fish
and frogs (spawn).
Such cells have special ways to offset the low surface-
area-to-volume ratio that comes from their large size. In giant
algal cells, a vacuole fills most of the cell. This pushes the
Figure 1.6 A large vacuole in plant cells reduces the
metabolically active cytoplasm towards the edges of the cell,
volume of cytoplasm in the cell that has to be serviced by
just beneath the plasma membrane (Figure 1.6). This has two
the surface area.
benefits. It means that the distance materials need to diffuse
when moving into or out of the cell is much less. It also has the effect of reducing
the active volume of the cytoplasm and so reducing the amount of exchange that
must occur across the membrane.

Shape of cells
Sciatic nerve
In a multicellular organism, some cells need to be of a certain size and shape
in order to perform their specific function. For example, the nerve cells that
connect your spinal cord to your toes run the full length of your leg and
are more than 1 m long (Figure 1.7). To explain how they overcome issues
associated with increased size, we need to look at the relationship between
shape and surface-area-to-volume ratio.
The shape of an object can significantly change its surface-area-to-volume
ratio. A sphere has the least surface area for the volume it encloses. This
explains why soap bubbles are perfect spheres. The thin elastic membrane
made by the soap mixture contracts to the smallest area that can enclose the
volume of air blown into it when the bubble was made (Figure 1.8). Likewise,
spherical cells have a relatively small surface-area-to-volume ratio when
compared with cells of other shapes.

Figure 1.7 The nerve cells that connect

your spinal cord to your toes are more
than 1 m long.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 13

Shutterstock.com/Meteoritka
Figure 1.8 Soap bubbles are perfect spheres because this is the smallest
surface area that can contain the bubble’s volume.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Can you make square soap bubbles?
Aim
To explore shape and surface area

You will need

»» 250 mL beaker (or large glass) »» Liquid dishwashing detergent
»» 2 × 30 cm pipe cleaners

What to do
1 Place approximately 200 mL of cold water into the beaker.
2 Add about 10 mL of detergent, being careful not to let it froth. If froth does appear, scrape it off.
3 Bend each pipe cleaner to form a square, one with sides 3 × 3 cm, the other 5 × 5 cm.
4 Dip the pipe cleaners into the soapy mixture and gently blow to form bubbles. Observe the shape changes that occur
as the bubble forms and floats away.
5 Account for the shape of the bubble in terms of surface area and volume.

What did you discover?

1 Were you able to blow square bubbles?
2 Why do you think most animal cells are circular in shape.

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 14 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

Cells often have specific features that ensure they have the highest surface-area-to-volume ratio
possible. Long, thin or flat cells have relatively more membrane for a certain volume compared with
spherical cells. A good example is seen in the root hairs that cover the root tips of most plants. The long,
thin extensions of the single cells that form root hairs are able to significantly increase the surface area
over which water and mineral salts can be absorbed (Figure 1.9).

Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

Figure 1.9 Scanning electron micrograph
of root hairs in oregano, Origanum vulgare.
They greatly increase the surface area for
absorption of water.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1

Calculate the surface-area-to-volume ratio of a cube 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm.

Answer Logic
Surface area of a cube = number of sides × length of side
2
Use the correct formula to calculate surface area.
Surface area = 6 × 1 × 1 Insert numbers into formula.
= 6 cm2 Calculate answer.
Volume of a cube = length × width × height Use the correct formula to calculate volume.
Volume = 1 × 1 × 1 Insert numbers into formula.
= 1 cm3
Calculate answer.
Surface area : volume ratio = 6 : 1 Calculate SA : volume ratio. Insert numbers into formula and
calculate answer.

Try these yourself

1 Calculate the surface-area-to-volume ratio of a cube 4 cm × 4 cm × 4 cm.
2 Calculate the surface-area-to-volume ratio of a cube 6 cm × 6 cm × 6 cm.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 15

Developed by Southern Biological

INVESTIGATION 1.1

Why are cells so small?

The relatively small size of cells allows molecules to pass through their membranes. If a cell gets too large then the centre
of the cell cannot be serviced efficiently. As the size of an object increases, the volume increases at a greater rate than the
surface area. For a cell, this means that efficiency of the exchange of materials across a membrane is reduced, and therefore
the cell’s ability to take in enough nutrients is reduced. In addition, toxins may be retained inside the cell for too long.
Using agar cubes with indicator, vinegar and some simple mathematics, we can see how much effect a small increase
in surface area has on volume.

Aim
To determine the relationship between surface area to volume ratio and its relationship to diffusion rates

Time requirement
45 minutes

Materials
»» Prepared agar cubes with bromothymol blue indicator »» Timer
(side lengths 1 cm, 2 cm and 3 cm) »» Ruler
»» 150 mL vinegar (dilute acetic acid) »» Calculator
»» 250 mL beaker »» Paper towel
»» Plastic or metal spoon »» Disposable gloves

What are the risks in this investigation? How can you manage these risks to stay safe?
Glass beakers may break or have chipped edges. Inspect and discard any chipped or cracked beakers, no
matter how small the damage. Sweep up broken glass with a
brush and dustpan; do not use fingers.
Disposable gloves may pose allergy risk. Use a type of glove that removes allergy risk and is suitable
for the chemicals being used.
Acetic acid may produce an irritant vapour. Ensure the investigation is performed in a well-ventilated
space.

Method
1 Form a hypothesis for this investigation. Remember that you must
record all aspects of this investigation into your logbook.
2 Put on disposable gloves and measure the height (h), width (w)
and length (l) of each cube to calculate surface area (SA) and
initial volume (Vi). Copy Table A into your logbook and record this
information in it.
3 Half-fill the beaker with vinegar, ensuring that the largest cube can be
Figure 1.10 Initial colour of cube (left) and
submerged, and place one cube of each size into the beaker (Figure 1.10).
how it may appear after some time (right)
4 Set a timer and remove the cubes after 4 minutes, pat them dry with
a paper towel. Measure the portion of each cube that is still blue. Try to minimise the amount of time the cubes are
out of the vinegar.
5 Replace the cubes in the vinegar and repeat step 4 several times until the cubes have been submerged for a total of
20 minutes.
6 Calculate the volume of the portion of the cube that is still blue (Vf) after each 4-minute interval and the percentage of
the whole cube that the vinegar has penetrated (%P). Copy Table B into your logbook and record this information in it.

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 16 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

»
Results
Copy and complete Table A below, then copy and complete Table B for each cube.
Table A Initial measurements
Cube Height (h) (cm) Width (w) (cm) Length (l ) (cm) SA (cm2) Vi (cm3) Ratio (SA : V) (cm –1)
A
B
C

SA = surface area, Vi = initial volume

Table B Measurements over time: Cube (X)

Time (min) Height (h) Width (w) Length (l ) Vf P ( Vi − Vf) % penetration
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (cm)
(
P × 100
Vi )
0
4
8
12
16
20

P = penetration of the vinegar into the cube, Vi = initial volume (from table A), Vf = volume of the part of the cube that is still blue

Discussion
1 Explain why the agar cubes change colour when placed in the vinegar solution.
2 Describe the relationship between the size and surface area to the rate that diffusion occurs.
3 Using the same set of axes, create a graph of time in minutes (x-axis) against %P (y-axis) for each cube. Comparing
them all on one graph will demonstrate the trends of each.

Conclusion
Summarise your findings, commenting on your hypothesis and explaining the advantages and disadvantages of cell size.

Taking it further
Create a graph of initial SA : V (x-axis) against the total time in minutes (y-axis) to demonstrate that, as the ratio increases,
the time taken to completely penetrate the cube will decrease in a non-linear fashion.

KEY CONCEPTS
»» Surface-area-to-volume ratio (SA : V) is a relationship »» The shape of a cell can significantly change a cell’s
between the size of the outside of an object and the surface-area-to-volume ratio.
amount of space enclosed within the object.
»» Cells with a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio can
obtain nutrients and remove wastes more efficiently.

Concept questions 1.2

1 What is meant by surface-area-to-volume ratio when 2 A round cell with a diameter of 2 cm has a greater
applied to a cell? chance of survival than a round cell with a diameter of
5 cm. Explain why this is so.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 17

»
3 Observe the cell in Figure 1.11. List two substances spherical. An adipocyte has a radius of approximately
that would move into the cell through the plasma 50 micrometres (μm), while a type of heart muscle cell
membrane, and two substances that would move out called a cardiomyocyte has a radius of about 15 μm.
of the cell through the plasma membrane. Explain why this evolutionary difference in cell size and
shape may have evolved.

HOT Challenge
6 Figure 1.12 depicts three different types of cell
arrangement.

c
a b

Alamy Stock Vector/LuckyStep48

Figure 1.12 Three different eukaryotic cells

a One large cell, b Eight small cells, c Cell
with microvilli on one surface

a Which cell would have the smallest surface-area-to-

Figure 1.11 volume ratio (SA : V)? Justify your choice.
b Describe how the specialised cell depicted in
4 Plant cells are generally large in comparison to animal Figure 1.12c has evolved to increase the SA : V.
cells. How do permanent vacuoles in large plant cells aid c The dimensions of the cell in Figure 1.12a are: height
in diffusion of vital inputs into the cell to run its functions? 10 μm, width 10 μm, depth 8 μm.
5 Heart muscle cells in animals have evolved to be    Using the above dimensions, what is the SA of the
long in shape, while fat cells (adipocytes) are roughly cell, the V of the cell and the SA : V?

1.3 What’s inside a cell? WB

Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are able to take on a range of functions. This is only made 1.3.1
COMPARTMENTS IN CELLS
possible by compartmentalising within the cells, because eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells. PAGE 13

The cell compartments, called organelles, can be clearly seen with the electron microscope
(Figure 1.13). Cells that were formerly believed to have little or no structure have been shown to have
an elaborate internal organisation. Organelles are bound by membranes to separate them off from other
parts of the cell. This allows several activities to occur at the same time independently of each other. The
organelles carry out specific functions within the cell, working together to ensure that all the cell’s and
hence the organism’s needs are met.
The presence of these internal membrane-bound organelles also results in a greater surface area
within the cell, allowing for more exchange of materials and therefore more cellular functions. Together,
the total surface area of a cell’s internal membranes far exceeds that of its plasma membrane.

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 18 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

a b

Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi

Science Photo Library/Steve Gschmeissner

Ribosomes apparatus
Temporary
Plasma Endoplasmic vacuole
membrane Mitochondrion reticulum Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Nucleus Nucleolus
Plasma
Nucleolus membrane
Golgi Nucleus
apparatus

Science Photo Library/Dr. Martha Powell, Visuals Unlimited

c d Plasma
Cytoplasm Permanent membrane
vacuole
Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
Chloroplasts
Mitochondrion
Cell wall
Nucleus

Nucleolus

Nucleus Cytoplasm

Cell wall Plasma

membrane

Figure 1.13a Eukaryotic animal cell showing its plasma membrane and other organelles b a typical line drawing of an animal
cell c eukaryotic plant cell showing its plasma membrane, cell wall and other organelles d a typical line drawing of a plant cell

External cell boundary: plasma membrane

EXAM TIP Each cell is an independent unit, separated from other cells and its environment by the plasma membrane
Remember (or cell membrane), the outermost barrier of a cell. The plasma membrane is composed of lipid molecules
the difference
that are interspersed with tiny protein channels. It is mainly through the protein channels that nutrients
between
cytoplasm and water enter a cell and wastes are released. The structure of the plasma membrane will be discussed in
and cytosol. more detail on page 27.
Cytoplasm =
the cytosol +
organelles (not Cytoplasm
the nucleus);
The plasma membrane encloses a gel-like fluid in which substances are dissolved and organelles are
cytosol = the
gel-like fluid in suspended. This fluid is called the cytosol. The cytoplasm is comprised of the cytosol plus all the
which organelles organelles, with the exception of the cell nucleus. All the chemical reactions that are required to enable a
are suspended. cell to live occur within the cytoplasm.

Coordinating cell activities: nucleus

Cells carry out many and varied tasks, usually at the same time. To be efficient, a cell needs to have some
way of coordinating all of these activities. This is a main function of the nucleus. The nucleus is one of

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 19

the most noticeable features you can observe in a eukaryotic cell. It is clearly visible using both light and
electron microscopes, as shown in Figure 1.14.

Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

Nucleus

Nucleolus

Figure 1.14 Transmission electron micrograph of the nucleus of a liver

cell (1240 ×)

The nucleus is said to be the control centre of the cell. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the main
molecule found within the nucleus. DNA is tightly coiled and wound around proteins to make up CONNECT
chromosomes. Chromosomes can be seen when the nucleus is actively dividing (Figure 1.15a). DNA codes How DNA codes
for proteins and
for the production of proteins that carry out a variety of activities within the cell. By coding for different
how proteins
proteins at different times, depending on the function of the cell, the nucleus can coordinate the activities of are produced is
the cell and hence the organism. covered in Unit 3.
The nucleus is separated from the rest of the cell by the porous nuclear membrane (or envelope). It is
composed of a fatty substance (lipid) with small holes or pores within it (Figure 1.15b). This allows charged
particles (ions) and small water-soluble molecules to move freely across it. The membrane around the cell
nucleus keeps the DNA of eukaryotic cells separate from the chemical reactions occurring in the cytoplasm.

a b
Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

Science Photo Library/Don W. Fawcett

Figure 1.15a Chromosomes within the nucleus b Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of the surface of the porous nuclear membrane

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 20 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

A dark-staining structure within the nucleus is called the nucleolus. One or more of these can be seen
in cells when they are not dividing. The nucleolus is made of densely packed protein and a type of nucleic
acid called ribosomal ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleoli are the sites of ribosome synthesis in the cell.
Ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm and are involved in protein synthesis, as explained below.

The power supply: mitochondria

All cells need a source of energy so they can perform
functions – move, make substances, communicate and reproduce.
The energy source is provided by the metabolism of glucose
molecules which diffuse into the cytoplasm of the cell.
The male reproductive system has an organ that

Alamy Stock Photo/BSIP SA

produces the male sex cell, sperm. The task of the sperm
Mitochondrion
cell is to fertilise the egg in the reproductive tract of a
female. In order to get there the sperm cell must swim –
very fast. To do this, it needs a lot of energy.
If you could zoom in on an individual sperm cell you
would see that in the mid piece just behind the head of the cell
there are many tightly packed organelles called mitochondria
Figure 1.16 Human sperm cell showing tightly packed (Figure 1.16). The rest of the tail thrashes rapidly to propel the
mitochondria behind the head sperm cell forward. Mitochondria are found in the cytoplasm
and are the sites of aerobic cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions in which
glucose is metabolised in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat energy.
During certain stages of these chemical reactions, energy is released and this is used to join inorganic
phosphate onto adenosine diphospate (ADP) molecules to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.
ATP is an energy storage molecule that is used by the cell to power cellular processes. Energy is released
from ATP when the bond in the final phosphate is broken to form ADP. In the example of the sperm cell,
this energy is used to move the tail and make the sperm cell move forward.
Mitochondria are small, oval-shaped organelles found scattered throughout the cytoplasm of a
cell. Each mitochondrion consists of a smooth outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane
(Figure 1.17). The folds in the inner membrane are called cristae and they protrude into the inner space
of the mitochondrion, a protein-rich fluid called the mitochondrial matrix.

a b
Cristae Outer membrane Inner membrane Matrix

Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

Matrix
Stalked particles
on surface of crista
Cristae Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Figure 1.17a A generalised sketch and b A transmission electron micrograph of a mitochondrion in transverse section. The
stalked particles on the surface of the cristae are the site of ATP synthesis.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 21

KEY CONCEPTS
»» Cell organelles carry out specific functions within a cell. »» The nucleus coordinates cell activities.
»» The cytoplasm makes up the bulk of a cell. »» Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration.

Concept questions 1.3a

1 How is the cytosol similar to the cytoplasm and how 5 Sperm cells contain high levels of mitochondria. Explain
is it different? Describe the relationship between the how this is relevant to:
cytoplasm and cytosol. a ATP production
2 State where in cells you would find the cytoplasm. b motility
3 Name the organelle that controls the functioning of
eukaryotic cells. Describe the main molecule found
HOT Challenge
in this organelle and explain how it controls the cell’s 6 Why do you think it might be important for the
functioning. porous double nuclear membrane to keep the DNA of
4 Draw a labelled diagram of a mitochondrion. eukaryotic cells separate from the chemical reactions
occurring in the cytoplasm?

Building cell structures: ribosomes

WB
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell types contain very small structures called ribosomes. You would not
1.3.2
be able to see these clearly by using a light microscope. They are too small. You would need to make an ORGANELLES
PAGE 14
image of a cell with an electron microscope before the ribosomes could be seen.
All cell types contain ribosomes, so they must be very important for cell functioning. Furthermore,
some types of cells contain more ribosomes than others. Cells producing large amounts of proteins have
the greatest numbers of ribosomes. This observation can be explained when we realise that ribosomes
build up (synthesise) proteins from their building blocks, amino acids. Although your body produces
most of the amino acids required for protein synthesis, some need to be supplied in the food you eat. It is
the role of the digestive system to break down the proteins taken in as food into the amino acid building
blocks. Proteins are needed for cell growth, repair and general cell functioning.

Transport within the cell: endoplasmic reticulum

How do proteins produced in ribosomes move to other parts of the cell? Even though many substances
move around the cell in the cytoplasm, other substances are able to move around the cell through the
endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum is an interconnecting system of thin membrane
sheets dividing the cytoplasm into compartments and channels as shown in Figure 1.18. The membrane
of the endoplasmic reticulum is able to pinch off into small sacs called vesicles and deliver proteins to all
parts within the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is therefore an intracellular transport system.
Most of the endoplasmic reticulum in cells is studded with ribosomes and is known as rough endoplasmic
reticulum (Figure 1.18). Proteins produced by ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum can move
directly into the endoplasmic reticulum internal compartment where they can have modifications added, and
they can be transported about the cell. Proteins produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum can also be
secreted from the cell. Such proteins include enzymes and hormones. Therefore, the endoplasmic reticulum also
acts as an intercellular transport system, helping to move proteins from one cell to another.
In certain parts of some cells, the endoplasmic reticulum has no ribosomes attached to it and is known
as smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The amount and function of this smooth endoplasmic reticulum
depends on the type of cell it is located in. Its main role is to transport proteins, synthesise lipids and assist
in the manufacture of plasma membranes. In liver cells it also detoxifies drugs and in adrenal cortical cells
it produces the steroid hormones. Some carbohydrates are produced on smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is a place for storage of calcium ions, which are necessary for muscle
contraction and interactions between some membrane proteins.
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 22 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

a b

Nucleus

Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

Nuclear pore Nuclear envelope

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Cisternae Ribosomes

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Figure 1.18a Transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of rough endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes b illustration
showing endoplasmic reticulum in relation to the nucleus

Packaging and distribution: Golgi apparatus

The Golgi apparatus (also known as Golgi body) consists of a system of membranes within the cytoplasm.
Parts of the Golgi apparatus membrane can pinch off into small vesicles (Figure 1.19). These vesicles move to
the plasma membrane, where they join to the membrane and discharge their contents to the outside of the cell.

a b

Incoming
transport
Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

vesicle

Lumen
Cisternae

Newly
forming vesicle Secretory
vesicle

Figure 1.19a Transmission electron micrograph of the Golgi apparatus b scientific illustration of the Golgi apparatus
showing the ends pinched off into vesicles

Consider a grass-eating animal such as a kangaroo. The cells in grass have a tough outer cell wall.
In order to be able to digest and absorb the nutrients from inside the grass cell, the cell wall must be
broken down by enzymes. Cells in the digestive glands of the kangaroo produce such enzymes. Enzymes
are types of proteins, and the digestive enzyme is produced initially by the ribosomes on the rough

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 23

endoplasmic reticulum. It moves through the channels within the endoplasmic reticulum where it buds
off into a vesicle. The vesicle moves to the Golgi apparatus and fuses to it, releasing the vesicle contents
into the Golgi apparatus. Different enzymes put the final touches to the digestive enzyme, and then it
is packaged and stored before being secreted from the cell to move into the intestines of the kangaroo
(Figure 1.20). This is where it can begin its work of digesting the cellulose in the cell wall of the grass.

Plasma membrane

Rough endoplasmic
Nucleus
reticulum

Ribosome

Smooth
Transport endoplasmic
vesicle reticulum

Proteins

Vesicles pinched off

endoplasmic reticulum fuse
to form flattened cavity

Golgi apparatus
Cisternae

Vesicle containing Secretory

protein pinches off vesicle
flattened cavity

Vesicle fuses with

plasma membrane and Weblink
Online Resource
Amoeba
Resourcesisters
name
releases protein
Watch the Amoeba
sisters introduce the
Protein expelled difference between
prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells, the
functions of the struc-
tures within each cell
type and the basis of the
Figure 1.20 How the Golgi apparatus removes and secretes a protein from a cell cell theory.

Recycling and reuse: lysosomes

Inevitably, organelles within the cytoplasm of cells reach their ‘use-by’ date and wear out. Instead of
Online
OnlineWorksheet
wasting the raw materials that make up these organelles, the cell has a clever method of recycling and Resource
Introduction to cells:
Resource name

reuse. This is the job carried out by lysosomes (‘lysis’ = to break apart), another type of organelle found the grand cell tour

within the cytoplasm of animal cells. Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi apparatus. They are highly acidic
and contain digestive enzymes that are responsible for splitting complex chemical compounds into simpler
ones, such as when proteins are broken down into amino acids. These simpler compounds can then be used
as building blocks for new compounds and organelles. Lysosomes can also digest substances brought into
the cell from the external environment.

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 24 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

KEY CONCEPTS
»» All cell types contain ribosomes, which build up amino »» The Golgi apparatus packages and stores substances in
acids into proteins. vesicles in preparation for their release from the cell.
»» Some substances are moved around the cell in the »» Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi apparatus and
endoplasmic reticulum. contain digestive enzymes that break complex
chemical compounds into simpler ones.

Concept questions 1.3b

1 State the function of ribosomes. Explain why you 5 Do the rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth
would expect to find more ribosomes in a cell that endoplasmic reticulum perform the same functions? If
produces larger amounts of protein. not, how are they different in form and function?
2 Describe the main roles of the endoplasmic reticulum. 6 Explain why lysosomes can be described as recyclers.
3 Explain the role of the Golgi apparatus in the transport
of materials out of the cell.
HOT Challenge
4 Vesicles are small transport sacs that can have multiple 7 Which of the following biomolecules are not
functions determined by where they are and what they synthesised by the endoplasmic reticulum?
are carrying. They are formed by ‘pinching off’ pieces a proteins
of membrane. Both the endoplasmic reticulum and the b lipids
Golgi apparatus can form vesicles. Compare these two c nucleic acids
types of vesicles in terms of where they form, what d cholesterol
they carry, how they move around a cell and how they
discharge their contents.

Plasma membrane Supporting cell structure:

Endoplasmic
reticulum
Microtubule cytoskeleton
If a cell is essentially a fluid-filled sac, what stops it
Mitochondrion from being flattened, ruptured and squashed? This
doesn’t happen because eukaryotic cells have an internal
Microfilaments skeletal structure called a cytoskeleton, as depicted in
Figure 1.21. The cytoskeleton is a three-dimensional
structure that occurs in the cytoplasm and provides
shape to the cell. The ‘bones’ of the cytoskeleton are
structures called microtubules and microfilaments,
Figure 1.21 The cytoskeleton of a cell
which are made of the proteins actin and tubulin.
Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical tubes
approximately 20 nanometres (nm) in diameter. They act as a scaffold to determine cell shape. They
also provide a set of ‘rails’ for the cell organelles to travel around the cytoplasm. This allows the constant
mixing and movement of the cytoplasm known as cytoplasmic streaming. This can be seen in a living
Weblink
Online Resource Elodea leaf under the light microscope. The chloroplasts can be seen to be slowly moving around the
Cytoplasmic
Resourcestreaming
name
vacuole and other cell structures (see weblink) as they are carried along in the moving cytoplasm.
Online Worksheet
Cytoplasmic streaming One of the more remarkable properties of microtubules is the apparent ease with which they come
apart and reassemble. They can be assembled in one part of the cell where they are needed, then taken
apart and reassembled later in another part of the cell.
Animal cells contain two rod-like structures that are located at right angles to each other. These structures
are called centrioles. One of the roles of centrioles is to organise and produce microtubules. Centrioles are very
prominent in animal cells that are about to divide. They replicate to produce two pairs just before cell division
begins. They give rise to the spindle fibres, collections of microtubules onto which chromosomes attach. When
the spindle fibres contract during mitosis, the attached chromosomes can be moved around the cell.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 25

Microfilaments are contractile proteins about a quarter of the diameter of microtubules. They are solid CONNECT
and not tubular. Like microtubules, they can be readily assembled and disassembled. They occur in bundles Binary fission and
in the cytoplasm and when they contract they can cause the cell to change shape; this is especially apparent mitosis are discussed
in the contraction of muscle cells. in Chapter 2.

Prokaryotic cells also contain a cytoskeleton which supports their shape and plays a role in binary fission.
The cytoskeleton is made of proteins similar to the actin and tubulin found in the eukaryotic cytoskeleton.

Support and protection: cell walls

Animal cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. The cells
found in plants, bacteria, fungi and most algae have an additional
external cell wall that surrounds the plasma membrane and
provides extra support and protection to these cells.

Science Photo Library/Science Source

The cell wall in plant cells is composed of cellulose, a
complex carbohydrate molecule. Some cells have a single cell
wall, known as a primary cell wall. If extra support is needed,
Primary cell wall
very rigid additional or secondary cell walls can be found
(Figure 1.22). A tree trunk has the function of supporting
Secondary cell wall
the whole leaf canopy of the tree. The cells that make up the
tree trunk therefore have to be very strong. These cells have
a plasma membrane, a primary cell wall and a secondary cell
wall. As these cells age, they die and lose their contents and
plasma membrane, leaving only the cell walls intact. This Figure 1.22 A plant cell of the Canadian yew showing the
creates long tube-like cells (called xylem), ideal for carrying primary and secondary cell walls
water from the roots to the leaves.

CONNECT
Table 1.1 Comparison of organelles in eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells.
Water transport in
Feature Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell plants is discussed
further in Chapter 3.
Membrane-bound nucleus present absent
Membrane-bound organelles present absent
Ribosomes present present
Cytoskeleton present present
Plasma membrane present present
Mitochondrion present absent

Making and storing food: plastids

The Australian eucalypt is found in various forms across the
continent. The majestic river red gum with its green-grey leaves
Getty Images Plus/iStock/oriba

lines the banks of the Murray River. The smaller, shiny green-
leafed snow gum graces our Alps. The stunted red Mallee gum,
so-called because of its newly grown red leaves, grows in scrub
regions. Many eucalypts have spectacular flowers of red, pink,
yellow or cream (Figure 1.23).
The colourful presentation of the leaves and flowers of these
trees is caused by a group of organelles called plastids. Plastids
are organelles that contain coloured pigments. The three general
types of plastids are chromoplasts (red), leucoplasts (colourless) and Figure 1.23 Plastids are responsible for the flower
chloroplasts, which will be discussed below. colours of this eucalypt

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 26 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

Chloroplasts
Eucalypts, like all other plants, produce their own simple sugars through the chemical reactions that make up
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy to chemical energy
(sugars) to fuel cellular activities. The energy that they need to power photosynthesis comes from the
Sun. How do plants utilise this energy source when it is so far away? Plants have leaves and sometimes
stems whose cells contain chloroplasts. These are oval-shaped organelles containing green pigment
called chlorophyll.
CONNECT Chlorophyll is able to absorb light energy and make it available for use in photosynthesis.
The process of Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that occur in the stroma and thylakoid membrane system
photosynthesis is
of the chloroplast (Figure 1.24). The internal thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast are folded many times
explained in detail in
Unit 3 of this course. to provide more surface area for chemical reactions of photosynthesis to occur. They are also associated
with the enzymes necessary to speed up the chemical reactions involved.

a b

Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

Two
outer
membranes Granum

Inner
membrane Thylakoid
system membrane
Stroma

Figure 1.24a Generalised sketch showing the grana and stroma of a chloroplast b False colour transmission electron
micrograph of chloroplasts with a large starch granules (black) (magnification 5000×).

Storing fluid: vacuoles

A large part of the cytoplasm in mature plant cells is composed of a
fluid-filled space called a vacuole. The fluid in the vacuole serves as a
Vacuole
storage space for sugars, minerals, proteins and water. The vacuole can
Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

expand, often taking up 50–90% of the volume of the cell. As the size
of the vacuole increases, more and more pressure is exerted on the cell
wall. This forces the flexible cell wall to bulge, thus increasing the size
of the whole cell. As the size of the vacuole increases, the remaining
cytoplasm becomes a narrow band between the plasma membrane and
the vacuole, as shown in Figure 1.25.
Cell wall Vacuoles are much more prominent in plant cells but animal cells
contain numerous small vacuoles.

Figure 1.25 Plant cell showing vacuole (in blue).

Notice how the cell wall is extended.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 27

Table 1.2 Plant and animal cell organelles.

Organelle Plant cell Animal cell

Plasma membrane ✓ ✓

Cytoplasm ✓ ✓

Nucleus ✓ ✓

Nucleolus ✓ ✓

Mitochondria ✓ ✓

Ribosome ✓ ✓

Endoplasmic reticulum ✓ ✓

Golgi apparatus ✓ ✓

Lysosome ✓ ✓

Cytoskeleton ✓ ✓

Chloroplast ✓ ✗

Large vacuole ✓ ✗

Cell wall ✓ ✗

KEY CONCEPTS
»» The cytoskeleton provides shape to the cell. »» Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, a green pigment
»» Microtubules and microfilaments are structures of the that absorbs light energy. They are the site for
cytoskeleton. photosynthesis.
»» A cell wall, composed of cellulose, provides extra »» The vacuole serves as a storage space for sugars,
support and protection to some types of cells. minerals, proteins and water.

Concept questions 1.3c

1 Name the components of the cytoskeleton and state HOT Challenge
what each component is made of.
5 a Plastids in the main are found in plants and algae.
2 Describe the function of the cell wall.
The main function of chloroplasts is concerned
3 What is found inside a chloroplast?
with photosynthesis. What are the functions of
4 Where are centrioles found and what is their
chromoplasts and leucoplasts?
function?
b Some marine molluscs live in an endosymbiotic
relationship with algae. Why might this be useful,
particularly to the marine molluscs?

1.4 Plasma membrane

The plasma membrane plays a vital role in the life of cells. Both the physical and chemical properties of the
plasma membrane enable it to control the exchange of materials and messages. Many factors both within
the cells and in their environment affect this sensitive balance.
In both multicellular and unicellular organisms, each cell is an independent unit enclosed by a plasma
membrane. The plasma membrane forms the boundary between the internal environment of the cell, the
cytoplasm and its external environment.

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 28 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

Animal cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. Cells of plants, bacteria, fungi and most algae have
a plasma membrane as well as a cell wall. The cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane and adds strength
and support. The cell wall is permeable, allowing the passage of almost all materials. It is the selectively
permeable plasma membrane that controls the movement of substances into and out of all cells.

Structure of the plasma membrane

WB
What makes up the plasma membrane to allow it to act as a regulatory boundary between the inside of
1.4.1
STRUCTURE the cell and the outside? How is material selected to move across the membrane? How does it reseal a
OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE puncture? To answer these questions, we need to look at the properties of the chemicals that make up the
PAGE 21
plasma membrane.
One remarkable property of the plasma membrane is its ability to change shape,
expand and contract. During cell division and vesicle formation, the membrane can
Hydrophilic
break and reassemble itself. This is because the membrane is actually a two-dimensional
head containing fluid, constantly flowing and changing shape. The plasma membrane and all membranes
phospate
surrounding organelles within the cell are made up of many small phospholipid molecules and
Hydrophobic tail this gives the membrane great flexibility.
made of fatty acid
side chains The plasma membrane is composed of a double layer of phospholipid molecules, each
of which can be represented by a head and two tails, as shown in Figure 1.26. The head is
Figure 1.26 A phospholipid a hydrophilic (able to allow water soluble substances to move through) phosphate group
molecule. The hydrophilic and the tail is a hydrophobic (allowing water insoluble substances to pass through) fatty
head is attracted to water and acid. This means that the head can remain in water, whereas the tails are repelled from the
the hydrophobic tails repel aqueous intracellular (internal) and extracellular (external to the cell) solutions. This forces
water. them to face inwards towards each other, forming a phospholipid bilayer (Figure 1.27).

Water

Hydrophilic head

Hydrophobic tail

Phospholipid
bilayer

Water

Figure 1.27 Representation of the way phospholipids form a bilayer in membranes

Individual phospholipid molecules are capable of sideways movement and are highly mobile within
the membrane. The lipid bilayer of the membrane is like a liquid crystal, neither solid nor liquid. A single
lipid molecule can travel rapidly from one place to another. For instance, one lipid molecule in a bacterium
can move from one end to the other (approximately 3.5 µm) in a second. This feature gives the membrane
important flexibility, allowing the cell to change shape easily and to expand and contract without losing
integrity.
Specialised protein molecules are also embedded in the bilayer in various patterns, forming ‘mosaics’. Some
of these proteins can move laterally (sideways), but others are fixed in position. Proteins and lipids can also flip

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 29

around in the membrane. The structure of the Carbohydrate

plasma membrane can be understood by using chain
Glycoprotein
a fluid mosaic model (Figure 1.28).

Sterols increase flexibility

Phospholipids alone do not provide the
flexibility required in membranes. Strong Phospholipid
bilayer
inflexible bonds naturally form between the
lipid tails. In animal cells, another type of lipid
called cholesterol is interspersed among the
phospholipid molecules. Cholesterol interferes
with interactions between the lipid tails,
making the membrane more flexible. In plants
and bacteria, it is phytosterol (not cholesterol)
Cholesterol
that increases membrane flexibility.
Cholesterol has an interesting effect
on membrane fluidity that depends on the Figure 1.28 Three-dimensional view of a plasma membrane based on the
temperature. At low temperatures, the fluid mosaic model
phospholipid molecules in the membrane cluster together more closely because they do not have as much
energy to move around. Fluidity is reduced because of this. When cholesterol is inserted between some of
the phospholipid molecules, fluidity increases due to the greater distance between the molecules and their
increased freedom of movement.
At high temperatures, there is more space between the phospholipid molecules because of their greater
energy level. Fluidity is increased. When cholesterol is inserted between some of the phospholipid molecules in
this case, the motion of the phospholipid molecule tails is reduced. This in turn decreases fluidity. Cholesterol
therefore regulates plasma membrane fluidity and acts as a buffer against fluctuations in temperature.

Membrane proteins
Associated with each membrane is a set of membrane proteins that enable the membrane to carry out its
distinctive activities. The types of proteins attached to a membrane vary depending on the cell type and its
location. Even the two surfaces of the same bilayer, that is, the interior and exterior surfaces, differ considerably.
There is also variety in the way proteins are associated with the membrane. Some proteins are bound only to
the membrane surface whereas others are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer, with many penetrating from
one side to the other (Figure 1.29). Different types of cells have different receptor proteins, enabling them to
carry out different functions. The specific set of receptor proteins that a cell carries are determined by the genes
the cell expresses – since receptors are proteins, they are genetically encoded. Surface proteins enable cell–cell
interaction and communication and the exchange of substances with the external environment. Proteins on the
external plasma membrane surface can be involved in signalling and communication between cells and can help
to keep a cell anchored in its appropriate place. Proteins that span the membrane are called transmembrane
proteins and they can regulate the movement of substances across the membrane.
Membrane proteins are essential for regulating cell behaviour and the organisation of cells in tissues.
Proteins are also important for cellular communication. Some proteins, collectively called receptors, have
receptor sites on their surface that detect molecules such as hormones. Each receptor is specific for a single
molecule or a small number of molecules with a complementary structure to which the receptor binds.
Some membrane receptor proteins carry a carbohydrate molecule, giving them their collective name of
glycoproteins. The addition of the carbohydrate group can give the receptor protein its particular function. It
can also protect the protein core to increase the longevity of the protein in the rough extracellular environment.
Membrane recognition protein molecules act as markers that identify the cell as a normal body cell
belonging to the individual. This is in contrast to a cell that has become cancerous, belongs to an invading
microorganism, or a transplant from an unrelated individual. In multicellular organisms, adhesion proteins
link cells together to maintain both the three-dimensional structure and the normal functioning of tissues.
Most adhesion proteins are distributed uniformly along the plasma membranes that contact other cells.

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Extracellular environment
Carbohydrate

Exterior surface of plasma membrane

Protein

Phospholipid
bilayer

Cholesterol

Transport
protein
Recognition
Receptor protein
protein
Adhesion
protein
Intracellular environment

Figure 1.29 Examples of proteins associated with plasma membranes

Stress-tested by Southern Biological

INVESTIGATION 1.2

Modelling the fluid mosaic membrane

Models are useful in science if they simplify a concept or make a visual representation of something that is difficult to see.

Aim
To model the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane

Materials
Structure Function
»» Rectangular cake or polystyrene block approx. »» 2 tea strainers
20 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm »» Icing sugar
»» Knife »» Lollies (such as M&Ms)
»» Icing sugar/food colouring or fondant or buttercream »» Elastic band
»» Marshmallows »» Coloured paper
»» Liquorice or modelling chocolate »» Salt
»» Selection of lollies »» Sugar granules
»» Labels/toothpicks »» Tea leaves

What are the risks in doing this investigation? How can you manage these risks to stay safe?
Knife has a sharp blade and can cut fingers. Use the knife with care and keep fingers away from the sharp edge.
Science laboratory benches usually have chemicals Do not eat the cake if you are working in the laboratory. If you want to eat
on them that could harm you. the cake after you have made the model, work in a food preparation area.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 31

»
Method
Structure
1 Trim the cake or polystyrene block to approximately the suggested size.
2 Using fondant/icing, completely coat the surface of the cake or block.
3 Place marshmallows to completely cover the top surface of the cake or block.
4 Place one line of marshmallows along the bottom of all sides of the cake, aligned with the marshmallows on the top
edge of the cake.
5 Using liquorice or modelling chocolate, make ‘tails’. Stick two of these tails onto the side of the cake leading from
each marshmallow to the mid-line.
6 Using modelling chocolate or lollies, construct ‘proteins’ that penetrate the whole plasma membrane layer, and those
that are only partially embedded in the membrane.
7 Attach lollies/modelling chocolate to some of these ‘proteins’ to represent the glycoproteins.
8 Use lollies/modelling chocolate to represent cholesterol/phytosterols.
9 Attach labels to all parts of the model using the toothpicks and labels.
Function
0
1 Place two teaspoons of icing sugar and two teaspoons of lollies into one of the tea strainers.
11 Tie the handles of the tea strainers together with the elastic band.
12 Shake the tea strainer over a piece of coloured paper.
13 Copy the table below and record which substances pass through.
14 Repeat this process using a variety of other substances (those on the material list or others).

Results
Structure
1 Draw a diagram or take a photo of your model.
2 Copy the tables into your logbook and complete them to indicate what each part of your model represents in the fluid
mosaic model. Add more rows as required.

Structure in fluid mosaic model Representation in your model

Phospholipid

Function

Substances in mixture Substances that passed through holes in tea strainer

Icing sugar and lollies

Discussion
In terms of structure and function
1 Outline the purpose of your model.
2 What are the benefits of your model of the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane?
3 Discuss the limitations of your model.
4 Justify the validity of your model. See page 197 for a discussion of validity.

Conclusion
How did modelling the fluid mosaic model in this way give you a greater understanding of its structure and function?

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KEY CONCEPTS
»» The plasma membrane forms the boundary between »» The structure of the plasma membrane can be
the internal environment of the cell and its external understood by using a fluid mosaic model.
environment. »» Embedded in the plasma membrane are a variety of
»» The plasma membrane is selectively permeable in that membrane proteins that enable the membrane to carry
it controls the movement of substances into and out out its distinctive activities.
of cells. »» Membrane proteins allow cells to function
»» The plasma membrane is composed of a double layer appropriately, respond to chemical messages and
of phospholipid molecules. The head is hydrophilic and recognise each other.
the tail is hydrophobic.

Concept questions 1.4

1 Distinguish between permeable and selectively proteins, glycoproteins, receptor proteins and
permeable. cholesterol molecules within it. Describe the general
2 List the components of the plasma membrane. structure and function of each of these components.
3 Explain why unicellular organisms are more likely
to experience bigger changes in their external HOT Challenge
environment than are cells in multicellular organisms.
6 Polar charged particles are able to move through
4 What is the difference between ‘hydrophilic’ and
hydrophilic parts of the plasma membrane but do
‘hydrophobic’?
not move easily through hydrophobic parts of the
5 The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane of a
membrane. Explain why.
cell depicts a phospholipid bilayer with transmembrane

1.5 Passive movement across membranes

Some materials can move across membranes without using energy but others require energy to move.
Movement that does not require energy is called passive transport. A simple analogy is riding
a bicycle. Riding uphill requires you to use energy in your leg muscles to pedal hard. You are actively
pedalling. Once you are at the top, you can move passively down the hill, without using any energy to
move the pedals. Many molecules move across the plasma membrane passively, without using energy. This
type of movement relies on a process called diffusion.

Diffusion
WB Why does a spoonful of sugar dissolve rapidly in a cup of tea, even when it is not stirred? Why can you
1.5.1 smell gas escaping from a gas stovetop? Part of the reason is that the particles of sugar and gas are
DIFFUSION
PAGE 22 constantly moving in a process called Brownian motion.
If you were to drop a crystal of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) into a beaker of water, and you
did not stir or move the beaker, what would happen? You will find that, over time, the purple colour of the
permanganate spreads through the water
until eventually it is evenly distributed. As
Time
the crystal dissolves, the potassium and
Equilibrium
the permanganate particles separate from
the crystal and move through the water
(Figure 1.30).
Water Potassium permanganate What causes the particles in the
potassium permanganate crystal to
Figure 1.30 Diffusion of potassium permanganate in water over a period of time behave in this way? The particles

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 33

dissolving from the crystal are in a state of continual random motion. They can move in any direction. To
start with, there are far more of them near the crystal, increasing the probability that they will move away
from the crystal. This causes a net (overall) movement of potassium permanganate particles away from the
crystal. This is the process of diffusion.
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high particle concentration (the
crystal of potassium permanganate) to a region of lower particle concentration (the water in the
beaker). The difference in particle concentration between the two regions is called the concentration
gradient. Diffusion always takes place wherever such a gradient exists and it continues until the
particles are distributed evenly throughout the system. When that happens, equilibrium is said to be
reached. Particles will continue to move randomly, but at equilibrium they move at equal rates in all
directions.
Diffusion is a passive process and does not require additional energy to make it happen. It takes
place in gases and liquids, in both living and non-living systems. Increasing the concentration gradient
or heating the particles to make them move faster will increase the rate of diffusion. The particle theory
(also referred to as the kinetic theory of matter) says that the particles that make up matter are in constant
motion and the higher the temperature, the faster the particles are moving.

ACTIVITY 1.2
Observing diffusion
Aim
To explore the movement of particles within a liquid

You will need

»» A glass jar or tall beaker »» Tea bag
»» Warm water »» Stirring rod

What to do
1 Fill the beaker with warm water. Let it sit for 5 minutes.
2 Tie a tea bag to the stirring rod and place the rod across the top of the beaker. Place the tea bag so that it enters the
water with minimal disturbance.
3 Record the changes you observe in the water over the next 10 minutes.

What did you discover?

1 Describe the change in colour of the water over the 10 minutes.
2 Explain your observations, ensuring you use the term ‘concentration gradient’.

Extension
Predict what difference you would observe with hot and cold water rather than warm water. If you have time, test
this prediction.

Diffusion across membranes

Hydrophobic molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide and other small, uncharged particles such as
water move easily through the plasma membrane of a cell by simple diffusion. Figure 1.31 shows these
particles passing between the phospholipid molecules from a high to a low concentration. Oxygen always
tends to diffuse into cells because their use of oxygen in cellular respiration maintains a low concentration
in the cytoplasm.

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Roberts, M., Reiss, M. & Monger, G. Advanced

High concentration

Lipid
bilayer Concentration
of plasma gradient
membrane

Biology (2000)
Low concentration

Figure 1.31 Simple diffusion of small molecules through the plasma membrane is dependent on the
concentration gradient.

Facilitated diffusion
Charged particles (such as sodium (+) and chloride (–) ions) and relatively large molecules (such as glucose
and amino acids) are repelled by the hydrophobic tails and so do not pass through the phospholipid bilayer
readily. There must be some way to help them enter the cell. In the plasma membrane, certain proteins
shield these materials from the repulsive force of the hydrophobic tails and assist such particles to diffuse
into the cell. This process is called facilitated diffusion.
Two types of protein are involved in facilitated diffusion: carrier proteins and channel proteins.
Carrier proteins bind to specific molecules on one side of the membrane, change shape and release the
substance on the other side (Figure 1.32). An example is the glucose transporter protein, which is located
in the plasma membrane of all mammalian cell types and carries glucose in either direction, depending on
the direction of the concentration gradient.

Roberts, M., Reiss, M. & Monger, G. Advanced

High concentration

Concentration
gradient
Biology (2000)

Carrier protein takes up Low concentration

particles on one side of the
plasma membrane … … changes shape and releases
them on the other side.

Figure 1.32 Facilitated diffusion using a carrier protein in the plasma membrane of a cell moves particles such as
glucose down the concentration gradient.

Channel proteins form narrow passageways through which water-soluble substances diffuse rapidly
from an area of high concentration to a lower concentration (Figure 1.33). The inner boundaries of the
protein channel contain layers of water so that larger water-soluble (hydrophilic) substances are able to
move rapidly into the cell by passive means. Only ions of a specific size and shape can pass through a
particular channel protein.

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Roberts, M., Reiss, M. & Monger, G. Advanced

High concentration

Concentration
gradient

Biology (2000)
Channel protein Low concentration
closed
Channel protein
open

Figure 1.33 Facilitated diffusion through a channel protein in the plasma membrane of a cell. Movement is always down
the concentration gradient.

KEY CONCEPTS
»» Diffusion is the movement of particles down a »» The greater the concentration gradient of a substance
concentration gradient, from where they are in high across a membrane, the faster it will diffuse.
concentration to where they are in low concentration »» Carrier proteins and channel proteins assist particles
until equilibrium is reached. to diffuse into a cell. This process is called facilitated
»» Diffusion is a passive process. diffusion.

Concept questions 1.5a

1 Define diffusion. HOT Challenge
2 List two factors that increase the rate of diffusion.
6 It was once thought that water molecules simply passed
3 Explain how carrier proteins and channel proteins assist
through plasma membranes easily via diffusion (a special
in facilitated diffusion.
type of diffusion called osmosis) because they were
4 Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion are described
small in size. However, although osmosis is important
as passive forms of cellular transport. What does the
it does not account for the rapid and large amount of
term ‘passive’ mean in this context?
water movement into and out of cells during various
5 Why is facilitated diffusion faster than simple diffusion
processes. Protein channels called aquaporins are now
when solute concentration is low?
known to facilitate the passage of water molecules.
Research how this rapid water diffusion works.

Osmosis: a special type of diffusion

WB
Without water, no life can survive, although some organisms can survive with very little water for
1.5.2
longer than others. Water is the medium in which biochemical processes take place. Water also OSMOSIS: A
SPECIAL TYPE
transports materials in solution, helps keep cells in shape and forms the fluid that bathes tissues. OF DIFFUSION
PAGE 24
Water is described as the universal solvent, in that it dissolves most substances. If you add sugar or
salt to water, you are adding solute to solvent and making a solution. A dilute solution has a relatively
high concentration of water molecules (solvent) compared to solute particles dissolved in it, while a
concentrated solution has a low concentration of solvent molecules and a high concentration of solute
particles (Figure 1.34).
Plasma membranes are selectively (or differentially) permeable, meaning that water molecules pass
through them easily but solutes do not. If the concentration of water molecules inside a cell is lower
than the concentration outside, more water will diffuse into the cell than leave the cell until a balance
or equilibrium is reached (net movement of water is into the cell). This process is called osmosis. By

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definition, osmosis is the diffusion of water (or the

Solute
particles Solute movement of the solvent) across a selectively permeable
particles
membrane from an area of high water concentration (low
solute) to an area of low water concentration (high solute).
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion. Similar to diffusion,
Solvent osmosis requires no input of energy because water is
particles
(H2O) moving down its concentration gradient (Figure 1.35).
Solvent
particles If the fluids inside and outside a cell are of equal solute
(H2O) concentration, the external solution is said to be isotonic
(‘iso’ = same) to the cells; water molecules jostle on both
sides of the membrane, moving in both directions equally.
When cells are surrounded by a solution that contains
Figure 1.34 Making solutions: a a concentrated solution and a lower solute concentration than their cytoplasm, the
b a dilute solution
external solution is said to be hypotonic (‘hypo’ = lower)
to the cells. Water molecules will move by osmosis through the membrane into the cells. The reverse applies
if the cells are surrounded by a solution of higher solute concentration; the external solution is hypertonic
(‘hyper’ = higher) to the cells and so water molecules will move by osmosis out of the cells.

Selectively permeable
membrane

Dilute sucrose solution Concentrated sucrose solution

Low concentration High concentration

of solute molecules of solute molecules

High concentration Low concentration

of water molecules of water molecules

Low osmotic High osmotic

pressure pressure

Net movement of water molecules

Key Water Sucrose

Figure 1.35 Summary of the conditions on the two sides of a

selectively permeable membrane

Osmosis in animal cells

The cells of unicellular eukaryotes and multicellular organisms such as animals are surrounded by
only a plasma membrane. Hypotonic solutions, such as fresh water, pose a special problem for these
organisms. Water moving through the fluid plasma membrane into their cells by osmosis could cause

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 37

the cells to swell and eventually burst or lyse, killing

the organism. Unicellular organisms such as Amoeba
that live in fresh water have important regulatory
mechanisms to combat these problems. They can
Nucleus
remove excess water by forming pools of water in
cytoplasmic organelles called contractile vacuoles
(Figure 1.36). When these vacuoles stretch to a
certain point, they contract and expel the water to
the external environment. Contractile
In multicellular animals, cells are bathed in vacuole

isotonic extracellular fluid. This means that cells can

function efficiently because water diffuses equally in
both directions, resulting in no net movement of water
into or out of cells. To keep the internal environment Figure 1.36 Amoebas are able to remove fresh water using
of your body in isotonic balance, the solute organelles called contractile vacuoles.
concentration in the extracellular fluid is controlled by
the concentration of solutes in blood plasma, which in
turn is controlled by the kidneys.
You may have been in hospital and seen patients hooked up to an intravenous drip. This drip is
connected directly to their circulatory system, adding fluid to their blood plasma. It is important that fluid
in the drip has a solute concentration equal to blood plasma (isotonic). In this situation, water will enter
and leave blood cells at the same rate, maintaining their ideal water concentration.
What will happen if the intravenous drip contains salty water? If the plasma surrounding blood cells
becomes hypertonic, water will move out of the cells by osmosis and, in a process called crenation, they
will shrink and become crinkled (Figure 1.37). The resulting small, shrunken blood cells tend to stick
together, clogging small veins and arteries, and preventing oxygen reaching body tissues. If enough
blockages occur, the results may be fatal.

When cells are placed

in a hypotonic solution
(e.g. distilled water) …

… cells swell
and burst
(haemolysis).

When cells are placed

in a hypertonic solution
(e.g. sea water) …

Normal red blood cells in

isotonic solution (no
change in shape of cells, … cells shrink and
no net movement of water) crinkle (crenation).

Figure 1.37 Human red blood cells swell or shrink in solutions of varying solute concentrations.

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It is equally dangerous for an intravenous solution to be hypotonic. If the blood plasma is diluted
by water, the blood cells will swell and burst. This condition is called haemolysis and it can seriously
reduce the amount of oxygen being transported to body tissues. Because of these effects of osmosis on
animal cells, it is important that the solute concentration of blood plasma is regulated by the kidneys
(Chapter 3).

Osmosis in plants
Did you know that soaking limp vegetables like celery in water restores their crispness? Unlike animal
cells, the celery cells will not burst when soaked in fresh water (hypotonic solution), even though water
moves into the plant by osmosis. How can you explain this difference?
Think about the differences in plant and animal cell structure. Animal cells lack cell walls and
rarely contain large vacuoles. Plant cells commonly have large, fluid-filled vacuoles and firm but
permeable cell walls that surround the plasma membrane. Like the plasma membrane, the vacuole
membrane (tonoplast) is differentially permeable. Plant cell vacuoles contain fluid that is rich in solutes:
a solution of high concentration. When a hypotonic solution surrounds a plant cell, water molecules
diffuse by osmosis, first into the cytoplasm and then into the vacuole. The vacuole swells, pushing
the cytoplasm and plasma membrane against the cell wall. The tough cell wall prevents the cell from
bursting. When the cell wall stretches as much as possible, no more water can enter and the cell is said
to be turgid (Figure 1.38).

Water enters vacuole

by osmosis
Cell placed in external Vacuole expands,
solution whose solute cytoplasm pushed outwards
concentration is lower
than that of the cytosol

Full turgor

Roberts, M., Reiss, M. & Monger, G. Advanced Biology (2000)

Cellulose wall
Cytoplasm

Vacuole
containing
cytosol
Water leaves vacuole
Partially turgid
by osmosis
plant cell

Cell placed in external Vacuole shrinks,

solution whose solute cytoplasm moves inwards
concentration is higher
than that of the cytosol

Full plasmolysis

Figure 1.38 The effect of immersing a partially turgid plant cell in pure water and a high solute concentration.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 39

Turgor is very important for plants. It supports them

and maintains their shape and form. The stems of non-woody
plants are kept erect by the turgid, tightly packed cells that
Cell wall
fill them. Turgor is also responsible for holding leaves in
a flat, opened-out position. Certain plant cells are able to Plasma
Cytoplasm membrane
undergo quite rapid changes in their solute concentration
with consequent changes in turgor. This allows such cells

Getty Images/Ed Reschke

to change their shape. Stomatal guard cells behave this
way (Chapter 4), as do cells responsible for the rapid leaf
movements of insectivorous plants such as the Venus flytrap.
On a hot, dry day, you may see some plants wilting.
When significant quantities of water evaporate from the
plant, the external concentration of water molecules becomes
less than in the vacuole. Water molecules diffuse out,
reducing the volume of the vacuole and causing the cells to Figure 1.39 Plasmolysis in Elodea cells. Water has diffused
become limp or flaccid and the plant to wilt. If enough water out of the cells, causing the volume of cytoplasm to shrink.
is lost, the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall in Gaps between the cytoplasm and the cell wall are filled with
a process called plasmolysis (Figure 1.39). external solution.

KEY CONCEPTS
»» Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis are concentration (low solute) to an area of low water
ways that molecules can cross membranes by passive concentration (high solute).
transport (does not require energy). »» When a large amount of water enters an animal cell it
»» Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively will burst. When water enters a plant cell it becomes
permeable membrane from an area of high water turgid because of the presence of a cell wall.

Concept questions 1.5b

1 A salt solution is a mixture of salt and water. Which of 5 What do hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic mean in
these is the solvent and which is the solute? terms of water solutions in a cell and its surrounds?
2 Give one reason why plant cells do not burst when
placed in a hypotonic solution.
HOT Challenge
3 Explain why red blood cells are stored in saline (salt) 6 Haemolysis can occur to red blood cells, as can
solution rather than pure water. crenation. Discuss what each of these occurrences is,
4 If salad greens such as lettuce are left for a period of how they may happen, and what part osmosis plays in
time, they become limp. To restore their crispness they the processes.
can be soaked in cold water. Explain the reason for this.

1.6 Movement across membranes using energy

The processes of diffusion and osmosis do not require the input of energy. However, there are occasions
when energy is needed to move substances across membranes. Active transport and bulk transport are
some examples where movement of substances requires energy from the cell.

Active transport
WB
After you eat a meal, nutrients such as glucose are absorbed into the cells lining the inside of the small
1.6.1
intestine. If diffusion alone were involved, once the concentrations of glucose inside and outside the cell ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
became equal, there would be no net movement. Some of the glucose available from digestion would be PAGE 26
excreted along with wastes and undigested food. This is not the case. Glucose continues to move into

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cells lining the small intestine even when its concentration is higher inside the cell. Cells appear to pump
glucose in through their plasma membranes.
In this and other similar situations, molecules or ions move up their concentration gradient, from a
region where they are in a low concentration to a region of higher concentration. As this movement of
molecules or ions through a membrane against a concentration gradient requires the input of energy, it is
called active transport.
How does active transport take place? Membrane transport proteins, similar to those responsible for
facilitated diffusion, use energy from the small molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to move molecules
or ions up their concentration gradient (Figure 1.40). Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the main cellular
source of chemical energy, and powers almost all of the processes within a cell. It acts as the energy source
for the membrane transport protein to pump ions against their concentration gradient. As the membrane
carrier proteins work in only one direction, they effectively act as one-way valves. The importance of these
pumps becomes apparent in people who cannot produce them in adequate amounts, such as those suffering
from the disease cystic fibrosis.

When energy is provided,

carrier proteins take up particles on
one side of the plasma membrane ...

Transport Extracellular
environment Low concentration
direction

Concentration
gradient

High concentration

Intracellular … and release them

Energy environment on the other side.
(ATP)

Figure 1.40 Active transport via a carrier protein in the plasma membrane of a cell. Energy is transferred to the carrier protein,
enabling it to move the particles against a concentration gradient.

The energy demands of this process is significant. It has been estimated that while a person sleeps, as
much as 40% of the total energy budget is used for active transport. Cells engaged in active transport have
huge numbers of mitochondria. These organelles build up the ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate
that is used as the energy source in these cells.

Bulk transport: movement of large molecules

WB across membranes
1.6.2
BULK
TRANSPORT:
At times, very large particles have to be moved into a cell across its plasma membrane. In other
MOVEMENT circumstances, relatively large molecules have to be exported from a cell. The large size of these particles
OF LARGE
MOLECULES makes their movement through the membrane by diffusion or active transport impossible. In these cases
ACROSS
MEMBRANES of bulk transport, membranes and cytoplasmic vesicles have an important role to play in endocytosis and
PAGE 28
exocytosis. These are active processes, requiring energy in the form of ATP to move vesicles around the
cytoplasm and to change the shape of the cell.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 41

Endocytosis
Figure 1.41 shows a unicellular Amoeba WB
(right) feeding on a smaller organism (bottom 1.6.3
COMPARING
left), illustrating the process of endocytosis. AND
CONTRASTING
The Amoeba changes shape by sending out DIFFUSION,

Alamy Stock Photo/blickwinkel

OSMOSIS
projections or pseudopods that surround the AND ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
prey. When the plasma membranes of the PAGE 29
projections meet, membrane fusion occurs.
This results in the formation of a vesicle,
which then stores or transports the material
within the cytoplasm (Figure 1.42). The two
types of endocytosis discussed in this chapter
are named according to the type of material
consumed. The process that engulfs solids, Figure 1.41 A scanning electron micrograph of an Amoeba
like an Amoeba eating, is called phagocytosis, surrounding its prey (Tetrahymena) for ingestion
and the other process that takes in droplets of
liquid is called pinocytosis.
Human white blood cells are called phagocytes because, in defending the body against disease, they
engulf bacteria by phagocytosis (Figure 1.43).
Pinocytosis occurs when the plasma membrane engulfs extracellular fluid in much the same way as
phagocytosis (Figure 1.44). Fat droplets found in the small intestine after a meal move into cells by means
of pinocytosis.

Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Pseudopod

‘Food’ or other
solid particle
Phagocytotic
vesicle

Figure 1.42 The process of phagocytosis

Fat droplet
Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

Cytoplasm

Figure 1.44 The process of pinocytosis

Figure 1.43 A macrophage engulfing cells by phagocytosis

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Exocytosis
Specialised animal cells produce a variety of substances, such as hormones, mucus, milk proteins and
digestive enzymes, which have important functions elsewhere in the organism. This is also true for
plants, where particular cells are specialised to produce products that need to be relocated. These include
growth regulators, toxins to ward off predators and macromolecules for use elsewhere. In all these cases,
exocytosis is involved.
Exocytosis is the process by which large molecules held in vesicles within the cell are transported to
the external environment. It is essentially the reverse of endocytosis. During exocytosis, a membrane-bound
vesicle moves to the plasma membrane, fuses with it and then releases its contents to the exterior of the cell
(Figure 1.45).

Plasma membrane

Cytoplasm

Figure 1.45 The process of exocytosis

KEY CONCEPTS
»» Movement of particles up a concentration gradient, »» Endocytosis and exocytosis are active processes that
from where they are in low concentration to where move large substances or large volumes of molecules
they are in high concentration, is active and requires into and out of cells.
energy. »» The two types of endocytosis are phagocytosis which
»» Energy from ATP is used to move substances across takes in large particles, and pinocytosis which takes in
membranes by active transport and bulk transport. liquid droplets.

Concept questions 1.6

1 Distinguish between active transport and simple white blood cells called phagocytes utilise this process
diffusion. to do what?
2 Compare and contrast the passive and active cellular
uptake of ions and glucose molecules.
HOT Challenge
3 Explain how the plasma membrane is involved in the 5 Pinocytosis is a common process in cells of
processes of endocytosis and exocytosis. gymnopserms such as pine trees. What characteristic
4 Phagocytosis is a very important process in all cells, property of pines might make this process common?
particularly in the immune system of organisms. Large

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 43

BRANCHING OUT
Scientists create an artificial cell that makes its own energy by photosynthesising
Artificial cells created inside the lab have taken another major step forward, with scientists developing cells that are able
to produce their own chemical energy and synthesise parts of their own construction. That makes these artificial cells a
lot more like real, biological cells – cells that can construct and organise their own building blocks naturally.
Not only could this help us understand how real cells work and come into being in the first place, it could also be vital
for a host of other areas of research – such as ongoing efforts to produce artificial organs and other body tissue to fight
back against disease.
‘I have been trying for a long time to construct a living artificial cell, especially focusing on membranes,’ says lead
researcher Yutetsu Kuruma from the Tokyo Institute of Technology in Japan.
‘In this work, our artificial cells were wrapped in lipid membranes, and small membrane structures were encapsulated
inside them. In this way, the cell membrane is the most important aspect of forming a cell.’
The lipid membranes contained the proteins ATP synthase and bacteriorhodopsin, purified from living cells. These
were designed to work in tandem, to use light energy to create an energy difference inside the cell, and then to use that
energy difference to construct more molecules and more protein.
During the experiments, the photosynthesis process happened as the scientists had hoped. The artificial cells
mimicked real cells by making messenger RNA (mRNA) from DNA, and then making protein from mRNA.
The key feature here is the cells’ ability to produce that energy and do their own synthesising, potentially leading to
the creation of independent artificial cells that can be sustained on their own.
While the study wasn’t able to duplicate the full range of proteins that an actual cell can, the researchers think this
might be within reach with an upgraded setup.
The scientists say their work could also be important in the study of protocells, which are thought to have come
before modern cells. How did these protocells produce energy to create their own metabolism? This new type of artificial
cell might tell us.
If two membrane proteins can produce enough energy to drive gene expression, as this study shows, then protocells
might have been able to use sunlight to evolve into what we know as modern cells.
As the research continues, we might be able to reach and observe the cell development tipping point that happened
on the early Earth. Other benefits of the research could cover everything from drug delivery to the development of
super-smart sensors, and there’s lots more to come yet.
‘Our artificial photosynthetic cell system paves the way to construct an energetically independent artificial cell,’ write
the researchers.

Questions
1 List two major steps forward that have been achieved with this artificial cell.
2 From a scientific point of view, what is the point in trying to create an artificial cell?
3 ‘… the cell membrane is the most important aspect of forming a cell.’ Explain what the researcher meant by this
statement.
4 What new question arises from this work?
5 How could scientists use this work in the future?
Source: Berhanu, S., Ueda, T. & Kuruma, Y. Artificial photosynthetic
cell producing energy for protein synthesis. Nat Commun 10, 1325 (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09147-4 CC BY 4.0
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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 44 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

Online
Online
Chapter
KeyResource
Concepts
Resource name
1 summary
of key concepts
1 Summary of key concepts

1.1 Cells are the basic structural unit of life

KEY CONCEPTS p. 7
»» The cell theory states that all living things are »» Prokaryotic cells do not contain membrane-bound
composed of one or more cells and all cells come organelles.
from pre-existing cells. »» Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus
»» All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. and membrane-bound organelles.

a b
Pili Vacuole
Plasmid DNA Nuclear
membrane
Cytoplasm
Ribosome Plasma
Capsule
membrane
Chromosomal Cell wall
Cytoplasm
DNA in the Plasma
membrane Rough Nucleolus
nucleoid
endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Flagella Nucleus

Centriole
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Golgi apparatus

Figure 1.4 The difference between a a prokaryotic cell and b a eukaryotic animal cell

1.2 Size and shape of cells c

a
KEY CONCEPTS p. 11
»» Surface-area-to-volume ratio (SA : V) is
a relationship between the size of the
outside of an object and the amount of 1 mm 2 mm 3 mm

space enclosed within the object. Surface area = 6 mm 2

Surface area = 24 mm 2
Surface area = 54 mm2
Volume = 1 mm3 Volume = 8 mm3 Volume = 27 mm3
»» Cells with a larger surface-area-to-volume
ratio can obtain nutrients and remove
Figure 1.5 Three hypothetical cells. Cell A has a SA : V = 6 : 1, Cell
wastes more efficiently.
B = 3 : 1 and Cell C = 2 : 1. Cell A is the smallest cell but has the
»» The shape of a cell can significantly change
largest SA : V and Cell C is the largest cell with the smallest SA : V.
a cell’s surface-area-to-volume ratio.
Note that the nucleus remains the same size in all three cells.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 45

1.3 What’s inside a cell?

KEY CONCEPTS
p. 17
»» Cell organelles carry out specific functions within
a cell.
»» The cytoplasm makes up the bulk of a cell.
Plasma membrane
»» The nucleus coordinates cell activities.
»» Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration. Rough endoplasmic
Nucleus
reticulum
»» All cell types contain ribosomes, which build up
Ribosome
amino acids into proteins.
»» Some substances are moved around the cell in the Smooth
endoplasmic
endoplasmic reticulum. Transport
vesicle reticulum

»» The Golgi apparatus packages and stores substances Proteins

in vesicles in preparation for their release from the cell.

Vesicles pinched off
»» Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum fuse
to form flattened cavity
contain digestive enzymes that break complex Golgi apparatus
chemical compounds into simpler ones. Cisternae

»» The cytoskeleton provides shape to the cell.

Vesicle containing Secretory
»» Microtubules and microfilaments are structures of protein pinches off
flattened cavity
vesicle

the cytoskeleton. Vesicle fuses with

plasma membrane and
»» A cell wall, composed of cellulose, provides extra releases protein

support and protection to some types of cells. Protein expelled

»» Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, a green pigment

that absorbs light energy. They are the site for
photosynthesis. Figure 1.20 How the Golgi apparatus removes and secretes
»» The vacuole serves as a storage space for sugars, a protein from a cell
minerals, proteins and water.

1.4 Plasma membrane

KEY CONCEPTS
p. 27 Extracellular environment

»» The plasma membrane forms the boundary between

Carbohydrate

the internal environment of the cell and its external

Exterior surface of plasma membrane

Protein

environment.
»» The plasma membrane is selectively permeable in that it
Phospholipid
bilayer

controls the movement of substances into and out of cells. Cholesterol

Transport

»» The plasma membrane is composed of a double layer of protein

Recognition
Receptor protein

phospholipid molecules. The head is hydrophilic and the tail protein

Adhesion
protein
Intracellular environment

is hydrophobic.
»» The structure of the plasma membrane can be understood
Figure 1.29 Examples of proteins associated with
by using a fluid mosaic model.
plasma membranes
»» Embedded in the plasma membrane are a variety of
membrane proteins that enable the membrane to carry out
its distinctive activities.
»» Membrane proteins allow cells to function appropriately,
respond to chemical messages and recognise each other.

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 46 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

1.5 Passive movement across membranes

KEY CONCEPTS
p. 32
»» Diffusion is the movement of particles down a
concentration gradient, from where they are in high High concentration

concentration to where they are in low concentration,

Concentration

until equilibrium is reached. gradient

»» Diffusion is a passive process.

Carrier protein takes up Low concentration
»» The greater the concentration gradient of a substance particles on one side of the
plasma membrane … … changes shape and releases
them on the other side.
across a membrane, the faster it will diffuse. Roberts, M., Reiss, M. & Monger, G. Advanced Biology (2000)
»» Carrier proteins and channel proteins assist particles
to diffuse into a cell. This process is called facilitated Figure 1.32 Facilitated diffusion using a carrier protein in the
diffusion. plasma membrane of a cell moves particles such as glucose
»» Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis are down the concentration gradient.
ways that molecules can cross membranes by passive
transport (does not require energy).
»» Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane from an area of high water
concentration (low solute) to an area of low water
concentration (high solute).
»» When a large amount of water enters an animal cell it
will burst. When water enters a plant cell it becomes
turgid because of the presence of a cell wall.

1.6 Movement across membranes using energy

KEY CONCEPTS p. 39
»» Movement of particles up a concentration gradient, »» Endocytosis and exocytosis are active processes
from where they are in low concentration to where that move large substances or large volumes of
they are in high concentration, is active and requires molecules into and out of cells.
energy. »» The two types of endocytosis are phagocytosis which
»» Energy from ATP is used to move substances across takes in large particles, and pinocytosis which takes in
membranes by active transport and bulk transport. liquid droplets.

When energy is provided,

carrier proteins take up particles on
one side of the plasma membrane ...

Transport Extracellular
environment Low concentration
direction

Concentration
gradient

High concentration

Intracellular … and release them

Energy environment on the other side.
(ATP)

Figure 1.40 Active transport via a carrier protein in the plasma membrane of a
cell. Energy is transferred to the carrier protein, enabling it to move the particles
against a concentration gradient.

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WB
KEY TERMS
PAGE 30
1 Chapter glossary

active transport the process whereby cells use energy in cytoplasmic streaming the mixing and movement of the
the form of ATP to transport substances across a membrane cytoplasm
from low to high concentration cytoskeleton a system of microtubules and microfilaments
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) a high-energy compound within a cell that supports and gives shape to it; helps
composed of adenine and ribose and three phosphate groups movement and reproduction
attached; it releases energy for cellular reactions when cytosol the part of the cytoplasm containing highly
its last phosphate group is removed and the compound is organised fluid material with dissolved substances;
converted to ADP and inorganic phosphate excluding the organelles
adhesion protein a plasma membrane protein that helps deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) an information molecule
link cells together that is the universal basis of an organism’s genetic material;
amino acid a nitrogen-containing compound that is the it contains instructions, written in a chemical code, for the
building block of proteins production of proteins by the cell
carrier protein a protein within membranes that assists diffusion the passive movement of molecules from a high to
other molecules to cross the membrane in facilitated and a low concentration of that substance
active transport endocytosis the movement of solids or liquids into a cell
cell the basic structural unit of all life forms on Earth from the environment via vesicle formation
cellular respiration a series of cellular biochemical endoplasmic reticulum an organelle in eukaryotic cells
reactions and processes using glucose and producing carbon consisting of an interconnecting system of thin membrane
dioxide and water; the energy released is used to convert sheets dividing the cytoplasm into compartments and
ADP and inorganic phosphate into ATP channels; involved in the synthesis, folding, modification
cellulose a complex carbohydrate molecule found in cell walls and transport of proteins
centriole a structure in animal cells that produces and enzyme a specific protein catalyst that acts to increase the
organises microtubules rate of a chemical reaction within the cell by lowering the
channel protein a protein that forms channels within amount of energy required for the reaction to proceed
membranes to allow the passage of hydrophobic substances equilibrium the point at which particles are distributed evenly
across the membrane throughout a system; they move at equal rates in all directions
chlorophyll the green pigment found in chloroplasts; it is able eukaryotic describes a complex type of cell with a nucleus
to absorb light energy, making it available for photosynthesis and membrane-bound organelles
chloroplast a membrane-bound organelle (type of plastid) exocytosis the movement of solids or liquids from a cell to
found in the cytoplasm of plants and algae containing the environment via vesicle formation
the green pigment chlorophyll; its main function is external environment (of a cell) the environment
photosynthesis and storage of carbohydrates surrounding a cell outside the plasma membrane
cholesterol part of the structure of the plasma membrane extracellular external to the cell
where it alters fluidity of the membrane depending on facilitated diffusion a form of diffusion that requires a
temperature substance to be attached to a specific carrier molecule to
chromosome a structure made of a DNA molecule move across a membrane
concentration gradient the difference in concentration of flaccid floppy; describes the condition of a plant cell that
a substance between two different regions has lost water
contractile vacoule a specialised vacuole involved in fluid mosaic model explains the fluid character of the
regulating the amount of water inside a cell, which pumps plasma membrane
water from the cytoplasm to the outside of the cell glycoprotein protein which has carbohydrates attached
crenation the crinkling of red blood cells when they lose water Golgi apparatus a collection of membranes that package
cristae infoldings of the inner membrane of the and store substances into vesicles in preparation for their
mitochondria, forming partitions release from the cell
cytoplasm all the cytosolic fluid, dissolved materials and grana stack of thylakoid discs within a chloroplast
organelles between the plasma membrane and the nuclear haemolysis the bursting of red blood cells
membrane hydrophilic tending to interact with and dissolve in water

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 48 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

hydrophobic avoiding association with water pinocytosis the bulk transport of liquids into a cell inside
hypertonic a solution with a higher solute concentration a vesicle; a type of endocytosis
compared with another solution plasma membrane the insoluble boundary of all living
hypotonic a solution with a lower solute concentration cells that maintains the contents of the cell and regulates
compared with another solution movement of substances into and out of the cell
intercellular occurring between cells plasmolysis the cytoplasm pulling away from the cell wall
internal environment (of a cell) all material contained because of water loss
within the plasma membrane plasmid extrachromosomal circular DNA found in prokaryotes
intracellular occurring within a cell plastid an organelle in a plant cell containing coloured pigments
ion a particle with either a positive or negative charge prokaryotic describes a simple type of cell that lacks a
isotonic describes fluid with an equal solute concentration nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
to another fluid receptor a cell component that detects changes in the
lysosome an organelle within the cytoplasm containing surrounding environment
digestive enzymes receptor protein a protein that binds hormones and other
membrane a thin, pliable sheet or layer acting as a boundary signal molecules
metabolism the sum of the chemical reactions that occur recognition protein a protein that acts as a marker on
within a cell membranes
microfilament a solid contractile protein; involved in ribonucleic acid (RNA) the single-stranded nucleic acid
movement and cell shape that functions in transcribing and translating information
from DNA into proteins
microtubule a hollow, cylindrical tube in cells that acts as
scaffolding to determine cell shape and aid movement ribosome a small structure in all cells that builds amino acids
into complex proteins; this organelle is not bound by a membrane
mitochondria organelles within the cytoplasm that are the site
of aerobic cellular respiration, releasing energy for the cell rough endoplasmic reticulum endoplasmic reticulum with
ribosomes attached
mitochondrial matrix gel-like material within the
mitochondria selectively permeable describes a membrane that allows
some substances but not others to pass across it
multicellular describes an organism consisting of more
than one cell smooth endoplasmic reticulum endoplasmic reticulum
with no ribosomes attached
nanometre (nm) one-thousand-millionth of a metre
solute a substance that can be dissolved in another substance
nuclear envelope/membrane the membrane surrounding
the nucleus solution a mixture of solute and solvent
nucleolus a site for assembling protein and RNA that will solvent a substance in which another substance can be
later form ribosomes; visible in a non-dividing cell dissolved to produce a solution
nucleus the organelle containing DNA in a eukaryotic cell; spindle fibres microtubules, produced during cell division,
it functions to coordinate cellular activities that move chromosomes in precise directions
organelle a specialised structure or compartment within a stroma colourless fluid in a chloroplast
cell that has a specific function surface-area-to-volume ratio (SA : V) the mathematical
osmosis the movement of water across a selectively ratio of the size of the surface area (in two dimensions)
permeable membrane from a region of low solute compared to the volume of an object (in three dimensions)
concentration to a region of high solute concentration synthesise to make
passive transport the movement of molecules that does not thylakoid membrane system of interconnected membranes
require input of energy in a chloroplast
permeable able to pass through tonoplast the membrane surrounding the vacuole
phagocytosis the bulk transport of solids into a cell inside transmembrane protein a type of integral protein that
a vesicle; a type of endocytosis spans the entire thickness of the plasma membrane
phospholipid a type of lipid which forms part of the plasma transport protein a protein that carries molecules across
membrane membranes
phospholipid bilayer two layers of phospholipids which turgid describes a cell that is tight and rigid from absorbing
form the plasma membrane with the hydrophobic end facing water
inwards and hydrophilic end facing outwards unicellular an organism made up of a single cell
photosynthesis a chemical reaction using energy from the Sun vacuole a membrane-bound fluid-filled space within a cell
to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen vesicle a small, membrane-bound sac in the cytoplasm that
phytosterol similar to cholesterol, found in plasma membrane transports, stores or digests substances

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1.7.2 PRACTICE
TEST QUESTIONS
PAGE 33
1 Chapter review

Remembering
1 Match each structure with its function.
Organelle/structure Function
a nucleus i collecting and packaging centre of the cell
b endoplasmic reticulum ii photosynthesis and storage
c lysosome iii transport of substances around the cell
d mitochondria iv control centre of the cell
e Golgi apparatus v aerobic respiration, which releases energy to the cell
f chloroplast vi breakdown of materials

2 Define solute, solution, solute concentration, concentration gradient and equilibrium.

3 Does glucose enter a cell by facilitated diffusion or active transport? Explain.
4 List two natural conditions that might cause plant cells to become plasmolysed.
5 Explain what would happen, in terms of the movement of water molecules, if an animal cell was placed in a hypertonic
solution.
6 Describe, by means of labelled diagrams, the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis.
7 Explain the importance of turgor to plants.
8 a Describe features that are common to all cells.
b Describe features that are unique to:
i prokaryotic cells
ii eukaryotic cells.

Applying
9 Certain cells have densely packed mitochondria and the cristae (infolded projections of a mitochondrion) are very close
together. What would you predict about the function of such cells? Explain your reasoning.
10 Find out how the produce departments of supermarkets keep vegetables looking fresh and feeling firm. Use your
understanding of osmosis to explain why this method is successful.
11 When a person’s kidneys fail, the person can be connected to a dialysis machine. Arterial blood is pumped through
dialysis tubing, which is made of selectively permeable membranes. Surrounding the tubing is a solution similar to
blood plasma. Waste materials diffuse from the tubing into the surrounding solution. Cleaner blood then travels back
into the person’s veins.
a What must be done to the surrounding solution in order for the wastes to continue diffusing out of the dialysis
tube?
b Predict what would happen if this was not done to the surrounding solution.

Analysing
12 a State whether the cell shown in Figure 1.46 is from a prokaryote or eukaryote organism. Give reasons for your
answer.
b Identify whether the cell shown in this photograph was viewed with an electron microscope or a light microscope.
Give your reasons.

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 50 UNIT 1 / AoS 1: How do cells function?

c Some organelles may be present in this cell but are not shown in the photograph. Suggest why this might be the case.
d Name the organelles with arrows pointing to them.

Alamy Stock Photo/Science Photo Library

ii

Figure 1.46 Photograph of an unidentified cell

13 If you were asked to classify a particular type of cell, name the structures you would look for. Suggest whether the
structures present would allow you to predict the function of the cell.
14 Two cells have the same internal concentration of sugar when they are placed in distilled water. Even though both cells
expand over time, one expands faster than the other. Discuss some possible reasons for this observation.
15 Half-fill a drinking cup with water and add 30 mL of raspberry cordial. Do not stir. After half an hour the cordial is
evenly distributed in the cup. Explain this example in terms of diffusion. Use the terms ‘net movement’, ‘concentration
gradient’ and ‘equilibrium’ in your explanation.
16 A student places living cells into a drop of liquid containing a 5% sugar solution. After 30 minutes, the student notices
that the liquid contains less than 5% sugar. Explain what has happened.
17 Three duck eggs with their shells removed all weigh 50 g. They are placed in salt solutions of concentrations 1.0, 1.5
and 2.0 M (molar) concentration, respectively. After 2 hours, the eggs are reweighed. The egg placed in the 1.0 M salt
solution weighed 54 g, the egg placed in the 1.5 M salt solution weighed 50 g and the egg in the 2.0 M salt solution
weighed 46 g.
a Construct a line graph showing probable change in egg mass over a 2 hour period.
b Explain, for each concentration, why the egg gained or lost mass or stayed the same.
18 The concentration of sodium ions, Na+, in human blood plasma is approximately 150 mmol L –1. In the cytosol of red
blood cells the concentration of Na+ is approximately 30 mmol L –1. Explain how this difference in concentration is
maintained when the tendency might be for the Na+ ions to rush out of the cell.

Evaluating
19 The freshwater bacterium Gemmata obscuriglobus has its DNA packaged in a membrane envelope. Recently, Australian
scientists showed that the bacterium ‘swallows’ large particles in a process similar to endocytosis. Explain why
scientists are now questioning whether G. obscuriglobus is classified correctly as a bacterium.
20 A student examines a human cheek cell under a light microscope. Because she cannot see any mitochondria, she says
there are none present in this type of cell. Outline arguments you would use to convince her that she is incorrect.

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 CHAPTER 1 / Cellular structure and function 51

21 Discuss the impact on the functioning of a cell of having a large number of organelles with folded and stacked
membranes.
22 There is a great deal of concern about rising levels of salt in soils in many parts of Australia. Evaluate whether it would
be better for a citrus farmer in Mildura to have a lack of available freshwater or to have saline soils. Discuss reasons for
your answer.

Reflecting
23 Xenophyophores are giant unicellular organisms found over 10 km below the sea surface. They are the largest
individual cells known to exist and can grow up to 10 cm across. Reflect on the issues facing these organisms and
describe three adaptations that you would expect them to display.
24 A student made the comment that ‘The formation of vesicles by endocytosis should reduce the size of the plasma
membrane’. Apply your knowledge of both endocytosis and exocytosis to critically examine this comment.

Creating
25 A cell has been likened to a factory. This type of analogy is useful when considering the structures and functions of
cells. A factory is a place where products are made; these are then exported from the factory and distributed for sale.
Raw materials and energy are needed for the manufacture of the products.
a Make a model of an animal or plant cell, with appropriate structures to represent organelles within the cell.
b Using the following components of a factory, describe a structure or function of a cell that is similar. For example, a
factory has outside walls; all cells have a membrane and some types of cells also have cell walls.
Factory: goods manufactured; business plans; photocopying room; manufacturing area; warehouse; management
offices; assembly workers, warehouse packers; doors; hallways; power source
c Outline one difference in function between a factory and a cell.

9780170452465 VICscience Biology VCE Units 1 & 2