NOT FOR SALE

8
Biotechnology
Science
Technology & Quarter 3 - Module 1
Engineering
Program The Central Dogma

SHIELLA MAE B. BULAUITAN

Author

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Science Technology and Engineering Program
Alternative Delivery Mode

Quarter 3 - Module 1: The Central Dogma

First Edition, 2020

Biotechnology- Grade 8
Science Technology and Engineering Program
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 3 – Module 1: The Central Dogma
First Edition, 2020

An Initiative of Cagayan national High School- Science Department

Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this module are owned by their respective
copyright holders. Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission
to use these materials from their respective copyright owners. The publisher
and authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.

Author: Shiella Mae B. Bulauitan

Science Department Head: Eduardo C. Dela Rosa
School Principal: Elpidio D. Mabasa Jr.
EPS-Science: Myrna Q. Adduru, Ph.D.
Assistant Schools Division Superintendent Jesus B. Maggay
Schools Division Superintendent: Reynante Z. Caliguiran

Printed in the Philippines by:

Department of Education- SDO Tuguegarao City, Cagayan National high School
Office Address: Bagay Road, San Gabriel, Tuguegarao City, 3500
Telephone Nos: (078) 844-1232; (078) 844-7768
Email addresses: [email protected]

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 8
Biotechnology
Quarter 3 - Module 1:

Advanced Subject
for
Science Technology &
Engineering Program
formerly ESEP

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 Table of Contents

COVER PAGE
COPYRIGHT PAGE
TITLE PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRELIMINARY NOTES
LEARNING FROM THE MODULES

Lesson 1 – Transcription

What I Need to Know 5

What I Know 6
What’s In 7
What’s More 11
What I Have Learned 13
What I Can Do 14
Additional Activities 17
Assessment 19

Lesson 2 – The Genetic Code

What I Need to Know

What I Know
What’s In 20
What’s more 22
What I Have Learned 23
What I Can Do 24
Additional Activities 25
Assessment 26

Lesson 3 – Translation

What I Need to Know

What I Know
What’s In 27
What’s more 28
What I Have Learned 31
What I Can Do 32
Additional Activities 35
Assessment 37
References 37

Key to Correction

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 This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the Central Dogma of Biology. The scope of this module permits it to be used in
many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence
of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with
the textbook you are now using.
This module contains:
 Lesson 1 – Transcription (From DNA to RNA)
 Lesson 2 – The Genetic Code
 Lesson 3 – Translation (From RNA to Protein)
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. understand protein synthesis
2. identify the events of protein synthesis
3. be familiar with the updated Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics
4. analyze the vital role of DNA, RNA and proteins in the transmission of hereditary
traits
5. trace the sequence of events involved in the expression of hereditary
characteristics

The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information
in cells from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA) to protein. It states that genes specify the
sequence of mRNA molecules, which in turn specify the sequence of proteins. Because
the information stored in DNA is so central to cellular function, the cell keeps the DNA
protected and copies it in the form of RNA. An enzyme adds one nucleotide to the
mRNA strand for every nucleotide it reads in the DNA strand. The translation of this
information to a protein is more complex because three mRNA nucleotides correspond
to one amino acid in the polypeptide sequence.

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Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. What does the base pairing rule state?

a. A pairs with T, G pairs with C
b. A pairs with G, T pairs with C
c. Replication is semiconservative
d. DNA is a double helix held together by hydrogen bonds

2. Which of the following products is the result of transcription?

a. an amino acid chain
b. messenger RNA
c. complementary DNA
d. okazaki fragments

3. If a DNA molecule is found to be composed of 30% thymine, what percentage of

guanine would be expected of this strand?
a. 10% b. 20% c. 40% d. 80%

4. Which of the following best describes the arrangement of the sides of the DNA
molecule?
a. Alternating c. Bonded
b. Antiparallel d. Twisted

5. Which of the following is found on RNA but not DNA?

a. Adenine c. Phosphate
b. Deoxyribose d. Uracil

6. Which of the following would be the complementary strand of the given DNA
strand after replication? G G A C T G A T T
a. C C T G A C T A A c. G G A C T G A T T
b. C C U G A C U A A d. T T A G T C A G G

7. Given the following DNA strand, which of the following is its complementary
mRNA? G G A C T G A T T
a. C C T G A C T A A c. G G A C T G A T T
b. C C U G A C U A A d. T T A G T C A G G

8. Which of the following is NOT necessary for protein synthesis to occur once
transcription has been completed?
a. DNA c. tRNA
b. mRNA d. Ribosomes

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 Lesson
Transcription (From DNA to RNA)
1
In our previous discussions, you were introduced to the chemical structure
and function of the DNA as a genetic material. You were also introduced to the
different types of RNA and the structure of a chromosome. You had also learned
that DNA is composed of nitrogenous bases that follows strict pairing during
replication and the sequencing of these nitrogenous bases defines the genetic
information of the ones carrying it. Remember that bases strictly follow Chargaff’s
rule: ADENINE always pair with THYMINE and CYTOSINE always pair with
GUANINE. But DNA does not get out from the nucleus therefore genetic
information are expressed into proteins. Aside from being semi conservative,
Genes encode proteins and proteins dictate cell function. Therefore, genetic
information flows from DNA into protein, the substance that gives an organism its
appearance. This flow of information occurs through the successive processes of
transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein); also known as
the Central Dogma of Biology.

Imagine your body consumes too much sugar, this will result to the
increase of glucose or blood sugar in your blood. Now, a hormone insulin,
reduces or regulates the blood sugar. So let us explore how insulin is created in
our system via the process of gene expression. The insulin gene is expressed
exclusively in the beta cells of the islet of Langerhans. The release of this
polypeptide hormone into the bloodstream, principally in response to elevated
glucose levels, is essential for controlling carbohydrate metabolism in peripheral
tissues. This only means that specific regions of DNA are transcribed depending
on what gene is needed to be expressed. Aside from being semi conservative,
DNA is also composed 99% non-coding sections and only 1% codes for proteins.
This is the reason why only certain parts of DNA gives rise to genes.
Basically, a gene is used to build a protein in a two-step process:
Step 1: Transcription
In here, the DNA sequence of a gene is "rewritten" in the form of RNA. In
eukaryotes the RNA is processed (the non-coding parts are snipped out) to make

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 the final product, called a messenger RNA or mRNA.
Step 2: Translation
In this stage, the mRNA is "decoded" to build a protein (or a
chunk/subunit of a protein) that contains a specific series of amino acids.
TRANSCRIPTION: From DNA to RNA
Transcription is the first step in gene expression, and it happens inside the
nucleus. Since DNA does not go out of the nucleus, transcription allows the
synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA base sequences by RNA
polymerase.Transcription therefore is the process of creating a complementary
RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. During transcription, a DNA sequence is read
by the RNA polymerase, which in turn produces a complementary but antiparallel
RNA strand. In contrast to DNA replication, RNA synthesis follows the same
base-pairing rules as DNA, except uracil substitutes for thymine.
A transcript is the stretched form of DNA transcribed into an RNA
molecule. Some transcripts are used as structural or regulatory RNAs, and
others encode one or more proteins. If the transcribed gene encodes a protein,
the result of transcription is messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA is then used to
create protein in the process of translation.

Definition of Term
Regulatory RNA’s - small regulatory RNAs are non-coding RNA molecules that play a role in cellular
processes such as activation or inhibition processes.

Stages of Transcription
1. Initiation

The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the promoter site on the DNA at
the start of a gene. For eukaryotes it is the TATA box. Then the RNA polymerase
separates the DNA. After the DNA become separated, RNA polymerase begins
copying from a specific point on one strand (antisense strand) of the DNA using a
special type of sugar-containing nucleoside called ribonucleoside 5’-triphosphate
to begin the growing chain.
Definition of Terms
TATA Box - named for its conserved DNA sequence, which is most commonly TATAAA. It’s a DNA sequence that
indicates where a genetic sequence can be read and decoded. It is a type of promoter sequence, which specifies
to other molecules where transcription begins.

RNA polymerase - enzyme that is responsible for copying a DNA sequence into an RNA sequence, during
transcription.

Ribonucleoside 5’-triphosphate - a structural subunit of RNA that is added to the growing chain (singe units of A,
T, G, U, added to the growing chain)

Transcription Factors - sequence-specific DNA-binding factor) is a protein that controls the rate of transcription of
genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA, by binding to a specific DNA sequence.

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 Promoter Region Transcription unit/ coding region

Non template strand

Template strand

Transcription factors attaches to the promoter region.

Attachment of RNA polymerase on the

transcription unit. Movement of RNA
polymerase is downstream.

RNA polymerase unwound the

DNA as nucleotides are being
added to the growing chain.

Figure 3.1. Shows the attachment of the RNA polymerase to the DNA
strand and the start of the transcription process.

2. Elongation
As the chain grows, the RNA polymerase slides down the template as
ribonucleoside triphosphates are added to the growing strand. Each successive
ribonucleotide is directed by the complementary base pairing rules of DNA. For
example, a G (guanine) in DNA directs the incorporation of a C (cytosine) into
RNA. Likewise, a C in DNA is copied into a G in RNA, a (thymine) into A
(adenine) and an A into a U (uracil; RNA contains U in place of the T of DNA).\

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 DNA rewound as RNA
As RNA polymerase moves
polymerase moves
downstream, ribonucleotide is
downstream
added to the growing strand,
while following the base pairing
rule.

Figure 3.2: Shows the process of elongation.

3. Termination

Once the RNA polymerase encounters the termination signal the RNA
polymerase will detach from the DNA molecule and transcription ends at that
point. Then the completed mRNA molecule then moves from the nucleus to
the rough ER for translation.
Termination Factors

Termination Site

Rewounded DNA

Termination of
Completed RNA Transcript RNA polymerase

Figure 3.3 Termination of Transcription.

Side Note: The mechanisms of termination are different in prokaryotes and

eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, the polymerase stops transcription at the end of the
terminator. In eukaryotes, the polymerase continues transcription after the pre-
mRNA is cleaved from the growing RNA chain; the polymerase eventually falls
off the DNA

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 During transcription, only one strand of DNA is usually copied. This is
called the template strand, and the RNA molecules produced are single-stranded
messenger RNAs (mRNAs). The DNA strand that would correspond to the
mRNA is called the coding or sense strand. In eukaryotes (organisms that
possess a nucleus) the initial product of transcription is called a pre-mRNA. Pre-
mRNA is extensively edited through splicing before the mature mRNA is
produced and ready for translation by the ribosome. In prokaryotes mRNA is
directly translated to proteins.

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Transcription

Despite of the similarities on the overall process of transcription in both

prokaryotes and eukaryotes, there exists a few fundamental difference between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription about which we will discuss in the article.
The differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic transcription are given
below.

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Transcription

Prokaryotic Transcription Eukaryotic Transcription

Transcription and translation occur at Transcription and translation do not occur at the same
the same time time

Prokaryotic transcription occurs in the Eukaryotic transcription occurs in the nucleus and
cytoplasm translation occurs in the cytoplasm.

RNAs are released and processed in RNAs are released and processed in the nucleus
the cytoplasm

RNA polymerases are a complex of RNA polymerases are a complex of 10 -15

five polypeptides. polypeptides.

Does not require any proteins or other Requires proteins known as transcription factors for
factors for the initiation of transcription the initiation.

mRNA is not processed anymore thus mRNA produced will still undergo processing to
it directly goes translation process. remove the introns (non-coding regions) before it gets
out of the nucleus

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 Figure 3. 4 Shows the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
transcription.

Post - transcription process in Eukaryotic Transcription

Enzymes in the eukaryotic nucleus alter pre-mRNA before the
genetic messages are sent to the cytoplasm. During RNA processing,
both ends of the primary transcript are usually altered. Each end of a
pre-mRNA molecule is modified in a particular way such as the 5’ end
receives a modified nucleotide 5’ cap while the 3’ end gets a poly-A
tail. Aside from that, some interior parts of the molecule are
removed/cut out, and the other parts spliced together.

Definition of Terms
Introns – non coding regions of the RNA transcript

Exons – coding regions of the RNA transcript

Splicing - the removal of the non-coding regions of the pre - mRNA after the transcription
process

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 Figure 3.5 Shows the processing of pre-mRNA before translation.

Transcription is the first stage of gene expression. The process of

transcription begins when an enzyme called RNA polymerase (RNA pol) attaches
to the template DNA strand and begins to catalyze production of complementary
RNA. In eukaryotes transcription results to a pre mRNA molecule that undergoes
splicing before going out of the nucleus, while prokaryotic transcription results to
a mRNA that directly undergoes translation process.
The transcription process is initiated by the binding of RNA polymerase to
the promoter region of the DNA strand then the RNA polymerase moves
downstream while nucleotide bases are added to the growing strand. The
transcription process will end when the termination site will be encountered by
the RNA polymerase.

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 Activity 1
Complete Me!
Direction: Summarize the events that take place in transcription by filling up the
spaces below. Use the words found on the word bank below.

adenine disassociates exon

nucleus splicing termination
promoter region uracil elongation
initiation RNA intron
guanine transcription termination site
mRNA thymine unwound
nucleotides cytosine cytoplasm

The first part of Protein synthesis is

which takes place in the where DNA is

decoded into

There are three stages of transcription, the first one is

_______________ where RNA polymerase binds to the ________________ of
the gene. The second stage is _________________. It is where the DNA
_________________ and __________________ are added to the growing chain
while the RNA polymerase is moving downstream. Then once the
_______________ is encountered, the RNA polymerase ____________ from
the DNA and the mRNA goes for the next stage. At the end of transcription in
eukaryotes the pre-mRNA undergoes _______________ to remove the
__________ (the non-coding part of the mRNA) to produce a mature
_______________. Transcription also follows the rule of base paring ; G bonds
with ___________ and T bonds with ___________ and A bonds with ______.

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 Activity 2
Comparing Replication and Transcription
DNA replication is a process where a cell copies its DNA. During replication,
both strands of the double helix are used as templates to make complementary
strands or matching strands of DNA. DNA transcription on the other hand in
which a single strand of DNA is used as a template to generate a strand of
mRNA.

Direction: Given the table below, fill in the missing information on the proper
base pairing, the first one was done for you.
TEMPLATE DNA COMPLEMENTARY DNA MESSENGER RNA
(Replication) (Translation)
TTACG AATGC AAUGC
GGCGG
ACGUAGC
AGACTC
GATAAGA
CUGCCCUAACC

Activity 3
Arrange thy steps!
Directions: Place the following sequence of steps in the correct order on how
they occur in transcription. Use letters A - E in aswering.
___mRNA separates from the DNA template
___hydrogen bonds reform between the two strands of the DNA molecule
___free floating mRNA nucelotides match up with their complementary
nucelotides in the DNA strand
___DNA helix unwinds and hydrogen bonds between nitrogen bases
break at the gene location
___mRNA moves into the cytoplasm and the DNA strands reform and
rewind

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 Activity 4
Lets Practice More!
Direction: Write the complementary strands of each DNA molecule as it
undergoes the transcription proces.
1.
DNA A T G C T G A C G

mRNA

2.

DNA T T A C G A T G C

mRNA

3.

DNA C C G C T A G A C

mRNA

4.

DNA A C G G A A T G C

mRNA

5.

DNA C C A A T A G C A

mRNA

Direction: Reverse transcribe the following mRNA molecule to its

complementary DNA.
6.
DNA

mRNA A U G A C G U A A

7.

DNA

mRNA U G A C G C C G U

8.

DNA

mRNA C G U A A C G G C

9.

DNA

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 mRNA G G A U C G C G G

10.

DNA

mRNA C A G C C G G A A

Activity 4

Directions: Synthesizing the knowledge you gained from the modules, answer
the following briefly but substantially.

1. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic transcription have simmilarities and differences.

Basing form the knowldegde you gained from the first quarter what do you
think are the reasons that account for the differences of transcription between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_

2. Why does the pre-mRNA undergoes splicing before translation happens?

_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_

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 3. What do you think might happen if there is an error in the process of
transcription?
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
_

SCORING RUBRIC FOR WRITTEN RESPONSES

Traits 4 3 2 1
Focus & There is one clear, well There is one clear, well- There is one topic. The topic and main
Details focused topic. Main ideas focused topic. Main ideas Main ideas are ideas are not clear.
are clear and are well are clear but are not well somewhat clear.
supported by detailed and supported by detailed
accurate information. information.

Organization The introduction is inviting, The introduction states the The introduction There is no clear
states the main topic, and main topic and provides an states the main introduction,
provides an overview of overview of the paper. A topic. A conclusion structure, or
the paper. Information is conclusion is included. is included. conclusion.
relevant and presented in
a logical order. The
conclusion is strong.

Voice The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of The author’s The author’s
writing is very clear, and writing is somewhat clear, purpose of writing purpose of writing
there is strong evidence of and there is some is somewhat clear, is unclear.
attention to audience. The evidence of attention to and there is
author’s extensive audience. The author’s evidence of
knowledge and/or knowledge and/or attention to
experience with the topic experience with the topic audience. The
is/are evident is/are evident author’s
knowledge and/or
experience with
the topic is/are
limited.

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Word Choice The author uses vivid The author uses vivid The author uses The writer uses a
words and phrases. The words and phrases. The words that limited vocabulary.
choice and placement of choice and placement of communicate Jargon or clichés
words seems accurate, words is inaccurate at clearly, but the may be present
natural, and not forced. times and/or seems writing lacks and detract from
overdone. variety the meaning.

Sentence All sentences are well Most sentences are well Most sentences Sentences sound
structure constructed and have constructed and have are well awkward, are
varied structure and varied structure and constructed, but distractingly
and length. The author makes length. The author makes they have a similar repetitive, or are
mechanics no errors in grammar, a few errors in grammar, structure and/or difficult to
mechanics, and/or mechanics, and/or length. The author understand. The
spelling. spelling, but they do not makes several author makes
interfere with errors in grammar, numerous errors in
understanding. mechanics, and/or grammar,
spelling that mechanics, and/or
interfere with spelling that
understanding. interfere with
understanding.
Score

1. Which of the following set of words will complete the sentence: RNA is synthesized on a
DNA template in a process called ______, which utilizes the enzyme _______?

A. transcription, DNA polymerase C. translation, RNA polymerase

B. transcription, RNA polymerase D. replication, DNA polymerase

2. Which of the following statements BEST describe Messenger RNA (mRNA)?

A.A way of rewriting RNA

B.Double stranded RNA that carries infromation from DNA
C.RNA molecule present only in prokaryotes and not in eukaryotes
D.Short-lived RNA molecule that carries encoded information transcribed from
DNA
3. What is transcription?
A. Synthesis of linkages from introns
B. Synthesis of RNA from a DNA template
C. Synthesis of polydiester linkages from an Exon
D. Synthesis of proteins from information on a mRNA

4. Which RNA bases would pair with ATCGAA in transcription?

A. UAGCUU B. TAGCTT C. CGATCC D. CGAUCC

5. Where does transcription in prokaryotes take place?

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 A. Cytoplasm B. Rough ER C. Nucleus D. Ribosome

6. What type of molecule is produced showed in the diagram below?

A. DNA B. Messenger RNA C. Polypeptide D. Transfer RNA

Lesson

2 The Genetic Code

Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen

Now that the gene needed to produce insulin is copied from the DNA, the
protein for insulin can now be made in order for your body to respond in glucose
breakdown. We can now move to the second part of gene expression – the
process of TRANSLATION. But before we discuss translation, we still need to be
familiar with the GENETIC CODE.
In here we are going to answer the question “How is insulin produced from
the copied mRNA?”.

The Genetic Code

Proteins are made up of smaller molecules called amino acids.
There are 20 commonly found amino acids that makes up an organism.
Thus, the flow of information from gene to protein is based on a triplet
code called: CODONS.

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 There are 61 codons for amino acids, and each of them is "read" to
specify a certain amino acid. One codon, AUG, specifies the amino acid
methionine (met) and acts as a start codon to signal the start of protein
construction. Then we have three more codons that do not specify amino
acids. These are the stop codons, UAG, UAA, and UGA. They tell the
cell when a polypeptide is complete. Altogether, this collection of codon-
amino acid relationships is called the genetic code because it lets cells
“decode” an mRNA into a chain of amino acids.

The 20 Essential Amino Acids in the Body an their Abbreviations

Amino acid Abbreviation

Alanine Ala

Arginine Arg

Asparagine Asn

Aspartic acid Asp

Cysteine Cys

Glutamine Gln

Glutamic acid Glu

Glycine Gly

Histidine His

Isoleucine Ile

Leucine Leu

Lysine Lys

Methionine Met

Phenylalanine Phe

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 Amino acid Abbreviation
Proline Pro

Serine Ser

Threonine Thr

Tryptophan Trp

Tyrosine Tyr

Valine Val

The 20 essential amino acids are the building blocks of proteins/polypeptides in

almost all of vertebras. They are carried by the other end of tRNAs.
The GENETIC CODE Table

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 _Image credit: "The genetic code," by OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 3.0)._

NOTE: Codons must be read in the correct reading frame (correct groupings) in
order for the specified polypeptide to be produced.

Reading frame
To consistently get from an mRNA to a protein, we need one more
conception: that of reading frame. Reading frame determines how the mRNA
sequence is divided up into codons during translation.
Reading frames are needed in order for the correct amino acids to be
added on the growing chain. In order for us to easily understand, let us look at
the examples below. The mRNA below can encode three totally different
proteins, depending on the frame in which it's read:

If you’re given the mRNA: 5’ UCAUGAUCUCGUAAGA 3’ it can be read in

three frames:

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 Image lifted from: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/
translation/a/the-genetic-code-discovery-and-properties

The start codon's position ensures that Frame 3 is chosen for translation of the
mRNA. And so, how does a cell know which of these protein to make? This is now the
work of the START CODON: AUG. Translation starts at the start codon and continues
in successive groups of three, the position of the start codon ensures that the mRNA is
read in the correct frame (in the example above, in Frame 3).

The genetic code is a three letter code that reads the mRNA into its
corresponding arrangement of amino acids. There are at least 61 codes
that corresponds to 20 amino acids and 3 codes that serves as the
termination codons. During gene expression, the start codon AUG will
ensure that the mRNA is read in the correct frame. The stop codons
include the codes UAG, UGA, UAA.

Activity 1
Which Amino Acid Am I?
Direction: Identify the amino acids that codes for each given codon.
1. AUG - _______ 11. UGA - _______
2. UUC - _______ 12. AGU - _______
3. CAU - _______ 13. AAA - _______
4. UGG - _______ 14. UAU - _______
5. GUA - _______ 15. CUA - _______
6. AUU - _______ 16. UAC - _______
7. CUA - _______ 17. CCG - _______
8. GGG - _______ 18. CGC - _______
9. GAU - _______ 19. CAA - _______
10. UAA - _______ 20. CGA - _______
Activity 2
Read me correctly!

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Direction: Decode the following set of mRNA below by writing the correct set of
amino acids that they code for. USE THE CORRET READING FRAME FOR EACH
MOLECULE.
1. ACGUGAUGCGUGCCCGCGCGUACGUCGGAUUUGGAU
________________________________________________________________

2. CGGUGAAUGGCAUGCCGAUAUGAGUAUAG
________________________________________________________________

3. UCGCGCUAUGGUAAUUCUAUAGCGUACGGCUACG
________________________________________________________________

4. UCGGCUAGUCGUGCAGGGCCCUUAGGAUCGUACGCAUACGAU
________________________________________________________________

5. CGUAGCAUGCUAGCUACGAUCGUAGCAUCGAUCAGCAGCGA
________________________________________________________________

Read these passages from the text and answer the questions that follow.
The Genetic Code
How is the information in a gene encoded? The answer is the genetic
code. The genetic code consists of the sequence of nitrogen bases — A, C, G, T
(or U) — in a polynucleotide chain. The four bases make up the “letters” of the
genetic code. The letters are combined in groups of three to form code “words,”
called codons. Each codon stands for (encodes) one amino acid, unless it codes
for a start or stop signal. There are 20 common amino acids in proteins. There
are 64 possible codons, more than enough to code for the 20 amino acids.
Reading the Genetic Code
As shown in the Genetic Code figure, the codon AUG codes for the amino acid
methionine. This codon is also the start codon that begins translation. The
start codon establishes the reading frame of mRNA. The reading frame is the
way the letters are divided into codons. After the AUG start codon, the next
three letters are read as the second codon. The next three letters after that are
read as the third codon, and so on. The mRNA molecule is read, codon by
codon, until a stop codon is reached. UAG, UGA, and UAA are all stop codons.
They do not code for any amino acids.

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Characteristics of the Genetic Code
The genetic code has a number of important characteristics.
• The genetic code is universal. All known living things have the same genetic
code. This shows that all organisms share a common evolutionary history.
• The genetic code is unambiguous. Each codon codes for just one amino acid
(or start or stop).
• The genetic code is redundant. Most amino acids are encoded by more than
one codon.
Questions
1. What is the genetic code?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

2. Explain the significance of an AUG codon.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Why is the genetic code read three bases at a time?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4. “The genetic code is universal.” Explain this statement.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
5. What might happen if codons encoded more than one amino acid?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

1. Which of the following is not included to the group?

A. AUG B. UAG C. UAA D. UAG

2. Based on the information below, what would the DNA base sequence be for a
tripeptide of: histine (CAU), serine (UCG), valine (GUC)? Note the amino
acid bases given in parenthesis are mRNA.
A. CAUUCGGUC C. GUAAGCCAG
B. GTAAGCCAG D. GUTTGCCTG

3. Which of the following BEST complete the sentence below.

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 “ The codon is _______ bases long and is part of an _______”
A. 2, mRNA C. 3, mRNA
B. 2, rRNA D. 3, tRNA

4. What will be the result of the mRNA molecule 5’CAUGUAUCUGCGUAAGA3’

when translated into protein?
A. Ser – Cys – Ile – Cys – Val – Arg
B. Met – Tyr – Leu – Arg – Lys
C. Cys – Ile – Cys – Val – Arg
D. His – Val – Ser – Ala – Stop

5. Which of the following is amino acid serves as the start codon?

A. Ile B. His C. Leu C. Met

Lesson

3 Translation: From RNA to Protein

After learning about how the genetic code works we can now go back to the
expression of the gene for insulin. Let us now analyze the final step of gene expression.
The transfer of RNA codes to protein: TRANSLATION.

Overview of translation
For mRNA to be translated into polypeptide two molecules are
needed for it to happen. These molecules with key roles in translation are
tRNAs and ribosomes.
Transfer RNAs (tRNAs)
Transfer RNAs, or tRNAs, are molecular "bridges" that connect mRNA
codons to the amino acids they encode. One end of each tRNA has a sequence
of three nucleotides called an anticodon. These anticodons bind to specific

27 | P a g e Definition of Terms

Codons – a sequence of three nucleotides

which together form a unit of genetic code in a
DNA or RNA molecule.
 mRNA codons while the other end of the tRNA carries the amino acid specified
by the codons.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the structures where polypeptides (proteins) are built.
They are made up of protein and RNA (ribosomal RNA, or rRNA). Ribosomes
are composed of a small and large subunit and have three sites where tRNAs
can bind to an mRNA (the A, P, and E sites).

Image modified from "Translation: Figure 3.6," by OpenStax College,

Biology (CC BY 4.0).

Definition of Terms

Release factor (RF) – refers to a type of translation factor that triggers translation termination

A Site – the first location the t-RNA binds during the protein synthesis process

P –Site - holds the tRNA which is linked to the growing polypeptide chain

E – Site - third and final binding site for t-RNA in the ribosome during translation, a part of protein synthesis.
It is where the tRNA goes before exiting the rRNA during translation process.

28 | P a g e
Steps of translation
1. Getting started: Initiation
In initiation, the rRNA assembles around the mRNA to be read and
moves until it finds the start codon (AUG). This setup, called the initiation
complex, is needed in order for translation to get started.

Small ribosomal unit and

initiator tRNA binds to the
Transfer RNA 5’cap of the mRNA

Small ribosomal unit

Complex moves downstream

to find the start codon

Initiator tRNA binds to the

start codon

Large ribosomal unit joins to

form the initiation complex.

Figure 3.7 Shows the steps that occur during the initiation stage of translation

2. Extending the chain: Elongation

The second stage is elongation. It is the stage where the amino
acid chain gets longer. In elongation, the mRNA is read one codon at a
time, and the amino acid matching each codon is added to a growing
polypeptide chain. Elongation has three stages:

29 | P a g e
 1) The anticodon of an incoming tRNA pairs with the mRNA codon
exposed in the A site.
2) A peptide bond is formed between the new amino acid (in the A
site) and the previously added amino acid (in the P site),
transferring the polypeptide from the P site to the A site.
3) The ribosome moves one codon down on the mRNA. The tRNA
in the A site (carrying the polypeptide) shifts to the P site. The
tRNA in the P site shifts to the E site and exits the ribosome.

The tRNA pairs with the

mRNA codon exposed in the
A site.

Polypeptide transfer from P site to A

site as the ribosome moves one
codon at a time.

Growing polypeptide Incoming tRNA

tRNA also moves from P site to A
site while the tRNA in P site
moves to the E site then
eventually exits the ribosome.

Figure 3.8: Elongation Process of Translation

During elongation, tRNAs move through the A, P, and E sites of the ribosome, as shown
above. This process repeats many times as new codons are read and new amino acids
are added to the chain.

30 | P a g e
 3. Finishing up: Termination

Termination is the stage in which the finished polypeptide chain is

released. When the rRNA encounters the stop codons (UAG, UAA, or UGA) a
release factor enters the A site of the ribosome triggering the separation of the
chain from its tRNA and allowing it to flow out of the ribosome.
After termination, the polypeptide may still need to fold into the right 3D
shape, undergoes processing (such as the removal of amino acids) and get
shipped to the right place in the cell, or combine with other polypeptides before it
can do its job as a functional protein.
Definition of Terms
release factor (RF) - refers to a type of translation factor that triggers translation termination

Stop codons - a trinucleotide sequence within a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule that signals a halt to
protein synthesis

When the tRNA encounters the stop codon, a release factor enters
the a site triggering the release of the chain from its tRNA

Figure 3.9 shows what happens during the termination stage of translation

rRNA disassociates form mRNA and polypeptide chain is released

31 | P a g e to the cytoplasm for further processing
 During translation, a cell “reads” the information in a messenger
RNA (mRNA) and uses it to build a polypeptide sequence, otherwise
known as protein. This process of synthesizing proteins is directed by the
mRNA and accomplished with the help of a ribosome, a large complex of
ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and proteins. Other molecules that carry out this
process are tRNAs. Transfer RNA, or tRNA, translates the sequence of
codons on the mRNA strand. Its main function is to transfer a free amino
acid from the cytoplasm to a ribosome, where it is attached to the growing
polypeptide chain. tRNAs continue to add amino acids to the growing end
of the polypeptide chain until they reach a stop codon on the mRNA. The
ribosome then releases the completed protein into the cell. Within all cells,
the translation machinery resides within a specialized organelle called the
ribosome.

The translation process occurs depending on what type of cell is

involves. In eukaryotes, mature mRNA molecules must leave the nucleus
and travel to the cytoplasm, where the ribosomes (protein factory of the
cell) are located. On the other hand, in prokaryotic organisms, ribosomes
can attach to mRNA while it is still being transcribed. In this situation,
translation begins at the 5' end of the mRNA while the 3' end is still
attached to DNA.

ACTIVITY 1 Fill Me Up!

Direction: Summarize the events that take place in translation by filling up the
spaces below. Choose form the word bank below.

Amino acid Bonds Codons

Cytoplasm Translation

32 | P a g e
 The second part of Protein synthesis is

which takes place in the where tRNA

anticodon bonds with

between Then rRNA

creates
creating a

PROTEI
N

Activity 2
What Molecule Am I?
Direction: Label the different molecules needed in translation in the figure below.
Then, describe the functions of each molecule.

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______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Activity 3 Read and Decode

Directions: For each of the following items below, transcribe the DNA strand into
mRNA, SECTION it into its codons, identify its anticodons and translate it into amino
acids. Use your codon chart to determine the amino acid sequence. Remember to read
through the strand and ONLY start on START codon and STOP when it tells you to
stop.
1.
DNA CCTCTTTACACACGGAGGGTACGCTATTCTATGATTACACGGTTGCGATCCATAATC
mRNA
tRNA
Amino
Acids
2.
DNA AGAACATAATACCTCTTAACACTCTAAAGACCAGCACTCCGATGAACTGGAGCA
mRNA
tRNA
Amino
Acids
3.
DNA TAAACTCGGTACCTAGCTTAGATCTAATTACCCATC

mRNA
34 | P atRNA
ge
Amino
Acids
 4.
DNA CTATTACGATACTAGAGCGAATAGAAACTTATC
mRNA
tRNA
Amino
Acids
5.
DNA TACAGACGGCAACTCTGGGTGCTTTGTTCTCTTCTCAGTATC
mRNA
tRNA
Amino
Acids
6.
DNA ACCCGATACCTCTCTTATAGCATTACAAACCTCCGAGCG
mRNA
tRNA
Amino
Acids
7.
DNA TACCTTAGTTATCCATTGACTCGAATTGTGCGCTTGCTGATC
mRNA
tRNA
Amino
Acids

SAY IT WITH DNA: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET

Directions:

STEP 1: "Build" the mRNA molecule, matching the RNA nucleotides to the DNA
nucleotides properly, letter by letter.
STEP 2: Figure out the tRNA triplets (codons) that would fit the mRNA triplets (letter by
letter).
STEP 3: Look up each tRNA codon in the tRNA Dictionary (below), and find the
corresponding symbol and amino acid abbreviation for that codon. Record that one-
letter symbol (and its amino acid) below each codon. If you have done this correctly, the
symbols should spell out a meaningful message in English.
Remember, C always pairs with G, G always pairs with C, A pairs with T or T pairs with
A (in DNA). In RNA, C always pairs with G, G always pairs with C, A pairs with U or U

35 | P a g e
pairs with A. Clues: C & G are curved letters; A & T are angular; U is used in RNA in
place of T.

PARTIALLY SOLVED MESSAGE

GIVEN: DNA code message --> GAA TAG AAA CTT ACT TAG AGC ATT CCT GCC
CTT CGA TGC ATC

SOLUTION (steps 1-4)

1. mRNA (built to match
the DNA message,
letter for letter----------------CUU AUC UUU GAA UGA AUC UCG ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
2. tRNA (determined by
matching letters (bases)
with those in mRNA)------- GAA UAG AAA CUU ACU UAG ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

3.Amino acids carried by

each tRNA (according to
dictionary, below)-----------

4. Symbols of amino acids:-- L I F E - I........

DICTIONARY OF tRNA CODONS & THEIR AMINO ACIDS (SYMBOLS &

ABBREVIATIONS)

36 | P a g e
1. AGA TAC TAG GAC CTT ACT CGA TTG CTG ATT GCG CGA CTA TAA CGG TGC
CTC ACT CGG ATT AAC TAG TGC TGA AAT CTT ATT ACG GTA CTT CTC GCC
ATC
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. CTA GCC CTC CGT TAC TAG TTA CCT ACT TAT TCA ATT TTG TAA ACG CTC
ATC CGA ACC CGC TTT TAA TTG CCC ACT TAG TCG ATT ACC CGT TTA TGT
TAA TTA CCT ATC
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. CTA TTA CGA ACT TAG AGC ATT GAA TAG AAA CTT ATC
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. AAA TAT TTA CTA ACT TGG GTA CTT ATT AGC CTC ACG GCG CTT TGT ATT
TAC CTC AGA AGC CGA CCA CTC ATC
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
5. AGA CGG CAA CTC ATT TGG GTG CTT ACT TGT TCT CTT CTC AGT ATC
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

1. Which nucleotide in the figure below indicates the nucleic acid is RNA?
A. Adenine
B. Cytosine
C. Guanine
D. Uracil
2. What is produced during transcription?
A. DNA molecules C. Proteins
B. RNA molecules D. RNA polymerase
3. Which molecule is formed after eukaryotic transcription took place?
A. A molecule that is complementary to both strands of DNA.
B. A molecule that is double-stranded and inside the nucleus.
C. A molecule that is identical to an entire single strand of DNA.
D. A molecule that is complementary to part of one strand of DNA.
4. Which of the following statement is true if We have 64 codons and 20 amino
acids?

37 | P a g e
 A. Several different codons can specify the same amino acid.
B. Each amino acid is specified by only one codon.
C. Each codon specifies a different amino acid.
D. Some amino acids have no link to a codon.
5. Which of the following BEST describes a promoter?
A. binding site for DNA polymerase
B. binding site for RNA polymerase
C. stop signal for transcription
D. start signal for replication
6. Which of the following phrases will complete the sentence below?
During translation, the type of amino acid that is added to the growing
polypeptide depends on
_____________________________________________.
A. anticodon on the mRNA and the anticodon on the tRNA
B. anticodon on the rRNA and the codon on the mRNA
C. codon on the mRNA and the anticodon on the rRNA
D. codon on the mRNA and the anticodon on the tRNA
7. Which of the following statements is true about eukaryotic transcription?
A. Transcription and translation both take place in the nucleus.
B. Transcription and translation both take place in the cytoplasm.
C. Transcription takes place in the cytoplasm, and translation takes place in the
nucleus.
D. Transcription takes place in the nucleus, and translation takes place in the
cytoplasm.

8. What is the correct amino acid sequence for the mRNA code
AUGCCAGUAUGA?
A. Met-Pro-Ala-Val C. Tyr-Gly-His
B. Met-Pro-Val D. Tyr-Gly-Arg-His
9. What does the three letter (example: ATC) in DNA codes for?
A. Amino Acid C. Deoxyribose
B. Carbohydrate D. Polypeptide
10. Which amino acid is made from the RNA codon UUA?
A. Leucine C. Serine
B. Phenylalanine D. Tyrosine

References:
Karp, Gerald, Cell and Molecular Biology, 5th Ed., Wiley, 2008.
Enger, Eldon D. and Ross, Frederick C., Concepts in Biology, 10th Ed., McGraw-Hill,
2003.

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Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L. 1., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., Reece, J. B., & Campbell,
N. A. (2017). Essential biology. Eleventh edition. New York, NY: Pearson Education,
Inc.
https://biologydictionary.net/protein-synthesis/
https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-the-central-dogma
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-college-human-biology-flexbook-2.0/section/
5.6/primary/lesson/protein-synthesis-chumbio
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-
rna-and-protein-synthesis/a/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis-review
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%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/06%3A_DNA_and_Protein_Synthesis/
6.04%3A_Protein_Synthesis
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/the-genetic-code/
#:~:text=The%20central%20dogma%20of%20molecular,specify%20the%20sequence
%20of%20proteins.

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