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 Unit -I
Introduction to building Maintenance: Definitions of repair, renovation,
remodelling, restoration, retrofitting and rehabilitation. Need for
maintenance, types of maintenance, routine maintenance, works in
buildings.
Types of Defects and Damages in Structures: During pre-construction
stage and post construction stage. Cracks- Types, Causes and Characteristics.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DEFINITIONS:
Repair: Process of reconstruction and renewal of the existing buildings, either in whole
or in part Renovation: Process of substantial repair or alteration that extends a building’s
useful life.
Remodelling: Essentially same as renovation – applied to residential structures.
Rehabilitation: An upgrade required to meet the present needs – being sensitive to
building features and a sympathetic matching of the original construction or the process
of repairing or modifying a structure to a desired useful condition.
Restoration: The process of re-establishing the materials, form and appearance of a
structure. Strengthening: The process of increasing the load-resistance capacity of a
structure or portion.
Retrofitting: The process of strengthening of structure along with the structural system,
if required so as to comply all relevant codal provisions in force during that period.
Demolition: The process of pulling down of the structure not deemed to be fit for service.
Operation: The term operation relates to a plant as any activity required to run a plant.
Thus the activity to run the plant is called operation. The operation, maintenance and
repair are post constructed activities and there is a distinct difference between them.
Service: The provision of utilities such as power, water, lift etc. in a building are called
services. Without essential services a building is useless.
Servicing: The work done or activities carried out to keep a plant or vehicle in a running
condition is called servicing.
Distress in structure: The wear and tear developed in the structure due to aging or
aggressive environmental conditions is called distress in structures.
Maintenance : The term maintenance has been coined from the French word
“MAINTENIR” which mean to hold, keep and preserve a equipment or building structure
to an acceptable standard of serviceability. Maintenance is the activities carried out to
improve or o restore the facility in every part of the building to a accepted standard.

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Defects: These are the flaws that are introduced through poor design, poor workmanship
before a structure begins its design life or through inadequate operation and
maintenance during its service life.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE MAINTENANCE

Though there are various factors which influence the decision of taking maintenance of a
structure. However following the main factors which influence the maintenance.
1. Cost: The cost of maintenance may be divided into the following categories: Direct cost:
Direct cost comprises the cost of material, labour, rent and cartage of equipment etc.
Usually this cost varies from 70 to 90% of the total repair cost. Indirect cost: Under this
head cost of stoppage of work money spent on safety measures, availability of time, over
head expenses, restricted access etc. are grouped. This cost may vary from 10 to 30% or
even more.
2. Age of building: Every element of a structure has a definite life span. All materials and
components start aging from the moment they are used in the structure. Hence a
comprehensive program of inspection and maintenance of structure should be prepared
as soon as the construction of building or structure has been completed.
3. Availability of physical resources: At the time of planning maintenance of an element
of the building all the materials, components, services and equipment needed should be
available. If they are so available maintenance is not possible.
4. Urgency: In case of failure of some services as failure of water supply, the repair needs
immediate attention. If it is not repaired immediately, it will cause a lot of inconvenience.
5. Future use: At the time of considering of carrying out maintenance, future use of
building as a whole must be kept in view.
6. Social considerations: While carrying out maintenance work, the disturbance to the
society should be minimum. Pleasing environment should be created by regular and
planned maintenance.
NECESSITY OF MAINTENANCE.
The causes which necessitate the maintenance effects the service and durability of the
structure as follows:
a) Atmospheric agencies
b) Normal wear and tear
c) Failure of structure

a) Atmospheric agencies :
Rain: It is the important source of water, which affects the structure in the following
ways:

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Physical:

 Dissolving and carrying away minerals as it is universal solvent.

 Expansion and contraction – The materials is subjected to repetitive expansion and
contraction while they become wet and dry and develops the stresses.
 Expansion of water – The variation of temperature causes the expansion and
contraction absorbed water and affects the micro-structures of the materials.
 Erosion – Transportation, attrition and abrasion of the materials is quite evident effect
of the water.

Chemical:
The water available in nature contains acids and alkaline and other compound in dissolve
form acts over the material to give rise, which is known as chemical weathering.
 Wind: It is the agent, which transports the abrasive material and assists the physical
weathering Its action is aggravated during rains and, When it is moving with high speed,
it may contains acidic gases like CO2 fumes which may act over the material and
penetrates quite deeply in materials and structure.
 Temperature: The seasonal and annual variation of the temperature, difference in
temperature in two parts of the materials and the surface of material causes expansion
and contraction, this movement of the material bond and adhesion between them is lost
when it is repeated. This responsible for the development of cracks and the rocks may
break away into small units.
Exploitation or peeling off the shell takes place if exterior layer are heated externally with
respect to internal layers. The temperature variation may also cause change in the
structure and chemical composition of the material.
b) Normal Wear and tear:
During the use of structure it is subjected to abrasion and thereby it looses appearance
an serviceability.
c) Failure of structure: Failure is defined as the behavior of structure not in agreement
with expected condition of stability or lacking freedom from necessary repair or non-
compliance with desired use of and occupancy of the completed structure. In field it may
result in visual collapse of the structure or even suspension of the services e.g. the
collapse of towers, sliding or over turning of dam, settlement of foundation, crushing of
columns etc.
The causes of failure may be broadly grouped as:
Improper Design: Due to incorrect, insufficient data regarding use, loading and
environmental conditions, selection of material and poor detailing.

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Defective Construction: Poor materials, poor workmanship, lack of quality control and
supervision.
Improper use of structure: Overloading, selecting the structure for the use for which
they are not designed such as deteriorating environment due to impurities from
industrial fuel burning, sea water minerals, chemicals, storage of chemicals etc.
Lack of maintenance: Lack of upkeep, proper protection, precaution and preservation,
deteriorated the structure, which may result in the failure.

FACETS OF MAINTENANCE:
Maintenance operations have many facets such as
a) Emergency maintenance: Necessitated by unforeseen breakdown drainage or
damage caused by natural calamity like fire, floods, cyclone earthquake etc.
b) Condition Based maintenance: Work initiated after due inspection
c) Fixed time maintenance: Activities repeated at predetermined intervals of time.
d) Preventive maintenance: This is intended to preserve by preventing failure and
detecting incipient faults (Work is done before failure takes place)
e) Opportunity maintenance: Work did as and when possible within the limits of
operation demand.
f) Day-to-Day care and maintenance : Every day should be maintained.
g) Shut down maintenance: Thorough overhaul and maintenance after closing a facility.
h) Improvement plans: This is essentially maintenance operation wherein the weak
links in the original construction are either replaced by new parts or strengthened.

IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE
 Improves the life of structure
 Improved life period gives better return on investment
 Better appearance and aesthetically appealing
 Better serviceability of elements and components
 Leads to quicker detection of defects and hence remedial measures
 Prevents major deterioration and leading to collapse
 Ensures safety to occupants
 Ensures feeling of confidence on the user
 Maintenance is a continuous cycle involves every element of building science namely:
Structural, Electrical, wiring, Plumbing-water-supply-sanitation, Finishes in floors and
walls, Roof terrace, Service platform / verandah, Lifts Doors windows and other element.

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Various aspects Inspection:
The following are the various maintenance aspects,
a) Daily Routine Maintenance
b) Weekly Routine Maintenance
c) Monthly Routine Maintenance
d) Yearly Routine Maintenance

a) Daily Routine Maintenance

 Basically an inspection oriented and may not contain action to be taken
 Help in identifying major changes, development of cracks, identifying new cracks etc
Inspection of all essential items by visual observation
 Check on proper function of sewer, water lines, wash basins, sinks etc
 Check on drain pipes from roof during rainy season.

b) Weekly Routine Maintenance

 Electrical accessories
 Cob webs cleaning
 Flushing sewer line
 Leakage of water line

c) Monthly Routine Maintenance

 Cleaning doors, windows, latches etc
 Checking septic tank/ sewer
 Observation for cracks in the elements
 Cleaning of overhead tanks
 Peeling of plaster, dampness, floor cracks

d) Yearly Routine Maintenance

 Attending to small repairs and white washing
 Painting of steel components exposed to weather
 Check of displacements and remedial measures.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of structures can be classified into the following categories:
1. Preventive maintenance
2. Remedial maintenance
3. Routine maintenance
4. Special maintenance
5. Corrective maintenance

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1. Preventive maintenance
Activities or work done before the development of defects or damage in the structure
is called preventive maintenance.
This operation includes thorough inspection, and planning the programme of
maintenance and its execution. It depends upon the condition, use and specifications of
the structure.
Under this maintenance, following actions may be taken to arrest decay or damage
to the structure.

1. Stopping of leakage in roof, walls, sanitary, plumbing and waste water pipe lines and
rain water pipe lines by regular and proper maintenance.
2. Use of specified materials and adoption of good workmanship during construction.
3. Adoption of correct specifications for items during construction.
4. Protecting the structures from physical influences and weathering agencies.
5. Protection of structure from aggressive environmental influences.
6. Proper use of structure.

2. Remedial Maintenance
This maintenance is adopted or done after the occurrence of damage in the structure.
Under this maintenance following steps are involved:
1. Determination of the extent of deterioration or damage.
2. Determination of the causes of the decay or deterioration.
3. Determining the strength of the existing structure.
4. Assessing or evaluating the needs of the structure i.e. what is to be done to save the
structure.
5. Selection of proper procedure of repair and its implementation.

3. Routine Maintenance
It is a service maintenance attended to the structures
periodically as decided by the public works department. For this maintenance generally
1 1/2% amount is fixed of the cost of construction. The interval of routine maintenance
of different items also has been fixed as a guide line. These standard maintenance cost
and interval of maintenance may vary from state to state.

The routine maintenance is carried out to attend the problems of normal nature. It
includes inspection, planning and execution of the maintenance plan. Generally works
included are white washing of building, patch repair of plaster work, replacement of
faulty fittings and fixtures, binding of road surfaces etc. The interval of routine
maintenance of some items is shown in table below as laid down by public works
department.

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 Table: Interval for routine maintenance of some items
Name of Exposed surface Un exposed Remark
periodic repair Important Other
buildings buildings
External white Annually Normally every Every two to The periods
wash two years three years shown a re a
External colour Every two Every two and Every three guide line, but
washing years three years years repair should
External As per need ______ ______ be done
painting whenever
Internal Every three Every four As required required. Some
painting years years structures
Renewal of 3 to 10 years According to ______ need frequent
approach road traffic And maintenance
material used. than others
Renewal of 5 years ______ ______ due to various
tanis court reasons.
Thatching 8 cm coat Renewal after ______
every year 9 years and 8
cms coating
every 3 to 4
years

4. Special Maintenance
This maintenance is carried out under special conditions. It is not covered in
routine or annual repairs. It requires sanction from the competent authority. Special
maintenance are required for strengthening the structure to increase its serviceability as
in case of foundation settlement. It may include a particular part or complete removal of
floors and roofs etc. In this case estimate of repairs is prepared. Financial and technical
approvals are obtained before starting the work.

Maintenance of house drainage system:

To maintain the house drainage effectively, it should be inspected regularly and repaired
as and when required.

Proper maintenance can be carried out as follows:

1. Inspection: Different sections of drainage system should be inspected at regular

intervals and any defect observed should be removed immediately.
2. Flushing. All drains should be flushed properly.
3. Entry of undesirable material: Materials like ash, grit, hairs, vegetable waste, rags etc.
should not be allowed to enter into the drains as these will block the drains reducing their
efficiency.
4. Use of disinfectant: To maintain better hygienic conditions, W.C.S. urinals and bath
room etc. should be disinfected periodically.
5. Workmanship: Authorised plumbers only be allowed to carry out plumbing work.

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 Maintenance of house pipe lines:
To maintain the efficiency of house pipe line system, it should be inspected
periodically and suitable action should be taken as follows:
1. The elbows, sockets, valves, taps etc. should be checked periodically and tightened if
found loose. Minor leakage found at joints will stop it self. If even after a week or so, it
does not come down, it should be repaired properly.
2. Washers and seal pads found damaged should be replaced.
3. Pipe found cracked should be replaced immediately.

5. Corrective Maintenance
It is the most common method of maintenance. When an element or item fails or
falls below the level of acceptable standard, corrective maintenance is resorted as repair
of cracks or corrosion maintenance etc.

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE FOR EVALUATING DAMAGES IN STRUCTURE:

For assessment of damage of a structure the following general considerations have to be
take account.
1) Physical inspection of damaged structure.
2) Presentation and documenting the damage.
3) Collection of samples and carrying out tests both in situ and in lab.
4) Studying the documents including structural aspects.
5) Estimation of loads acting on the structure.
6) Estimate of environmental effects including soil structure interaction.
7) Diagnosis.
8) Taking preventive steps not to cause further damage.
9) Retrospective analysis to get the diagnosis confirmed.
10) Assessment of structural adequacy.
11) Estimation of future use.
12) Remedial measures necessary to strengthen and repairing the structure.
13) Post repair evaluation through tests.
14) Load test to study the behavior.
15) Choice of course of action for the restoration of structure.

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A simple flow chart incorporating the above points is presented

Fig.1. Assessment procedure for damage

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CAUSES OF DETERIORATION

The following are the causes of failure of structure:

a) Occurrences incidental to construction stage.
This could be attributed to..
1. Local settlement of sub grade.
2. Movement of formwork.
3. Vibrations.
4. Internal settlement of concrete suspension.
5. Setting Shrinkage.
6. Premature removal forms.
b) Drying Shrinkage
c) Temperature stresses – This may be due to
1. Difference in temperatures between the inside of the building with its
environment.
2. Variation in internal temperature of the building or structure.
d) Absorption of moisture by concrete
e) Corrosion of reinforcement – This could be caused by
1. Entry of moisture through cracks or pores.
2. Electrolytic action
f) Aggressive action of chemical
g) Weathering action
h) Action of shock waves
i) Erosion
j) Poor design details at:
1. Re-entrant corners
2. Changes in cross section
3. Rigid joints in precast elements
4. Deflections . This lead to –
i. Leakage through joints ,
ii. Inadequate drainage,
iii. Inefficient drainage slopes
iv. Unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns and abutments etc
v. Incompatibility of materials of sections
vi. Neglect in design.
k) Errors in design
l) Errors in earlier repairs
m)Overloading
n) External influences such as:
Earthquake,
Wind,
Fire,
Cyclones etc.

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Some of the major causes of deterioration of concrete structure are discussed in detail
here.

Design and construction flows: Design of the concrete structures governs the
performance of concrete structures. Well designed and detailed concrete structure will
show less deterioration in comparison with poorly designed and detailed concrete, in the
similar condition. The beam-column joints are particularly prone to defective concrete, if
detailing and placing of reinforcement is not done properly. Inadequate concrete cover
may lead to carbonation depth reaching upto the reinforcement, thus increasing the risk
of corrosion of reinforcement.

Environmental Effects: Micro-cracks present in the concrete are the source of ingress
of moisture and atmospheric carbon diozide into the concrete which attack
reinforcement and react with various ingredients of concrete. In aggressive environment
concrete structures will deteriorate faster and strength life of concrete structure will be
severely reduced.

Poor Quality material used: Quality of material to be used in construction, should be

ensured by means of various tests as specified by the IS codes. Alkali-aggregate reaction
and sulphate attack results in early deterioration. Clayey materials in the fine aggregate
may weaken the mortar aggregate bond and reduce the strength. Salinity causes
corrosion of reinforcement bars as well as deterioration of concrete.

Quality of supervision : Construction work should be carried out as per the l aid sown
specification. Adherence to specified water/cement ratio controls strength, permeability
and durability of concrete. Insufficient vibration may result in porous and honey combed
concrete, whereas excess vibration may cause segregation.

Deterioration due to corrosion:

 Spalling of concrete cover
 Cracks parallel to the reinforcement
 Spalling at edges
 Swelling of concrete
 Dislocation
 Internal cracking and reduction in area of steel of reinforcement

Causes of distress in concrete structures:

Distresses in buildings are a common occurrence. A building component develops
cracks whenever the stress on it exceeds its cracking strength. Stresses in a building
component can be caused by externally applied forces, such as dead, live, wind, or seismic

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loads, or by deformations induced by foundation settlement. Deformations can be caused
internally due to thermal movements, moisture changes, chemical action, etc.

Distresses can be broadly classified as structural and non-structural.

Structural distresses: are generally caused by faulty design, faulty construction, and/or
overloading. Such distresses can endanger the safety of a building. Extensive cracking of
a reinforced concrete beam due to overloading is an example of structural distress. Non-
structural distresses: may not endanger the safety of a building, but may look unsightly
and create an impression of faulty work or a feeling of instability.

Non-structural distresses: are caused by internally induced stresses in building

components. These generally do not directly result in structural weakening. Non-
structural cracks may however (because of penetration of moisture through them or by
weathering action) result in the corrosion of reinforcement and thus render the structure
unsafe and lead to its collapse.

Distresses in Concrete Structures

The three basic symptoms of distress in concrete structures are
i) cracking
ii) spalling
iii) disintegration

Common defects in liquid-retaining structures are

i) porous areas of concrete
ii) loss of bond at joints
iii) shrinkage crack between joints

Overloading of structures leads to the following:

i) excessive flexural cracking
ii) shear and diagonal tension cracking
iii) shear bond failure leading to splitting along the reinforcement
iv) cashing of concrete due to compression
v) column cover surface spalling due to excessive compression
vi) unacceptable large deflection in beams and slabs

Common types of damage:

A structure is said to have failed not only if it collapses but even if it does not perform
the designed or desired functions.
The structure may be said to have failed due to
i) a total or partial collapse
ii) discolouration
iii) spalling leading to reduction in sizes.
iv) deformations which could be in the form of deflection, buckling, twisting, or
distortion.

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DETERIORATION OF STRUCTURES:
CAUSES AND PREVENTION
Structures are subject to various types of stresses, both during their construction and
during their service life. Generally all possible precautions are taken to avoid any kind of
adverse reactions caused by foreseen and unforeseen distress causing agents. But it is not
possible to ensure failsafe structures at all times.
Some of the possible causes that can lead to the failure of a structure, as also some of
the preventive measures aimed at avoiding such failures.

a) Occurrences Incidental to the Pre-construction/Design Stage

Poor design details at re-entrant corners, changes in the cross section, rigid joints in
precast elements, and deflections are some of the practices at the design stage that can
lead to the failure of the structures.
These design problems can lead to
1. leakage through joints .
2. inadequate drainage.
3. inefficient drainage slopes.
4. unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns, abutments, etc.
5. incompatibility of materials at the critical section.

Errors in the design of the structure can also prove crucial and may lead to its failure. So
the designer needs to be absolutely careful while designing a structure.

b) Occurrences Incidental to the Construction Stage

A majority of structural failures owe their origin to the causes that arise at the
construction stage.
 Local settlement of sub-grade:
Consequent upon pouring of fresh concrete, the subgrade beneath it might compress or
settle a bit. This leads to uneven stress on the concrete layer over it. This stress gives rise
to cracks in the concrete layer (Fig.2). Cracks of this nature can be cured while applying
the final finish to the concrete.

Fig.2. Cracking due to settlement of sub-grade during construction

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 Swelling of formwork:
Formwork absorbs moisture from the wet concrete or from the atmosphere. This leads
to expansion of formwork, thereby leading to a release of lateral pressure and cracks in
concrete fig.3 (a).

Fig.3 cracking due to movements of the forms

This can be prevented by providing coatings on the formwork to prevent it from

absorbing moisture. This type of cracking can also occur due to crushing of wale Fig.3 (b).
Unyielding lateral ties with good end anchorage will avoid this problem.

 Internal settlement of concrete:

Surface cracks appear due to differential settlement between the surface and the interior
volume of suspension. The surface cracks (as shown in Fig.4 ) can be closed by delayed
finishing. Curing of concrete has to be started as soon as possible after its placement
because this will delay the setting of the surface concrete, thus reducing the amount of
differential settlement. Proper compaction of concrete is also necessary.

 Setting shrinkage: The cracks caused by shrinkage have the characteristic appearance
of alligator scales. To avoid these cracks, the concrete needs to be cured properly and
timely.

 Premature removal of shores: Removal of shores from newly poured concrete can
lead to redistribution of stress/load on the formwork, which leads to avoidable cracks.
Thus, it is necessary to ensure that shores are removed only after the concrete has gained
sufficient strength so that there is no possibility of its cracking.

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 Fig.4 (a) and (b) cracking of concrete due to settlement of concrete suspension.

 Vibrations: At times vibrations might be caused by the worker walking indiscreetly and
dumping the pan of concrete on the formwork with force. These vibrations also lead to
cracks in concrete. Hence, the labourers on the project should be careful to avoid
vibrations caused by dropping of pans, walking over reinforcement, etc., as far as
possible.

c) Occurrences Incidental to the Post-construction Stage

Structures are exposed to deteriorating agents even in the post-construction stage. There
is a wide spectrum of causes that affect a structure after it is constructed. We will discuss
some of them here.
Temperature stresses:Cracks in concrete are caused due to temperature stress, which
might be due to
(i) difference between temperature on the inside of the building and its outside
environment and
(ii) variation in the internal temperature of the building or structure (Fig.5)

Fig. 5. Temperature cracking in building.

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Corrosion of reinforcement: This could be caused by
(1) entry of moisture through cracks and
(2) electrochemical action.
So it is necessary to take measures to seal cracks to prevent moisture from
reaching the reinforcement. The reinforcement needs to be protected against
corrosive chemical action. Corrosion of reinforcement can be prevented by
 keeping the structure clean
 preventing the structure from absorbing moisture
 painting the structure
 providing protective coating in the form of bituminous coating, zinc coating, etc.
 providing encasement in the form of jacketing
 wrapping with patented fibre wrapping systems

Aggressive action of chemicals: Concrete structures in various environments are

exposed to the action of chemicals from the atmosphere. Concrete for use in a sulphate
environment should be made with sulphateresistant cement. Concrete for marine
exposures should be made with cement having C3A content not greater than 8%. The
use of limestone aggregates in an acidic environment will inhibit the attack by
neutralizing a portion of the acid attacking the concrete structure. Rubberized
coatings are used to protect the structure better against an acid attack. Bituminous
coatings as a protection against exposure to sulphate can be used. A facing of ceramic
tiles set in acid-proof mortar is an excellent precautionary measure in such cases. To
prevent alkali-aggregate reaction, the maximum alkali content of cement should be
less than 0.6%.

Weathering action: Concrete being a heterogeneous material is susceptible to

spalling when subject to shock waves. This is due to the different wave transmission
velocities through the various materials such as the aggregates, matrix, and the
reinforcement comprising the structure mass. Sufficiently reinforced sections will
provide a concrete structure with excellent resistance to shock waves. Erosion is also
an agent that can cause weathering of structures. This can be prevented by the use of
high-strength concrete, proper curing of concrete, and by proper finishing methods.

Other Causes In addition to the aforementioned causes, structures can fail owing to
many other causes also. We will list some of them here.
1. Errors in earlier repairs
2. Over loading
3. External influences, which include  Earthquake
 Flash floods
 Fire
 Wind
 Tornado
The following actions are attributable to careless construction practices:
a. Leaching action
b. Internal sulphate attack
c. Chemical attack
d. Permeability of concrete structures

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CRACK REPAIR TECHNIQUES
In this section we will discuss some techniques that are used to repair various
types of cracks.
1. Sealing with Epoxies
Cracks in concrete can be sealed by injecting epoxy bonding compounds under
pressure into the cracks. The usual practice is to drill into cracks from the face of
concrete at several locations. Water or some solvent is injected to flush out the dirt.
The surface is then allowed to dry. The epoxy is injected into the drilled holes until it
flows out through other holes. The work should proceed from bottom to top.
2. Routing and Sealing
This method involves enlarging the cracks along their exposed surfaces, filling, and
finally sealing them with a suitable material (Fig. 6). This is the simplest and most
common technique for sealing cracks and is used for sealing both fine pattern cracks
and larger isolated defects. The cracks should be dormant unless they are opened up
enough to put in a substantial patch, in which case the repair may be more properly
termed 'blanketing'.

Fig.6 Routing and sealing

On road pavements it is common to see cracks that have been sealed by pouring
hot tar over them. This is a simple, inexpensive, and expedient technique. In this
technique, water tightness of the joint is not required and appearance is not
important.
Routing and sealing of leaking cracks should be done on the pressure face so that
the water-aggressive agents cannot penetrate the interior of the concrete and cause
side effects such as swelling, chemical attack and corrosion of the rebars.

3. Stitching
The tensile strength of a cracked concrete section can be restored by stitching in a
manner similar to sewing cloth (Fig. 7). The following precautions should be taken
while adopting stitching as a treatment measure:

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 Fig. 7. Repair of crack by stitching

i. Any degree of strengthening can be accomplished, but it must be noted that

strengthening also tends to stiffen the structure locally.
ii. ii. Stitching the crack tends to cause its migration elsewhere in the structure.
For this reason, strengthening of the adjacent areas of the crack is necessary
to take care of additional stresses. Moreover, the stitching dogs should be of
variable length, orientation, and so located that the tension transmitted across
the crack does not devolve on a single plane of the section but is spread out
well over an area. Strengthening of the adjacent sections of concrete may
consist in providing external reinforcement embedded in a suitable overlay
material.
iii. iii. In places where water ingress is likely, the crack should be sealed as well as
stitched so that the stitches do not get corroded. A suitable overlay should be
applied to achieve this.
iv. iv. Stress concentrations occur at the ends of cracks, hence the spacing of the
stitching dogs should be reduced at such locations. Stress concentrations at
each end of the crack can be relieved by drilling suitable holes or making the
ends rounded.
v. v. Wherever possible both sides of cracks should be stitched to prevent
bending action on the dogs due to the movement of the structure. In bending
members it is possible to stitch one side of the crack only, but this should be
the tension side of the section where movement is originating. If the member
is in a state of axial tension, then a symmetrical placement of the dogs is
necessary.
vi. vi. If stitching is to supplement the strength of the existing section, the
deformation should be compatible. The dogs must be grouted with a non-
shrink or expandable mortar so that they have a tight fit. Thus, the movement
of the crack will cause simultaneous stressing of both old and new concrete.
The holes drilled for accommodating the legs of dogs should be filled with
grout.

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vii. vii. The dogs are thin and long and so cannot take much of compressive force.
These must be stiffened and strengthened by encasing them in an overlay.

4. External Stress
The development of cracking in concrete is due to tensile stress and can be
arrested by suppressing this stress. Further, the cracks can be closed by inducing
a compression force sufficient to overcome the tension and to provide a residual
compression. Figure 8. shows the application of this technique to a Tee beam.

Fig.8. Examples of external stressing

The compressive force is applied by using pre-stressing wires or rods. The

principle is similar to stitching except that the wires are pre-tensioned. This calls
for additional anchorages to be provided for pre-stressing wires (Fig.9).

Fig.9. Example of external stressing

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 Compressive force also may be applied by wedging, i.e., by opening the crack
and filling it with an expanding mortar, by jacking and grouting, or by actually
driving wedges (Fig.10.). Note that the final deflection due to both loading and
expansive forces nearly coincides with the original centreline of the arch.

Fig.10. An example of the use of wedging, jacking, or expansive keys for external
stressing.

5. Blanketing
This technique is similar to routing and sealing but is used on a large scale for
sealing both active and dormant cracks and joints. Blanket joints are of the following
types:

Type I: In such a joint an elastic sealant is used. The sealant material is one which
returns to its original shape when the externally induced stress is removed
[Fig.11(a)]. When the crack width is small, a strip sealant, as shown in Fig. 11(b), will
be sufficient. The bond breaker ensures separation of the sealant and the bottom,
preventing the possibility of cracking of the sealant (Fig.11(C)).

Fig.11. Joint with an elastic sealant

22
Type II: It is a mastic-filled joint and is similar to the application of an elastic sealant
except that the bond breaker is omitted (Fig.11 (d)]. The sealant is bonded to the
bottom as well as to the sides of the chased dispersion. It is a mastic rather than a
compound with elastic properties. This type of joint is used when the anticipated
movements are small. In this type of joint there is a risk of tearing of the sealant at the
bottom.

Type III: It is a mortar-plugged joint (Fig.12 ). A recess in the form of a trapezoid to

accommodate the mortar plug is made. This recess is filled with mortar. Fig.12 (a)
shows the forces that get generated when the plug is subjected to pressure load
externally. Figure (b) shows the stresses when the pressure is from within. As shown
in Fig.12 (c), generally a relieving grove is made in the mortar plug. In addition, a
second cut at the mouth of the crack tip is made and plugged with quick-set mortar. If
the pressure from within is due to fluid, a weep pipe [as shown in Fig.12 (d)] helps in
draining of the fluid in addition to relieving the pressure.

Fig.12. Mortar Plugged joints

Type IV: A crimped water bar is shown in Fig. Figure 13 (a) shows the installation
details of a crimped water bar. It is generally installed at locations where the bar is
not subject to direct loading such as traffic on a pavement. Such detailing is suitable
on vertical faces. In a concrete pavement, such a joint is subjected to traffic. In this
case, the crimped bar is set inside with a mortar cover protecting the water bar. This
is shown in Fig.13 (b). It should be noted that in both cases the ends of the water bar
should be adequately anchored.

23
 Fig.13. Crimped water bar
6. Overlays
Overlays are used to seal cracks. They are useful and desirable when a large
number of cracks are present and treatment of each individual crack would be too
expensive and laborious.
a. Active cracks: Sealing of active cracks by overlays should be done with a
material which is extensible but not flexible. A two or three-ply polymeric
membrane with a top coat of tar or with tar between the plies covered with a
protective course of gravel, concrete, or brick, functions very well for this purpose.
Gravel is used for roofs.
b. Dormant cracks: If cracks are dormant almost any type of overlay may be used.
7. Grouting
Grouting is performed in a similar manner as injection of an epoxy. However, the
use of an epoxy is a better solution except where considerations of fire resistance or
cold weather prevent such use. In these cases, grouting is an effective alternative. An
alternative and better method is to drill down the length of the crack and grout it so
as to form a key, as shown in Fig.14. This is applicable only when the crack runs
approximately in a straight line and is accessible from one end. The grout key
prevents relative transverse movement of the sections of concrete adjacent to the
crack. It also prevents leakage through the crack.

Fig. 14. Sealing a crack by drilling and plugging

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1. Autogenous Healing

The inherent ability of concrete to heal cracks within itself is termed

autogenous healing'. This is used for sealing dormant cracks such as in the repair
of precast units cracked during handling, rectifying cracks developed during the
driving of precast piling, sealing of cracks in water tanks, and sealing of cracks
which are the result of temporary loading conditions. This property also provides
some increase in the strength of concrete damaged by vibration during setting and
concrete disrupted due to freezing and thawing.

The mechanism by which autogenous healing occurs is the carbonation of Cao

and Ca(OH), in the cement paste by CO, in the air and water. The resulting CaCO,
and Ca(OH) crystals precipitate, accumulate, and grow through and out from the
cracks. The crystals interlace and twine, thus producing a mechanical bonding
effect which is supplemented by chemical bonding between adjacent crystals, and
between crystals and the surfaces of the paste and aggregates. As a result, some of
the tensile strength is restored across the cracked section and the crack is sealed.
Dormant cracks such as those caused by shrinkage or fault in construction such as
premature removal of forms or settlement of sills supporting shores are self-
sealing. This is because cracks get clogged by dirt and debris and the result is that
these are plugged and the problems of leakage, especially if it is intermittent, will
disappear without any repair. Such self-healing can also be attributed to the
autogenous healing property of concrete.

25
 Unit -II
Mechanism of Deterioration of Structure and Their Prevention: Concrete
Structures: Defects in fresh concrete- Early frost damage, plastic shrinkage, plastic
settlement (subsidence), subgrade settlement, formwork movements. Deterioration in
hardened concrete: (a) Physical causes – aggregate shrinkage, drying shrinkage, crazing
(b) Chemical causes: acid attack, sulphate attack, chloride attack, carbonation, alkali
aggregate reaction, corrosion of reinforcement, (c) Thermal causes: Freeze-Thaw,
temperature variations, differential thermal expressions, humidity influences,
(d) Structural causes: Improper design loads, accidental overloads, creep.

Steel Structures Corrosion: Causes and types of deterioration, mechanism of corrosion,

prevention of deterioration.

Concrete Structures:
Defects in fresh concrete-
a) Early frost damage,
b) plastic shrinkage,
c) plastic settlement (subsidence),
d) subgrade settlement,
e) formwork movements.

26
 Mechanism of Damage:
a) Early Frost Damage:
When fresh concrete is exposed to extremely low temperatures, the free water in
the concrete is cooled below its freezing point and transforms into ice, leading to a
decrease in the compressive strength of concrete. When freezing takes place after an
adequate curing time, the decrease in compressive strength does not occur.

Fig.1 Cracks due to Early Frost Damage

Early thermal contraction: Fresh concrete undergoes temperature rise due to

cement hydration. When concrete is cooling to the surrounding ambient temperature
in a few days, the concrete has very little tensile strength.
Weak tensile strength + thermally contracting concrete = tension cracks

27
Factors effecting early temperature rise in fresh Concrete:
i. Initial temperature of materials: Warm materials lead to warm concrete.
Aggregate temperature is most critical.
ii. Ambient temperature: Higher ambient temperature leads to higher peaks.
iii. Dimensions: Large sections generate more heat.
iv. Curing: Water curing dissipates the build-up of heat. Avoid thermal shock.
v. Formwork removal: Early removal of formwork reduces peak temperature.
vi. Type of formwork: Wood form produces higher temperatures than steel forms.
vii. Cement Content: More cement in the mix means more heat.
viii. Cement Type: Type III cement produces more heat than most other cements.
ix. Admixtures: Fly ash reduces the amount of heat build-up.

28
b) Plastic Deformation
i. Shrinkage Cracks:
Plastic shrinkage cracks appear in the surface of fresh concrete soon after it is
placed. These cracks appear mostly on horizontal surfaces, and are usually parallel
to each other 1-3 feet apart, shallow and not reaching the perimeter of the slab.

Mechanism of shrinkage Cracks:

 Rapid loss of water from the surface of concrete before it has set causes
these cracks.
 It is critical when rate of evaporation of surface moisture exceeds the rate
at which rising bleed water can replace it.
 Water receding below the concrete surface forms menisci between fine
particles of cement and aggregate causing a tensile force to develop in the
surface layer.
 If the concrete surface has started to set and has developed sufficient
tensile strength to resist these tensile forces, cracks do not form.
 If the surface dries very rapidly before concrete starts to set then cracks
develop as the plastic concrete begins to stiffen.

29
 Remedial Measures:
 Dampen the sub-grade and forms when conditions for high evaporation state
exist.
 Prevent excessive surface moisture evaporation by providing fog sprays and
erecting wind breaks.
 Cover concrete with wet burlap or poly-ethylene sheets between finishing
operations.
 Use cooler concrete in hot weather and avoid excessively high concrete
temperatures in cold weather.
 Cure properly as soon as finishing has been completed.

ii. Settlement (subsidence)

Mechanism:
 Plastic settlement is caused due to bleeding, which refers to the migration of
water to the top of concrete and the movement of solid particles to the bottom of
fresh concrete.
 The expulsion of water during bleeding results in the reduction of the volume of
fresh concrete. This induces a downward movement of wet concrete.
 If such movement is hindered by the presence of obstacles like steel
reinforcement, cracks will be formed.
 Plastic-settlement cracks appear in fresh concrete directly over embedded
objects such as reinforcing bars or post-tensioning tendons. They occur because
the concrete settles and the embedded objects do not.
 In some cases the whole reinforcing grid appears as cracks on the floor surface.
 Plastic-settlement cracks are most likely where reinforcing bars or post-
tensioning tendons are large in diameter and close to the surface.

30
Causes of Plastic Deformation:
Poor construction practices
 Low sand content and high water content.
 Large reinforcement bars.
 Poor thermal insulation.
 Restraining settlement due to irregular shape.
 Excessive, uneven absorbency.
 Low humidity.
 Insufficient time between top-out of columns and placement of slab and beam.
 Insufficient vibration.
 Movement of formwork.
Probability of cracking – A function of
(1) Cover
(2) Slump
(3) Bar size

31
Remedial Measures
 Use the largest possible coarse aggregate.
 Ensure the coarse aggregate is evenly graded.
 Use less water in the concrete mix (but beware the effect on workability and
finishbility).
 Leave a generous surcharge when striking off.
 Place deep sections in two or more lifts. This is worth considering when a slab is
being cast monolithically with thick joists or beams.

c) Construction Movement:
i. Form movement

32
Defects after hardening of Concrete-

a) Physical cause
b) Chemical cause
c) Thermal cause
d) Structural cause

a) PHYSICAL CAUSES:
i) Aggregate Shrinkage
Mechanism
 Some rocks exhibit the property of absorbing water with attendant change in
dimension.
 The shrinkage that occurs as the aggregate dries up is called aggregate drying
shrinkage.
 Change in volume of aggregate induces cavities and leads to shrinkage,
weakening of compressive strength.
Remedial Measure
 Choose aggregate which do not have these problems

ii) Drying Shrinkage

Mechanism:
 On exposure to the atmosphere, concrete loses some of its original water
through evaporation and shrinks. Normal weight concrete shrinks from 400 to
800 microstrain. One micro strain is equal to 1 X 10 -6 in./in.

If unrestrained, results in shortening of the member without a build-up of shrinkage

stress. If the member is restrained from moving, stress build-up may exceed the tensile
strength of the concrete. this over stressing results in dry shrinkage cracking.

33
34
 Remedial Measures
Some of the measures that can be taken to reduce the drying shrinkage of concrete
include:
 Use the minimum water content (consistent with placing and finishing
requirements).
 Use highest possible volume fraction of good quality aggregate and maximum
possible aggregate size.
 Use Shrinkage limited Cement (Type SL) where available.
 Do not use admixtures known to increase drying shrinkage, eg. those containing
calcium chloride.
 Ensure concrete is properly placed, compacted and cured.
 Ensure proper placement of reinforcing steel to distribute shrinkage stresses and
control crack widths.

ii) Crazing:
Crazing is the development of a network of fine random cracks or fissures on the
surface of concrete or mortar caused by shrinkage of the surface layer. These cracks
are rarely more than 1/8 inch deep and are more noticeable on steel-trowelled
surfaces.

Mechanism:
The irregular hexagonal areas enclosed by the cracks are typically no more than
1 ½inches across and may be as small as ½ or 3/9 inch in unusual instances. Generally,
craze cracks develop at an early age and are apparent the day after placement or at
least by the end of the first week. Often they are not readily visible until the surface
has been wetted and it is beginning to dry out.

Crazing cracks are sometimes referred to as shallow map or pattern cracking. They
do not affect the structural integrity of concrete and rarely do they affect durability or
wear resistance. However, crazed surfaces can be unsightly.

35
Concrete Surfaces Craze due to-
 Poor or inadequate curing. Intermittent wet curing and drying or even the delayed
application of curing will permit rapid drying of the surface and provoke crazing.
 Too wet a mix, excessive floating, the use of any procedures which will depress the
coarse aggregate and produce an excessive concentration of cement past and fines
at the surface.
 Finishing while there is bleed water on the surface or the use of a steel trowel at a
time when the smooth surface of the trowel brings up too much water and cement
fines.

Preventive measures
 To prevent crazing start curing the concrete as soon as possible. The surface
should be kept wet by either flooding the surface with water or, covering the
surface with damp burlap and keeping it continuously moist for a minimum of 3
days or, spraying the surface with a liquid membrane curing compound.
 Use moderate slump (3 to 5 inches), air entrained concrete. Higher slump (up to 6
or 7 inches) can be used providing the mixture is designed to produce the required
strength without excessive bleeding and/or segregation. Air entrainment helps to
reduce the rate of bleeding of fresh concrete and thereby reduces the chance of
crazing.
 Never sprinkle or trowel dry cement or a mixture of cement and fine sand into the
surface of the plastic concrete to absorb bleed water. Remove bleed water by
dragging a garden hose across the surface. Do not perform any finishing operation
while bleed water is present on the surface.
 Dampen the subgrade prior to concrete placement to prevent it absorbing too
much water from the concrete. If an impervious membrane, such as polyethylene,
is required on the subgrade cover it with 1 to 2 inches of damp sand to reduce
bleeding.

36
b) CHEMICAL CAUSES

Chemical attack
Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals, such as:
i. Inorganic Acids
ii. Organic Acids
iii. Alkaline solutions
iv. Salt Solutions

Acid attack on concrete: Reaction between the acid and the calcium hydroxide of the
hydrated Portland cement results in water soluble calcium compounds, which are
leached away.

 When limestone or dolomitic aggregates are used then the acid dissolves them.
 Dolomite is a carbonate mineral composed of calcium magnesium carbonate -
CaMg(CO3)2

37
Mechanism of Acid Attack
Concrete is susceptible to acid attack because of its alkaline nature. The components
of the cement paste break down during contact with acids. Most pronounced is the
dissolution of calcium hydroxide which occurs according to the following reaction:

2 HX + Ca(OH)2 -> CaX2 + 2 H2O (X is the negative ion of the acid)

The decomposition of the concrete depends on the porosity of the cement paste, on
the concentration of the acid, the solubility of the acid calcium salts (CaX2) and on the
fluid transport through the concrete. Insoluble calcium salts may precipitate in the
voids and can slow down the attack.
Acids such as nitric acid, hydrochloric acid and acetic acid are very aggressive as
their calcium salts are readily soluble and removed from the attack front.
Other acids such as phosphoric acid and humic acid are less harmful as their calcium
salt, due to their low solubility, inhibits the attack by blocking the pathways within the
concrete such as interconnected cracks, voids and porosity.
Sulphuric acid is very damaging to concrete as it combines an acid attack and a
sulphate attack.

Visual effects of Acid Attack

An acid attack is diagnosed primarily by two main features (microscopic appearance):
(1) Absence of calcium hydroxide in the cement paste.
(2) Surface dissolution of cement paste exposing aggregates.

Preventive Measures
 Low water-cement ratio
 Low cement content to reduce the C-S-H
 Use of pozzolanic materials like micro silica, slag to reduce the calcium hydroxide
content.
 Using epoxy-bonded replacement concrete or polymer concrete which does not
contain Portland cement.

i. Alkali–aggregate reaction (AAR)

Aggregates in most of the Concrete are chemically inert. However, certain types of
sand and aggregate such as opal, chert or volcanic with high silica content are reactive
with the alkalis like calcium, sodium and potassium hydroxide present in Portland
cement concrete. This phenomenon of chemical reaction is referred as alkali-aggregate

38
 reaction. This reaction can cause expansion of the altered aggregate, leading to spalling
and loss of strength of the concrete.
The alkali–aggregate reaction is a general, but relatively vague expression. More
precise definition are:

i. Alkali–silica reaction(ASR)
ii. Alkali–silicate reaction and
iii. Alkali–carbonate reaction

i. Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)

It is the reaction between the alkalies in cement and silica-containing aggregates. The
ASR reaction is the same as the pozzolanic reaction, which is a simple acid-base
reaction between calcium hydroxide,(Ca(OH)2), and silicic acid (H4SiO4, or Si(OH)4).
This reaction can be schematically represented as following:

Ca(OH)2+ H4SiO4 → Ca2+ + H2SiO42− + 2 H2O → CaH2SiO4· 2 H2O

This reaction causes the expansion of the altered aggregate by the formation of a
swelling gel of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). This gel increases in volume with water
and exerts an expansive pressure inside the material, causing spalling and loss of
strength of the concrete, finally leading to its failure.

Mechanism
The mechanism of ASR causing the deterioration of concrete can be described in
four steps as follows:
 The alkaline solution attacks the siliceous aggregate, converting it to viscous alkali
silicate gel.
 Consumption of alkali by the reaction induces the dissolution of Ca2+ ions into the
cement pore water. Calcium ions then react with the gel to convert it to hard C-S-H.
 The penetrated alkaline solution converts the remaining siliceous minerals into
bulky alkali silicate gel. The resultant expansive pressure is stored in the aggregate.
 The accumulated pressure cracks the aggregate and the surrounding cement paste
when the pressure exceeds the tolerance of the aggregate.
The alkali-aggregate reaction may go unrecognized for some period of time, possibly
years, before associate severe distress develops.

39
The effect of ASR can be traced by physical appearance like expansion and cracking in
concrete impacting its structural strength, elasticity and durability, visible map cracking,
pop-outs, spalling of concrete and expulsion of alkali-silica gel.

Typical effect of Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

Preventive measures
 Avoiding the use of reactive aggregates.
 Use of low alkali Portland cement, slag cement or pozzolanic admixtures.
 The rate of expansion can be reduced by taking steps to maintain concrete in as
dry state as possible by the use of surface coatings or impregnation material.
The repair of the concrete undergoing AAR should be carried out only after the
expansion ceases because the continuing expansion will disrupt and destroy the repair
material.

40
ii. Alkali Silicate Reaction
In the alkali–silicate reaction, the layer of silicate minerals (clay minerals), sometimes
present as impurities, are attacked.

Preventive measures
ASR can be controlled using certain supplementary cementitious materials. In proper
proportions, silica fume, fly ash, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag have
significantly reduced expansion due to alkali-silica reactivity. In addition, lithium
compounds have been used to reduce ASR. It is also important to note that not all ASR gel
reactions produce destructive swelling.

iii. Alkali Carbonate Reaction

The alkali–carbonate reaction is a process suspected for the degradation of concrete
containing dolomite aggregate.
Alkali from the cement might react with the dolomite crystals present in the aggregate
inducing the production of brucite, (MgOH)2, and calcite (CaCO3). This mechanism was
tentatively proposed by Swenson and Gillott (1950) and may be written as follows:
CaMg(CO3)2+ 2 NaOH —> CaCO3 + Na2CO3+ Mg(OH)2
Brucite (Mg(OH)2), could be responsible for the volumetric expansion after de-
dolomitization of the aggregate, due to absorption of water.
ACR is relatively rare because aggregates susceptible to this phenomenon are less
common and are usually unsuitable for use in concrete for other reasons. Aggregates
susceptible to ACR tend to have a characteristic texture that can be identified by
petrographers.

Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack is a chemical breakdown mechanism where sulphate ions attack
components of the cement paste. The compounds responsible for sulphate attack are
water-soluble sulphate-containing salts, such as alkali-earth (calcium, magnesium) and
alkali (sodium, potassium) sulphates that are capable of chemically reacting with
components of concrete.

Sulphate sources:
Internal sources:
This is more rare but, originates from such concrete-making materials as hydraulic
cements, fly ash, aggregate, and admixtures.
 Portland cement might be over-sulphated.
 presence of natural gypsum in the aggregate.
 Admixtures also can contain small amounts of sulphate.

External Sources:
External sources of sulphate are more common and usually are a result of high-sulphate
soils and ground waters, or can be the result of atmospheric or industrial water pollution
 Soil may contain excessive amounts of gypsum or other sulphate.
 Ground water be transported to the concrete foundations, retaining walls, and
other underground structures.
 Industrial waste waters.
 Atmosphere near the oceans may carry sulphate contents.

41
Mechanism
Sulphates react chemically with cement paste’s hydrated lime and hydrated calcium
aluminate to form calcium sulphate and calcium sulfoaluminate. They inevitably cause
expansive destruction of concrete as the volume of by-products of reactions is greater
than original volume of cement paste form which they are formed. The tensile stresses
developed as a result of expansion lead to development of cracks in concrete. As a result,
surface scaling and disintegration set in, followed by mass deterioration. The severity of
the sulphate attack depends on the types of sulphates. Severity of the attack increases
from calcium sulphate to sodium sulphate to magnesium sulphate. Sodium sulphate
(Na2SO4) also reacts with calcium hydroxide to form gypsum, which reduces paste
strength and stiffness. Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4) reacts to form gypsum and
destabilizes the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), the strength governing phase in cement
paste.

Factors affecting sulphate attack:

 The exposure conditions i.e., the amount of aggressive substance

42
  Permeability of concrete
 Amount of water available
 Type of cement in concrete
 Alternate wetting and drying cycles
The physical manifestation of sulphate attack includes a whitish appearance
followed by surface scaling and disintegration.

Preventive measures
The quality of concrete, specifically a low permeability, is the best protection against
sulphate attack. The concrete must have the following other characteristics:
(a) Adequate concrete thickness
(b) High cement content – with low tricalcium aluminate
(c) Low w/c ratio
(d) Proper compaction and curing
(e) Proper proportions of admixtures such as silica fume, fly ash and ground slag
improve resistance against sulphate attack.
(f) reducing the amount of reactive elements such as calcium that is needed forexpansive
sulphate reactions.

Cement Carbonation
Carbonation: Carbonation is the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) by a chemical
reaction in the concrete. The creation of calcium carbonate requires three equally
important substances: carbon dioxide (CO2), calcium phases (Ca), and water (H2O).
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is present in the surrounding air, calcium phases (mainly Ca(OH)2
and CSH) are present in the concrete, and water (H2O) is present in the pores of the
concrete.
The first reaction is in the pores where carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) react to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3):
CO2+ H2O H2CO3
The carbonic acid then reacts with the calcium phases:
H2CO3+ Ca(OH)2 CaCO3+ 2•H2O
Once the Ca(OH)2 has converted and is missing from the cement paste, hydrated CSH
(Calcium Silicate Hydrate - CaO•SiO2•H2O) will liberate CaO which will then also
carbonate:
H2CO3+ CaO CaCO3 + H2O

Mechanism
When these reactions take place the pH value will start falling. The normal pH-value
of concrete is above 13 and the pH-value of fully carbonated concrete is below 9.
Once the carbonation process reaches the reinforcement, and the pH-value drops
beneath 13 the passive “film” on the re-bars will deteriorate and corrosion will initiate
on the reinforcement.

43
 The speed of the carbonation process through the concrete mainly depends on two
parameters:
 The porosity of the concrete
 The moisture content of the concrete
In good quality concrete, the carbonation process is slow. Lesser the porosity lesser
the penetration of CO2. The carbonation process requires constant change in the
moisture levels (dry to damp to dry). The process does not occur when concrete pores
are filled with water – or when concrete is constantly under water.

Corrosion:

44
c) THERMAL CAUSES
Freeze Thaw Disintegration
Concrete is porous, so if water gets in and freezes it breaks off small flakes from the
surface. De-icing salts make it worse. This is typically called scaling and it can occur
during the first winter and get worse over time. When severe, it can lead to complete
destruction of the concrete.
Freeze-Thaw disintegration takes place due to:
(a) Freezing and thawing temperature cycles within the concrete
(b) Porous concrete that absorbs water.
Generally occurs on horizontal surfaces that are exposed to water or on the vertical
surfaces on the water line in submerged structures.

Mechanism
The freezing water contained in the pore structure expands as it converts to ice. The
expansion causes local tension forces that fracture the surrounding concrete matrix. The
fracturing occurs in small pieces, working from outer surfaces inward.

45
Macro & Microscopic Appearance
Deterioration of concrete by freeze thaw actions may be difficult to diagnose as other
types of deterioration mechanisms such as ASR often go hand in hand with Freeze & Thaw
(F/T). The typical signs of F/T are:
 Spalling and scaling of the surface
 Large chunks (cm size) are coming off
 Exposing of aggregate
 Usually exposed aggregate are un-cracked
 Surface parallel cracking
 Gaps around aggregate - in the ideal case

The rate of freeze-thaw deterioration is the function of:

 Porosity (increases rate)
 Moisture saturation (increases rate)
 Number of freeze-thaw cycles (increases rate)
 Air entrainment (reduces rate)
 Horizontal surfaces that trap standing water (increases rate)
 Aggregate with small capillary structure and high absorption (increases rate)

Preventive Measures
To protect concrete from freeze/thaw damage, it should be air-entrained by
adding a surface active agent to the concrete mixture. This creates a large number of
closely spaced, small air bubbles in the hardened concrete. The air bubbles relieve the
pressure build-up caused by ice formation by acting as expansion chambers. About 4%
air by volume is needed and the air-bubbles should be well distributed and have a
distance between each other of less than 0.25 mm in the cement paste.

Temperature Variation:
Temperature Variation leads to Volume Changes in concrete. Resulting stresses lead to
cracking, spalling and excessive deflections. Thermal Coefficient of concrete = 9 x 10-6
mm/mm/oC

46
 Thermal Volume change leading to Shear Cracks

Solar Heating effects the structure based on its configuration. In simple span
structures only up and down deflections take place and the joints are free to rotate. In
continuous span structures, hinges may form due to joint rotation being restrained. These
hinges open and close with daily temperature. Stress build-up in restrained structures
may result in tension cracks, shear cracks or even buckling at the weakest location.

Deterioration due to abrasion, erosion, cavitations and crystallization of salt in

pores: Progressive loss of mass from a concrete surface can occur due to abrasion, erosion
and cavitation.

Abrasion:
It is wearing away of the surface by dry attrition, repeated rubbing, rolling, sliding or
frictional process. Surface abrasion is mainly caused by dry attrition as in pavements and
industrial floors due to heavy trucking and vehicles. In hydraulic structures, the abrasion
occurs due to the cutting action of water borne debris, the suspended solids in water i.e.,
rolling, sliding and grinding of debris suspended in water against the concrete structures.
The factors that effect the abrasion resistance of concrete include compressive strength,
aggregate properties, finishing methods, use of toppings and curing.

47
Erosion:
It refers to manifestation of wear on the concrete surface by the abrasive actions of
the suspended solid particles in fluids. The impinging, sliding, rolling action of suspended
solid particles in water that come in contact with the concrete causes the surface wear.
The rate of erosion depends on porosity and strength of concrete, duration of exposure,
flow velocity of the water and its direction, and the amount, size, shape, density, hardness
and velocity of the water borne debris.

Cavitation:
It is the damage that is caused to concrete by action of high velocity water. Concrete
generally shows excellent resistance to the latter, however, cavitation damage occurs
when high velocity water-flows encounters discontinuities on the surface.
Discontinuities, in the form of surface misalignment or abrupt change in slope, in the flow
path cause the water to lift off the flow surface, creating negative pressure zones and
resulting in the formation of bubbles of water vapour. These bubbles flow downstream
with the water. On entering the region of high pressure, they collapse with great impact.
Such high impacts can remove the particles of concrete, forming another discontinuity
that creates more extensive damage. Cavitation damage results in erosion of the cement
matrix, leaving harder aggregate in place.

Crystallization of salt in pores:

Concrete structures when exposed to alternate wetting and drying cycles, as in case
of marine structures, can result into a crystallization of salts in the pores causing stress
that can damage the concrete structures. During drying, the pure water from the surface
gets evaporated. Salts that are present in the sea water are left behind in the form of
crystals. During the cycle of wetting, these crystals go on growing on subsequent re-
wetting and as a result they keep exerting force on hardened cement paste surrounding
it. Similarly, salts in ground water or damp soil get transported
vertically to a concrete member through the capillary action. Above ground level, the
moisture is drawn to the surface and evaporates, leaving crystals of salt growing in the
surface pores, which on re-wetting grow and expand.

48
d) STRUCTURAL CAUSES:

Accidental overload

Fig. Cracking Modes in Continuous Span

49
Creep :
Creep is the ‘time-dependent’ part of the strain resulting from stress. In other words,
creep is the increase in strain under sustained stress.

Mechanism
Under sustained stress and with time, the hydrated cement gel, the adsorbed water
layer, the water held in the gel pores and the capillary pores yields, flows and readjust
themselves, resulting in shrinkage of concrete.

Causes of creep
Influence of aggregate: Stronger aggregate of high modulus of elasticity and a larger
aggregate content in concrete mix reduces the magnitude of creep. Creep is the ‘time-
dependent’ part of the strain resulting from stress.

50
Mix Proportions: Creep increases with increase in w/c ratio. Creep is inversely
proportional to the strength of the concrete.

Influence of age: In a broad sense, the age at which the concrete is loaded has
predominant effect on creep. Cement gel quality improves with time. Stresses induced on
young concrete will result in large creep.
Time and the magnitude of stress are main factors affecting creep.

Effects of Creep
 Unwanted deflections in reinforced concrete beams
 In columns, creep in concrete will transfer greater load on to the reinforcing steel
bars.
 In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can lead to
buckling.
 In mass concrete structures, creep accompanied by differential interior
temperature conditions can cause cracking of the concrete.
 In pre-stressed concrete, creep reduces the pre-stressing magnitude.

STEEL STRUCTURE CORROSION

Causes: Corrosion of reinforcement bars can be due to:
1. Entry of moisture through cracks,
2. Availability of oxygen and moisture at rebar level,
3. Carbonation and entry of acidic gaseous pollutants that reduce the pH of
concrete,
4. Ingress of chloride ions,
5. Relative humidity &
6. Electrochemical action.

Mechanism of Corrosion:
The corrosion process that takes place in concrete is electrochemical in nature
very similar to a battery. The mechanism of corrosion involves four basic elements
Anode: Site where metal atoms lose electrons i.e., where corrosion is initiated.

Cathode: Site where electrons flow to and combine with other metallic and non-
metallic ion.
Electrolyte: A medium capable of conducting electric current by ionic current
flow.
Metallic path: Connection between the anode and cathode that completes the
circuit. At, anode the oxidation process releases Fe++ ions to concrete pore
solution which flows to cathode to combine with hydroxyl ions to form Ferrous
hydroxide, Fe(OH)2. In highly alkaline solution and in absence of chloride ions, the
anodic dissolution reaction of iron is balanced by the cathodic reaction. Fe2+ ions
combine with OH- ions to produce the stable passive film.

51
Preventive measures:
 Seal the crack before it reaches the reinforcement bar
 Protect against corrosive chemical action by
i. Keeping structures clean
ii. Painting
iii. Prevent from absorbing moisture
iv. Provide bituminous or zinc coatings.
v. Encase using fibre wrapping systems .

 Proper finishing

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 UNIT -III
Condition Assessment and Non-destructive Testing & Evaluation:
Definition, objectives and stages of condition assessment Destructive and
partially destructive tests. Non-destructive tests (NDTs). Classification of
NDT procedures, Visual Inspection, Ultrasonic Testing methods(Impact
echo, Pulse velocity, Pulse echo), Rebound hammer (IS 13311), Windsor
probe test, Half-cell potential measurement ,Electrical resistivity
measurement, Carbonation depth measurements, Petrographic Analysis,
Electromagnetic methods for Rebar detection, Ground Penetrating radar,
Infrared thermography, Radiograph.

The evaluation of any building is a difficult task, which requires a wide knowledge
about the structures, cause and nature of damage in structures and its components,
material strength etc.
The proposed methodology is divided into three components:
1. Condition Assessment based on
(i) Data collection or information gathering of structures from architectural and
structural drawings.
(ii) Performance characteristics of similar type of buildings in past earthquakes,
(iii) Rapid evaluation of strength, drift, materials, structural components and
structural details. This component of methodology is primarily based on ATC-14 project
and is used basically for undamaged existing structures.
2. Visual Inspection/Field Evaluation based on observed distress and damage in
structures. Visual inspection is more useful for damaged structures however it may also
be conducted for undamaged structures.
3. Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) is generally carried out for quick estimation of
materials strength, determination of the extent of deterioration and to establish causes
remain out of reach from visual inspection and determination of reinforcement and its
location. NDT may also be used for preparation of drawing in case of non-availability.

Condition Assessment for Evaluation

The aim of condition assessment of the structure is the collection of information about
the structure and its past performance characteristics to similar type of structure during
past earthquakes and the qualitative evaluation of structure for decision-making
purpose. More information can be included, if necessary as per requirement.

Data collection/information gathering

Collection of the data is an important portion for the evaluation of any existing
building. The information required for the evaluated building can be divided as follows:

Building data
 vulnerability parameters: number of stories, year of construction and toral floor
area.
 Specifications, soil reports, and design calculations.
 seismicity of the site.

53
Construction data
 identifications of gravity load resisting system.
 identifications of lateral load resisting system.
 maintenance, addition, alteration, or modifications in structures.
 field surveys of the structure's existing condition.

Structural data
 materials.
 structural concept: vertical and horizontal irregularities, torsional eccentricity,
pounding, short column and others.
 detailing concept: ductile detailing, special confinement reinforcement.
 foundations.
 non-structural elements

Past performance data

Past performance of similar type of structure during the earthquake provides
considerable amount of information for the building, which is under evaluation process.
Following are the areas of concerns, which are responsible for poor performance of
buildings during earthquake.

Materials concerns
 low grade on concrete
 deterioration in concrete and reinforcement.
 high cement-sand ratio
 corrosion in reinforcement
 use of recycled steel as reinforcement
 spalling of concrete by the corrosion of embedded reinforcing bars
 corrosion related to insufficient concrete cover
 poor concrete placement and porous concrete.

Structural concerns
 the relatively low stiffness of the frames—excessive inter-storey drifts, damage to
non-structural items.
 pounding—column distress, possibly local collapse.
 unsymmetrical buildings (U,T,L,V) in plan-torsional effects and concentration of
damage at the junctures (i.e., re-entrant corners)
 unsymmetrical buildings in elevation—abrupt change in lateral resistance
 vertical strength discontinuities—concentrate damage in the “soft” stories
 short column

Detailing concerns
 large tie spacing in columns lack of confinement of concrete core—shear failures.
 insufficient column lengths—concrete to spall.
 locations of inadequate splices—brittle shear failure.
 insufficient column strength for full moment hinge capacity—brittle shear failure.
 lack of continuous beam reinforcement—hinge formation during load reversals.
 inadequate reinforcing of beam column joints or location of beam bar splices at
columns—joint failures.

54
  improper bent-up of longitudinal reinforcing in beams as shear reinforcement—
shear failure during load reversal.
 foundation dowels that are insufficient to develop the capacity of the column steel
above local column distress.

Seismic evaluation data

 Seismic evaluation of data will provide a general idea about the building
performance during an earthquake. The criteria of evaluation of building will
depend on materials. strength and ductility of structural components and
detailing of reinforcement.

Materials evaluation
 buildings height >3 stories,minimum grade concrete M 20,desirable M 30 to M 40
particularly in columns of lower stories.
 maximum grade of steel should be Fe 415 due to adequate ductility.
 no significant deterioration in reinforcement.
 no evidence of corrosion or spalling of concrete.

Structural components
 evaluation of columns shear strength and drift—check for permissible limits.
 evaluation of plan irregularities—check for torsional forces and concentration of
forces.
 evaluation of vertical irregularities—check for soft storey, mass or geometric
discontinuities.
 evaluation of discontinuous load path—check for ground floor columns, projected
cantilever beam and ductile detailing at beam-column joints.
 evaluation of beam-column joints—check for strong column-weak beams.
 evaluation of pounding—check for drift control or building separation.
 evaluation of interaction between frame and infill—check for force distribution in
frames and overstressing of frames.

Structural detailing
Flexural members
 limitation of sectional dimensions
 limitation on minimum and maximum flexural reinforcement—at least two
continuous reinforced bars at top and bottom of the members
 restriction of lap splices.
 development length requirements—for longitudinal bars.
 shear reinforcement requirements—stirrup and tie hooks, tie spacing, bar splices.

Columns
 limitation of sectional dimensions.
 longitudinal reinforcement requirement.
 transverse reinforcement requirements—stirrup and tie hooks, column tie
spacing, column bar splices
 special confining requirements.
Foundation·
 column steel doweled into the foundation.

55
Non-structural components
 cornices, parapet, and appendages are anchored
 exterior cladding and veneer are well anchored.
Note: Structural detailing in the structural member should comply with IS 13920: 1993

Importance and need of non-destructive testing

It is often necessary to test concrete structures after the concrete has hardened to
determine whether the structure is suitable for its designed use. Ideally such testing
should be done without damaging the concrete. The tests available for testing concrete
range from the completely non-destructive, where there is no damage to the concrete,
through those where the concrete surface is slightly damaged, to partially destructive
tests, such as core tests and pull out and pull off tests, where the surface has to be repaired
after the test. The range of properties that can be assessed using non-destructive tests
and partially destructive tests is quite large and includes such fundamental parameters
as density, elastic modulus and strength as well as surface hardness and surface
absorption, and reinforcement location, size and distance from the surface. In some cases
it is also possible to check the quality of workmanship and structural integrity by the
ability to detect voids, cracking and delamination.
Non-destructive testing can be applied to both old and new structures. For new
structures, the principal applications are likely to be for quality control or the resolution
of doubts about the quality of materials or construction. The testing of existing structures
is usually related to an assessment of structural integrity or adequacy. In either case, if
destructive testing alone is used, for instance, by removing cores for compression testing,
the cost of coring and testing may only allow a relatively small number of tests to be
carried out on a large structure which may be misleading. Non-destructive testing can be
used in those situations as a preliminary to subsequent coring.

Typical situations where non-destructive testing may be useful are, as follows:

 quality control of pre-cast units or construction in situ.
 removing uncertainties about the acceptability of the material supplied owing to
apparent non-compliance with specification.
 confirming or negating doubt concerning the workmanship involved in batching,
mixing, placing, compacting or curing of concrete.
 monitoring of strength development in relation to formwork removal, cessation
of curing, prestressing, load application or similar purpose
 location and determination of the extent of cracks, voids, honeycombing and
similar defects within a concrete structure. n
 determining the concrete uniformity, possibly preliminary to core cutting, load
testing or other more expensive or disruptive tests.
 determining the position, quantity or condition of reinforcement.
 increasing the confidence level of a smaller number of destructive tests.
 determining the extent of concrete variability in order to help in the selection of
sample locations representative of the quality to be assessed.
 confirming or locating suspected deterioration of concrete resulting from such
factors as overloading, fatigue, external or internal chemical attack or change, fire,
explosion, environmental effects.
 assessing the potential durability of the concrete.

56
  monitoring long term changes in concrete properties.
 providing information for any proposed change of use of a structure for insurance
or for change of ownership.

Basic methods for NDT of concrete structures

The following methods, with some typical applications, have been used for the NDT of
concrete:
 Visual inspection, which is an essential precursor to any intended non-
destructive test. An experienced civil or structural engineer may be able to
establish the possible cause(s)of damage to a concrete structure and hence
identify which of the various NDT methods available could be most useful for any
further investigation of the problem.
 Half-cell electrical potential method, used to detect the corrosion potential of
reinforcing bars in concrete.
 Schmidt/rebound hammer test, used to evaluate the surface hardness of
concrete.
 Carbonation depth measurement test, used to determine whether moisture has
reached the depth of the reinforcing bars and hence corrosion may be occurring.
 Permeability test, used to measure the flow of water through the concrete.
 Penetration resistance or Windsor probe test, used to measure the surface
hardness and hence the strength of the surface and near surface layers of the
concrete.
 Cover meter testing, used to measure the distance of steel reinforcing bars
beneath the surface of the concrete and also possibly to measure the diameter of
the reinforcing bars.
 Radiographic testing, used to detect voids in the concrete and the position of
stressing ducts.
 Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing, mainly used to measure the sound velocity of
the concrete and hence the compressive strength of the concrete.
 Sonic methods using an instrumented hammer providing both sonic echo and
transmission methods.
 Tomographic modelling, which uses the data from ultrasonic transmission tests
in two or more directions to detect voids in concrete.
 Impact echo testing, used to detect voids, delamination and other anomalies in
concrete.
 Ground penetrating radar or impulse radar testing, used to detect the position
of reinforcing bars or stressing ducts.
 Infrared thermography, used to detect voids, delamination and other anomalies
in concrete and also detect water entry points in buildings.

Qualification and certification

The qualification and certification of NDT personnel for the inspection of concrete is
not commonly covered by the qualification and certification schemes presently
established in most countries. Usually such schemes are based on the requirements of the
International Standards Organization (ISO) 9712 “The qualification and certification of
NDT Personnel” and cover the use of methods such as ultrasonics, radiography, eddy
current testing and surface methods tests to inspect essentially homogeneous materials

57
such as metals. The growing interest in the use of NDT for the inspection of concrete may
result in a demand for certification in the future.

Situations where NDT is an option to consider for investigation of in situ concrete

 to investigate the homogeneity of concrete mixing
 lack of grout in post tensioning ducts
 to determine the density and strength of concrete in a structure
 to determine the location of reinforcing bars and the cover over the bars
 to determine the number and size/diameter of reinforcing bars
 to determine the extent of defects such as corrosion
 to determine the location of in-built wiring, piping, ducting, etc.
 to determine whether internal defects such as voids, cracks, delamination,
honeycombing, lack of bonding with reinforcing bars, etc. exist in concrete
 to determine if there is a bond between epoxy bonded steel plates and concrete
members.

TESTING OF CONCRETE

1. Quality control tests

Two simple tests are used to control the quality of concrete: SLUMP TEST is used
when the concrete is in the plastic state. Compression test is used when concrete is in the
hardened state. Both tests are used for the quality control of concrete during
manufacture. The compression test can also be used to test a structure, which has been
in service for some time by drilling a core from the structure and testing it in
compression.

1. Slump tests
Slump test assesses the consistency or workability of concrete. e.g. Australian
Standard 1012, Part 3. The acceptance of a load of concrete may depend on the results of
a slump test.
The first step in testing is to take a test sample from the batch of concrete within 20
minutes of the concrete arriving on site. Normally a visual inspection is also undertaken
prior to placing, to estimate the slump and ensure consistency of the concrete. The sample
is taken in one of two ways:
 Sampling after 0.2 m3 of the load has been poured (the most common method), or
 Sampling from three places in the load, at equal intervals and equal portions,
during the discharge.

Method of slump test

The tools required to carry out the test are: standard slump cone (100 mm × 200 mm
×300 mm), small scoop, bullet-nosed tamping rod (600 mm × 16 mm), ruler, float and
slump plate (500 mm × 500 mm). The test is performed by
(a) cleaning and moistening the cone, and
(b) placing it on the flat slump plate. Fill the cone one-third full with concrete and rod the
layer exactly 25 times making sure that the whole area is rodded uniformly. Rodding
means pushing a steel rod in and out of the concrete to compact it into a slump cone or a
cylinder mould. Always rod in a definite pattern, working from outside into the middle.

58
The cone must be held firmly by standing on the foot lugs while the concrete is being
added during rodding.

After rodding the first layer fill the cone with a second layer until two-thirds full and
rod this layer uniformly 25 times just into the top of the first layer. Then fill the cone until
it slightly overflows and rod this top layer 25 times uniformly just into the top of the
second layer. The excess concrete is removed from the top with a straight edge so that
the cone is exactly filled and the spilled concrete removed from around the bottom of the
cone. The cone is then lifted straight up very slowly. Without disturbing the concrete
further turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone. Measure
the distance from the rod to the top of the slumped concrete. If the top of the slump is
irregular, do not measure the high point or the low point. Try to get the average. If the
slump is too high or too low compared to the specification, another must be taken. If this
fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.

2. Compression test
Compression test determines the strength of concrete under standard conditions.
Concrete cylinders or concrete cubes are used for the compression test depending on the
national standard or contract requirements.
The methods used to conduct compression tests on concrete are given in the
appropriate national standard, e.g. in Australia concrete test cylinders are prepared and
tested in accordance with the Australian Standard 1012, Part 8, “Making and curing
concrete test
specimens”.

Compression test method

The concrete test samples, whether cylinders or cubes, are made on site and tested
in a laboratory with a compression test machine. Moulding the test sample should be
completed within 20 minutes of obtaining the sample. The compressive strength of the
test samples determines the acceptability of the concrete represented.
Assuming test cylinders have to be tested, the tools required are: a) three-cylinder
moulds (100 mm × 200 mm or 150 mm × 300 mm), b) small scoop, c) bullet-nosed
tamping rod (600 mm × 16 mm), d) steel float, e) steel slump plate (500 mm × 500 mm),
and f) rubber mallet.
First clean the cylinder mould and slump plate and coat the inside of the mould and
plate with a thin film of mineral oil to prevent adhesion of the concrete. For the
100mm×200 mm cylinders the mould is then filled to one-half and the concrete
compacted by rodding with the tamping rod 25 times. The strokes should be uniformly
distributed over the cross-sectional area. The mould is then overfilled and compacted by
rodding 25 times into the top of the first layer. If after compaction the top is not
completely filled, add more concrete and work into the concrete surface. Each mould is
tapped all around with a rubber mallet to remove air bubbles and assist compaction of
the concrete. If the 150 mm × 300 mm cylinder mould are used the concrete is compacted
in three equal layers instead of two. Then (a) the top of the concrete is leveled off with
the tamping rod and any concrete around the mould is cleaned, (b) the surface of the
concrete is smoothed with a wooden float, (c) the cylinders are capped, (d) the moulds
identified with a code number and left in a cool dry place to set undisturbed for atleast
24 h. The mould is then removed and the concrete cylinder marked and sent to
thelaboratory where it is cured for a specified period prior to testing in compression. All

59
mouldsare cleaned and oiled after use to prevent rusting. The curing period depends on
thespecification, although seven days and 28 days are commonly used.

The capping carried out on the test specimen before testing is to make the top surface
of the specimen as smooth and plain as possible. If the specimen surface, which is in
contact with the platen of the compression test machine, is rough and not plain, stress
concentrations are introduced and the apparent strength of the concrete is greatly
reduced. Suitable capping materials are aluminous cement, high strength dental plaster
and a molten sulphur mixture. However, other capping materials have been used. The
main requirement is that the capping compound should not be weaker than the concrete,
or appreciably stronger.

PARTIAL DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

1. Pullout test
There are two options for the pullout test:
 DANISH LOK TEST which requires that the head be cast into the concrete at the
time of construction. This test gives a good indication of near surface compressive
strength.
 Building Research Establishment, UK (BRE) PULLOUT involves drilling a hole and
inserting a “fixing” which is pulled out. The advantage of this test is that it does not
require a head to be cast into the concrete during construction. The disadvantage is that
the test really measures tensile strength and is then calibrated to compressive strength.
The pullout test is a test that falls in the transition area between a destructive test and a
non-destructive test. It is destructive in the sense that a relatively large volume of the
concrete is damaged but non-destructive because the damaged can be repaired.
The pullout test measures the force required to pull an embedded metal insert with
an enlarged head from a concrete specimen or a structure. Fig. 1.1 illustrates the
configuration of a Danish Lok pullout test. The insert is pulled by a loading ram seated on
a bearing ring that is concentric with the insert shaft. The bearing ring transmits the
reaction force to the concrete. Frustum geometry is controlled by the inner diameter of
the bearing ring (D), the diameter of the insert head (d), and the embedment depth (h).
The apex angle (2α) of the idealized frustum is given by:

The pullout test is widely used during construction to estimate the in-place strength of
concrete to help decide whether critical activities such as form removal, application of
post tensioning, or termination of cold weather protection can proceed. Since the
compressive strength is usually required to evaluate structural safety, the ultimate
pullout load measured during the in-place test is converted to an equivalent compressive
strength by means of a previously established correlation relationship.
As the insert is pulled out, a conical shaped fragment of concrete is extracted from
the concrete mass. The idealized shape of the extracted conic frustum is shown in Fig.
below.

60
 Unlike some other tests that used to estimate the in-place strength of concrete, the
pullout test subjects the concrete to a slowly applied load and measures an actual
strength property of the concrete. However, the concrete is subjected to a complex three
dimensional state of stress, and the pullout strength is not likely to be related simply to
uniaxial strength properties. Nevertheless, by use of correlation curves the pullout test
can be used to make reliable estimates of in-place strength. An important step in
implementing the method is choosing the locations and number of pullout tests in a given
placement of concrete. The inserts should be located in the most critical portions of the
structure and there should be a sufficient number of tests to provide statistically
significant results. Additional inserts are recommended in the event that testing begins
too soon, and the concrete has not attained the required strength. The use of maturity
meters along with the pullout tests is encouraged to assist in selecting the correct testing
times and in interpreting possible low strength results.
The BRE pullout test was developed to permit testing in an existing construction by
drilling a hole and inserting some type of expansion anchor. The results of these tests are
difficult to interpret if a correlation curve does not exist for the concrete used in the
construction.

2. Pulloff test
This test involves attaching a plate to the concrete using epoxy resin and, after curing
has taken place, measuring the force required to pull the plate off. This test scars the
concrete but gives a measure of the near surface tensile strength which can be converted
to the compressive strength provided a correlation exists between the compressive
strength and tensile strength for the concrete mix being investigated.

61
3. Core test
In most structural investigations or diagnoses extraction of core samples is
unavoidable and often essential. Cores are usually extracted by drilling using a diamond
tipped core cutter cooled with water. Broken samples, for example, due to popping,
spalling and delamination, are also commonly retrieved for further analysis as these
samples may provide additional evidence as to the cause of distress. The selection of the
locations for extraction of core samples is made after non-destructive testing which can
give guidance on the most suitable sampling areas.
For instance, a cover meter can be used to ensure there are no reinforcing bars where
the core is to be taken; or the ultrasonic pulse velocity test can be used to establish the
areas of maximum and minimum pulse velocity that could indicate the highest and lowest
compressive strength areas in the structure.
Moreover, using non-destructive tests, the number of cores that need to be taken can
be reduced or minimized. This is often an advantage since coring is frequently viewed as
being destructive. Also the cost of extracting cores is quite high and the damage to the
concrete is severe.
The extracted cores can be subjected to a series of tests and serve multiple functions
such as:
 confirming the findings of the non-destructive test
 identifying the presence of deleterious matter in the concrete
 ascertaining the strength of the concrete for design purposes
 predicting the potential durability of the concrete
 confirming the mix composition of the concrete for dispute resolution
 determining specific properties of the concrete not attainable by non-destructive
methods such as intrinsic permeability.

Other tests
1. tensile tests
2. Flexure test
3. Splitting Test
4. Chemical analysis
5. Microscopical examination
6. Moisture measurements in concrete
 Electrical conductivity measurement
 Capacitance meters
 Microwave moisture meters
 Moisture measurements with radar

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VISUAL INSPECTION

INTRODUCTION

Visual testing is probably the most important of all non-destructive tests. It can often
provide valuable information to the well trained eye. Visual features may be related to
workmanship, structural serviceability, and material deterioration and it is particularly
important that the engineer is able to differentiate between the various signs of distress
which may be encountered. These include for instance, cracks, pop-outs, spalling,
disintegration, colour change, weathering, staining, surface blemishes and lack of
uniformity. Extensive information can be gathered from visual inspection to give a
preliminary indication of the condition of the structure and allow formulation of a
subsequent testing programme. The visual inspection however should not be confined
only to the structure being investigated. It should also include neighbouring structures,
the surrounding environment and the climatic condition. This is probably the most
difficult aspect of the whole structural investigation or any diagnostic works since what
appears obvious to one may not be so to another. The importance and benefits of a visual
survey should not be underrated. Often the omission of what appears to be insignificant
evidence can lead to a wrong conclusion being made. The advantage of a trained eye is
best described by Sherlock Holmes when he wrote: “I see no more than you but I have
trained myself to notice what I see.”

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VISUAL INSPECTION

An engineer carrying out a visual survey should be well equipped with tools to facilitate
the inspection. These involve a host of common accessories such as measuring tapes or
rulers, markers, thermometers, anemometers and others. Binoculars, telescopes,
borescopes and endoscopes or the more expensive fibre scopes may be useful where
access is difficult. A crack width microscope or a crack width gauge is useful, while a
magnifying glass or portable microscope is handy for close up examination. A good
camera with the necessary zoom and micro lenses and other accessories, such as
polarized filters, facilitates pictorial documentation of defects, and a portable colour chart
is helpful in identifying variation in the colour of the concrete. A complete set of relevant
drawings showing plan views, elevations and typical structural details allows recording
of observations to be made.

GENERAL PROCEDURE OF VISUAL INSPECTION

Before any visual test can be made, the engineer must peruse all relevant structural
drawings, plans and elevations to become familiar with the structure. Available
documents must also be examined and these include technical specification, past reports
of tests or inspection made, construction records, details of materials used, methods and
dates of construction, etc.
The survey should be carried out systematically and cover the defects present, the
current and past use of the structure, the condition of adjacent structures and
environmental condition. All defects must be identified, the degree classified, similar to
those used for fire damaged concrete and, where possible, the causes identified. The
distribution and extent of defects need to be clearly recognized. For example whether the
defects are random or appear in a specific pattern and whether the defect is confined to

63
certain locations of members or is present all over the structure. Visual comparison of
similar members is particularly valuable as a preliminary to testing to determine the
extent of the problems in such cases. A study of similar structures or other structures in
the local area constructed with similar materials can also be helpful in providing ‘case
study’ evidence, particularly if those other structures vary in age from the one under
investigation. There is a need to identify associated or accompanying defects, especially
which particular defect predominates.
Segregation or excessive bleeding at shutter joints may reflect problems with the
concrete mix, as might plastic shrinkage cracking, whereas honeycombing may be an
indication of a low standard of construction workmanship. Lack of structural adequacy
may show itself by excessive deflection or flexural cracking and this may frequently be
the reason for an in situ assessment of a structure. Long term creep defections, thermal
movements or structural movements may cause distortion of doorframes, cracking of
windows, or cracking of a structure or its finishes.
Material deterioration is often indicated by surface cracking and spalling of the
concrete and examination of crack patterns may provide a preliminary indication of the
cause. Systematic crack mapping is a valuable diagnostic exercise when determining the
causes and progression of deterioration. Observation of concrete surface texture and
colour variations may be a useful guide to uniformity. Colour change is a widely
recognized indicator of the extent of fire damage.
Visual inspection is not confined to the surface but may also include examination of
bearings, expansion joints, drainage channels and similar features of a structure. Any
misuse of the structure can be identified when compared to the original designed purpose
of the structure.
An assessment may also need to be made of the particular environmental conditions
to which each part of the structure has been exposed. In particular the wetting and drying
frequency and temperature variation that an element is subjected to should be recorded
because these factors influence various mechanisms of deterioration in concrete. For
example, in marine structures it is important to identify the splash zone. Settlement of
surrounding soil or geotechnical failures need to be recorded. Account must also be taken
of climatic and other external environmental factors at the location, since factors such as
freeze thaw conditions may be of considerable importance when assessing the causes of
deterioration.
A careful and detailed record of all observations should be made as the inspection
proceeds. Drawings can be marked, coloured or shaded to indicate the local severity of
each feature. Defects that commonly need recording include:
 cracking which can vary widely in nature and style depending on the causative
mechanism
 surface pitting and spalling
 surface staining
 differential movements or displacements
 variation in algal or vegetative growths
 surface voids
 honeycombing
 bleed marks
 constructional and lift joints
 exudation of efflorescence.

64
 Classification of the degree of damage or condition requires experience and
engineering judgement but guides are available. Where a large structure is to be
examined it may be appropriate to produce a plan or a series of plans indicating ‘climate
exposure severity’ to overlay the engineer’s plans of the structure.

APPLICATIONS OF VISUAL INSPECTION

For existing structures, presence of some feature requiring further investigation is

generally indicated by visual inspection, and it must be considered the single most
important component of routine maintenance. It will also provide the basis for
judgements relating to access and safety requirements when selecting test methods and
test locations.
As mentioned earlier, a visual inspection provides an initial indication of the condition
of the concrete to allow the formulation of a subsequent testing programme. It is also
through such inspections that proper documentation of defects and features in the
concrete structure can be effected. With a trained eye, visual inspection can reveal
substantial information regarding the structure such as the construction methods,
weathering, chemical attack, mechanical damage, physical deterioration, abuse,
construction deficiencies or faults and many others.

SKETCHES OF TYPICAL DEFECTS FOUND BY VISUAL INSPECTION

Although experience is the best trainer, the following Figs. are sketches of
typical defects found in concrete structures.

Fig. Sketch of surface appearance when concrete has been mixed for too long or the time
of transport has been too long.

Fig. Sketch of crack due to concrete settling.

65
 Fig. Sketch of exposed aggregate.

Unsuitable process at construction joint.

Fig. Sketch of cracking due to bowing of formwork.

66
 Fig. Sketch of cracking due to sinking of timbering.

Fig. Sketch of severe rusting of reinforcing bars due to chemical action.

Fig. Sketch of effect of fire on concrete.

67
Fig. Cracks due to differential settlement of central column.

Fig. Cracks due to bending and shear stresses.

Fig. Cracking in columns and beams due to an earthquake.

Fig. Cracks due to insufficient reinforcing bars.

68
Fig. Cracks due to abnormal set of cement.

Fig. Sinking of concrete.

Fig. Rusting of reinforcing bars.

Fig. Effect of heating and freezing cycles

69
Fig. Effect of changing ground conditions: a) low temperature or b) dryness.

Fig. Effect of atmospheric conditions.

Fig. Non-uniformity of admixture.

Fig. Pop-out due to reactive aggregate and high humidity.

70
ULTRASONIC TESTING

1. PULSE VELOCITY TEST

Fundamental principle
A pulse of longitudinal vibrations is produced by an electro-acoustical transducer, which
is held in contact with one surface of the concrete under test. When the pulse generated
is transmitted into the concrete from the transducer using a liquid coupling material such
as grease or cellulose paste, it undergoes multiple reflections at the boundaries of the
different material phases within the concrete. A complex system of stress waves
develops, which include both longitudinal and shear waves, and propagates through the
concrete. The first waves to reach the receiving transducer are the longitudinal waves,
which are converted into an electrical signal by a second transducer. Electronic timing
circuits enable the transit time T of the pulse to be measured.
Longitudinal pulse velocity (in km/s or m/s) is given by:

Where, v is the longitudinal pulse velocity,

L is the path length,
T is the time taken by the pulse to traverse that length.

Equipment for pulse velocity test

The equipment consists essentially of an electrical pulse generator, a pair of
transducers, an amplifier and an electronic timing device for measuring the time interval
between the initiation of a pulse generated at the transmitting transducer and its arrival
at the receiving transducer. Two forms of electronic timing apparatus and display are
available, one of which uses a cathode ray tube on which the received pulse is displayed
in relation to a suitable time scale, the other uses an interval timer with a direct reading
digital display.
The equipment should have the following characteristics. It should be capable of
measuring transit time over path lengths ranging from about 100 mm to the maximum
thickness to be inspected to an accuracy of ±1%. Generally the transducers used should
be in the range of 20 to 150 kHz although frequencies as low as 10 kHz may be used for
very long concrete path lengths and as high as 1 MHz for mortars and grouts or for short
path lengths. High frequency pulses have a well defined onset but, as they pass through
the concrete, become attenuated more rapidly than pulses of lower frequency. It is
therefore preferable to use high frequency transducers for short path lengths and low
frequency transducers for long path lengths. Transducers with a frequency of 50 kHz to
60 kHz are suitable for most common applications.
Applications
Measurement of the velocity of ultrasonic pulses of longitudinal vibrations passing
through concrete may be used for the following applications:
 determination of the uniformity of concrete in and between members
 measurement of changes occurring with time in the properties of concrete
 correlation of pulse velocity and strength as a measure of concrete quality.
 determination of the modulus of elasticity and dynamic Poisson's ratio of the
concrete.

71
 The velocity of an ultrasonic pulse is influenced by those properties of concrete which
determine its elastic stiffness and mechanical strength. The variations obtained in a set
of pulse velocity measurements made along different paths in a structure reflect a
corresponding variation in the state of the concrete. When a region of low compaction,
voids or damaged material is present in the concrete under test, a corresponding
reduction in the calculated pulse velocity occurs and this enables the approximate extent
of the imperfections to be determined. As concrete matures or deteriorates, the changes,
which occur with time in its structure, are reflected in either an increase or a decrease,
respectively, in the pulse velocity. This enables changes to be monitored by making tests
at appropriate intervals of time.
Pulse velocity measurements made on concrete structures may be used for quality
control purposes. In comparison with mechanical tests on control samples such as cubes
or cylinders, pulse velocity measurements have the advantage that they relate directly to
the concrete in the structure rather than to samples, which may not be always truly
representative of the concrete in situ.
Ideally, pulse velocity should be related to the results of on structural components
and, if a correlation can be established with the strength or other required properties of
these components, it is desirable to make use of it. Such correlations can often be readily
established directly for pre-cast units and can also be found for in situ work.
Empirical relationships may be established between the pulse velocity and both the
dynamic and static elastic moduli and the strength of concrete. The latter relationship is
influenced by a number of factors including the type of cement, cement content,
admixtures, type and size of the aggregate, curing conditions and age of concrete. Caution
should be exercised when attempting to express the results of pulse velocity tests in
terms of strengths or elastic properties, especially at strengths exceeding 60 MPa.

Determination of pulse velocity

Transducer arrangement:
The receiving transducer detects the arrival of that component of the pulse, which
arrives earliest. This is generally the leading edge of the longitudinal vibration. Although
the direction in which the maximum energy is propagated is at right angles to the face of
the transmitting transducer, it is possible to detect pulses, which have travelled through
the concrete in some other direction. It is possible, therefore, to make measurements of
pulse velocity by placing the two transducers on either:
 opposite faces (direct transmission)
 adjacent faces (semi-direct transmission): or
 the same face (indirect or surface transmission).
These three arrangements are shown in Figs.

(A)Direct transmission.(b)Semi-direct transmission. (c)Indirect or surface transmission.

72
Fig. (a) shows the transducers directly opposite to each other on opposite faces of
the concrete. However, it is sometimes necessary to place the transducers on opposite
faces but not directly opposite each other. Such an arrangement is regarded as semi-
direct transmission, Fig (b).

Determination of pulse velocity by direct transmission:

Where possible the direct transmission arrangement should be used since the
transfer of energy between transducers is at its maximum and the accuracy of velocity
determination is therefore governed principally by the accuracy of the path length
measurement. The couplant used should be spread as thinly as possible to avoid any end
effects resulting from the different velocities in couplant and concrete.

Determination of pulse velocity by semi-direct transmission:

The semi-direct transmission arrangement has a sensitivity intermediate between
those of the other two arrangements and, although there may be some reduction in the
accuracy of measurement of the path length, it is generally found to be sufficiently
accurate to take this as the distance measured from centre to centre of the transducer
faces. This arrangement is otherwise similar to direct transmission.

Determination of pulse velocity by indirect or surface transmission:

Indirect transmission should be used when only one face of the concrete is
accessible, when the depth of a surface crack is to be determined or when the quality of
the surface concrete relative to the overall quality is of interest. It is the least sensitive of
the arrangements and, for a given path length, produces at the receiving transducer a
signal which has an amplitude of only about 2% or 3% of that produced by direct
transmission. Furthermore, this arrangement gives pulse velocity measurements which
are usually influenced by the concrete near the surface. This region is often of different
composition from that of the concrete within the body of a unit and the test results may
be unrepresentative of that concrete. The indirect velocity is invariably lower than the
direct velocity on the same concrete element. This difference may vary from 5% to 20%
depending largely on the quality of the concrete under test. Where practicable site
measurements should be made to determine this difference. With indirect transmission
there is some uncertainty regarding the exact length of the transmission path because of
the significant size of the areas of contact between the transducers and the concrete. It is
therefore preferable to make a series of measurements with the transducers at different
distances apart to eliminate this uncertainty. To do this, the transmitting transducer
should be placed in contact with the concrete surface at a fixed point x and the receiving
transducer should be placed at fixed increments xn along a chosen line on the surface. The
transmission times recorded should be plotted as points on a graph showing their
relation to the distance separating the transducers. An example of such a plot is shown as
line (b) in Figure below. The slope of the best straight line drawn through the points
should be measured and recorded as the mean pulse velocity along the chosen line on the
concrete surface. Where the points measured and recorded in this way indicate a
discontinuity, it is likely that a surface crack or surface layer of inferior quality is present
and a velocity measured in such an instance is unreliable.

73
Coupling the transducer onto the concrete:
To ensure that the ultrasonic pulses generated at the transmitting transducers pass
into the concrete and are then detected by the receiving transducer, it is essential that
there is adequate acoustical coupling between the concrete and the face of each
transducer. For many concrete surfaces, the finish is sufficiently smooth to ensure good
acoustical contact by the use of a coupling medium and by pressing the transducer against
the concrete surface. Typical couplants are petroleum jelly, grease, soft soap and
kaolin/glycerol paste. It is important that only a very thin layer of coupling medium
separates the surface of the concrete from its contacting transducer. For this reason,
repeated readings of the transit time should be made until a minimum value is obtained
so as to allow the layer of the couplant to become thinly spread.
Where possible, the transducers should be in contact with the concrete surfaces,
which have been cast against formwork or a mould. Surfaces formed by other means, e.g.
trowelling, may have properties differing from those of the main body of material. If it is
necessary to work on such a surface, measurements should be made over a longer path
length than would normally be used. A minimum path length of 150 mm is recommended
for direct transmission involving one unmoulded surface and a minimum of 400 mm for
indirect transmission along one unmoulded surface.

(a) Results for concrete with the top 50 mm of inferior quality

(b) Results for homogeneous concrete.
Fig. Pulse velocity determination by indirect (surface) transmission.

When the concrete surface is very rough and uneven, the area of the surface where
the transducer is to be applied should be smoothed and leveled. Alternately, a smoothing
medium such as quick setting epoxy resin or plaster may be used, but good adhesion
between the concrete surface and the smoothing medium has to be ensured so that the
pulse propagates correctly into the concrete under test. It is important to ensure that the
layer of smoothing medium is as thin as possible. If it is necessary to make a significant
build up then the pulse velocity of the smoothing medium has to be taken into account.

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 2. ULTRASOUND PULSE ECHO
With Ultrasound Pulse Echo testing it is possible to detect internal features in
concrete with one sided access to the structure. The principle is based on the
measurement of the time interval between transmitting an ultrasonic impulse into the
structure and receiving an echo. The distance to an inner reflector can be determined, if
the velocity of sound is known through the simple equation d=vL/2T (T: transit time, vL:
Velocity of the longitudinal wave, d: distance).
The frequency of the ultrasound must be as low as 50 kHz because of the scattering
of the sound waves by the aggregates and air pores. Ultrasound is highly attenuated in
concrete so it is impossible in most cases to get a direct reading of the echo. There have
been recent advances in the utilization of the ultrasonic pulse echo method for concrete
structure testing in the situations that follow.

Thickness measurement of concrete slabs with one sided access:

The phase shift superposition technique can be applied to determine the thickness
of a concrete slab. The test is performed in a bistatic arrangement by measuring several
A-scans (20+) with varying distances between the transmitting and the receiving
transducer. The velocity of sound must be known, e.g. by testing it on a core.

Fig. Tomographic survey- Position 0.4 m from front end.

Fig. Tomographic survey – Position 0.8 m from front end.

75
For a given assumed thickness of the concrete slab, the phase shift for the backface echo
in each A-scan is calculated and the A-scans time is shifted accordingly and averaged. If
true thickness is the same, the back face reflection is amplified and any scattering is
reduced because it appears statistical. By calculating the synthetic time shifted average
over the range of the expected thickness of the specimen, the maximum of the synthetic
echo is at the true thickness of the specimen, Fig. below.

Fig. Maximum of the synthetic echo is at the true thickness of the specimen.

Using an array of approximately 10 transducers, which can act as transmitter and

receiver, a large number of measurements can be done in a very short time and the
calculation performed. Again it should be pointed out that the thickness measurement
can only be accurate if the velocity of sound in the test object is known.

Post-tensioned duct inspection

Ultrasound pulse echo has been successfully used to locate voids inside ducts. These
defects can be a serious safety hazard and therefore it is important to have testing
methods available.
The investigation of ducts with a thick concrete cover (>10 cm) requires time
consuming and complicated data acquisition and analysis. Many readings (>1000) have
to be taken on the surface of the object above the area to be inspected. All these A-scans
are then put into a 3D SAFT (Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique) analysis, which
produces a 3D image of the inner reflectors. By plotting projections and slices through
this 3D array, the position of the duct and possible voids can be identified.
To reduce the resources needed it has been proven advantageous to first locate the
duct with radar and then pre-select suspected positions of the duct.
This method is not widely available but is the only method, which is able to reliably
locate ungrouted areas in ducts that are covered by more than 10 cm in concrete.

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 3. IMPACT-ECHO/RESONANCE FREQUENCY/STRESS WAVE TEST
A number of non-destructive test methods rely on the effect a structure has on the
propagation of stress waves. The most common techniques are pulse-echo, impact-echo,
impulse–response and spectral analysis of surface waves. The methods differ in the way
that the stress waves are generated and on the signal processing techniques that are used.

This is an effective method of locating large voids or delaminations in plate like

structures, e.g. pavements or bridge decks, where the defect is parallel to the test surface.
A mechanical impact produces stress waves of 1 to 60 kHz. The wavelengths of from 50
mm to 2000 mm propagate as if in a homogeneous elastic medium.
The mechanical impact on the surface generates compression, shear and surface
waves. Internal interfaces or external boundaries reflect the compression and shear
waves. When the waves return to the surface where the impact was generated, they can
be used to generate displacements in a transducer and subsequently a display on a digital
oscilloscope. The resulting voltage-time signal is digitized and transformed, in a
computer, to amplitude vs. frequency plot. The dominant frequencies appear as peaks on
the frequency spectrum. The dominant frequency is not necessarily the thickness signal.
Using each of the frequencies identified as peaks on the frequency spectrum, the
distances to the reflecting surfaces can be calculated from

where
d is distance,
f is dominant frequency,
V is velocity of compression waves in the test material.

If the receiver is placed close to the impact point the reflected signals may not be
seen because the transducer is still ringing due to the impact. The type of impact used has
a significant influence on the success of the test. The shorter the contact time, the higher
the range of frequencies contained in the pulse. An estimate of the maximum frequency
excited is the inverse of the contact time: fmax = 1/ tD,

where
tD is the contact time,
fmax is the maximum frequency.
Sansalone and Street gave an estimate of the maximum frequency for a steel ball bearing
of diameter D:
fmax (KHz) = 291/D (mm)

Thus the contact time determines the depth of the defect that can be detected by
impact-echo testing. As the contact time decreases, the frequency increases and the depth
of defect, which can be detected, decreases. Also short duration impacts are needed to
detect defects close to the surface.

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Equipment for impact-echo testing
Examples of the equipment used for impact-echo testing are the systems developed
by Impact-Echo Instruments as illustrated in Fig. below. There are two systems offered.
Type A Test System comprising a Data Acquisition System, one cylindrical hand held
transducer unit, 200 replacement lead disks for the transducer, Ten spherical impactors
3 mm to 19 mm in diameter (used to vary the contact time), one 3.7 m cable and one 7.6
m cable.
Type B Test System comprising a Data Acquisition System, two cylindrical hand-held
transducer units, 200 replacement lead disks for the transducer, ten spherical impactors
3 mm to 19 mm in diameter, one 3.7 m cable, one 7.6 m cable and a spacer bar to use with
the two transducers.

Fig. Schematic diagram showing how impact-echo works.

General procedure for impact-echo testing

Using the Impact–Echo Instruments System A, the technique used is to vary the
diameter of the impactor until a clear dominant frequency is obtained. Typically the
diameter of the impactor has to increase as the thickness of the material being tested
increases to obtain reflections from the rear surface of the material being tested.

Applications of and examples of the use of the impact-echo testing method

The investigation of cracking in the deck of a reinforced concrete railway bridge due
to alkali-aggregate reaction resulted in horizontal cracking being detected at mid depth
over the entire span. The cracking was verified by taking cores. The bridge was
subsequently demolished.
Another use has been in measuring the thickness of concrete pavements. The
accuracy of the thickness measurement was found to vary depending on the sub base on
which concrete is laid. For example the uncertainty of the thickness measurement was
within 1% for a concrete pavement on lean concrete sub-base, 2% for pavement on an
asphalt sub-base and 3% for pavement on an aggregate sub-base.
Voids have also been located in grouted tendon ducts of a post-tensioned highway
bridge. Areas of full or partial voids were found in 3 of 14 girders tested.
Delaminations have also been found in 200 mm thick concrete bridge deck with a
100 mm asphalt overlay. Extensive areas of delamination were detected at the top layer

78
of the reinforcing steel. The delamination was confirmed by taking cores. The deck was
subsequently repaired and a new asphalt overlay laid.
Cracking has also been detected in the beams and columns of parking garage. Cracks
were identified at flange to web intersections at certain T beam configurations and the
extent of cracking was determined in columns.

Range and limitations of impact-echo testing method

In generic terms the impact-echo method is a commercial development of the well-
known frequency response function method (Frf) and the theory of vibration testing of
piles. Further reading may be obtained in Ewens(1984) and Davis and Dunn (1974).
The user should beware of the claimed accuracy of detecting defects or thickness in
terms of an absolute measurement. It is better to think in terms of a multiple of the
wavelength:
Velocity = frequency × wavelength
V= fλ
where
λ is wavelength.

For impact test work, recent research has shown that the “near field” detection
capability of impact-echo (Martin, Hardy, Usmani and Forde, 1998) is:
minimum depth of detectable target = λ/2

Many test houses will deliberately or otherwise use the null hypothesis:
“If a defect is not identified – then none exists.”

In order to determine λ, one could assume the velocity through the good concrete tobe:
Velocity = 4,000 m/s
(Poorer or younger (<28 days) concrete might have a velocity equal to 3,500 m/s), thus:

λ = 4000/frequency metres

When using impact-echo equipment, one would select the excitation frequency by
turning a dial in order that the appropriate size of spherical hammer is chosen. For
example, if a 10 KHz excitation frequency hammer is chosen, the near field minimum
depth resolution would be

λ/2 = 4000/10KHz × 2 = 4/20 = 0.2 metres

It is argued by Sansalone, et al. that when one cannot detect the shallow “target”, the
“anomaly” can be detected by observing the apparent depth to the base of a slab or depth
to a backwall. This depth will appear to increase when a defect occurs. This method of
interpretation must be used with some caution.
A check needs to be undertaken on actual impact frequency achieved as the surface
of the concrete may crumble. If the surface crumbles, even a little, on impact:
 contact time increases
 lower frequency of excitation is achieved
 longer wavelength signal is generated
 lower “near field” resolution is achieved.

79
 Good practice would be to take multiple impact-echo readings and discard the first
two readings. This assumes that the third and subsequent readings are good.
The size of the test object plays an important role in the results obtained. Geometrical
effects due to limited size are the cause of signals, which can be misleading. It is therefore
necessary to perform the impact-echo test at several points on the surface to identify
possible geometrical effects.

SCHMIDT REBOUND HAMMER TEST

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE
The Schmidt rebound hammer is principally a surface hardness tester. It works on
the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface
against which the mass impinges. There is little apparent theoretical relationship
between the strength of concrete and the rebound number of the hammer. However,
within limits, empirical correlations have been established between strength properties
and the rebound number. Further, Kolek has attempted to establish a correlation
between the hammer rebound number and the hardness as measured by the Brinell
method.

EQUIPMENT FOR SCHMIDT/REBOUND HAMMER TEST

The Schmidt rebound hammer is shown in Fig. below.

Fig. Schmidt rebound hammer.

The hammer weighs about 1.8 kg and is suitable for use both in a laboratory and in
the field. A schematic cutaway view of the rebound hammer is shown in Fig. below.

Fig. A cutaway schematic view of the Schmidt rebound hammer.

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The main components include the outer body, the plunger, the hammer mass, and the
main spring. Other features include a latching mechanism that locks the hammer mass to
the plunger rod and a sliding rider to measure the rebound of the hammer mass. The
rebound distance is measured on an arbitrary scale marked from 10 to100. The rebound
distance is recorded as a “rebound number” corresponding to the position of the rider on
the scale.

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR SCHMIDT REBOUND HAMMER TEST

The method of using the hammer is explained using Fig. 4.2. With the hammer pushed
hard against the concrete, the body is allowed to move away from the concrete until the
latch connects the hammer mass to the plunger, Fig. a.
The plunger is then held perpendicular to the concrete surface and the body pushed
towards the concrete, Fig. b. This movement extends the spring holding the mass to the
body. When the maximum extension of the spring is reached, the latch releases and the
mass is pulled towards the surface by the spring, Fig. c. The mass hits the shoulder of the
plunger rod and rebounds because the rod is pushed hard against the concrete, Fig. d.
During rebound the slide indicator travels with the hammer mass and stops at the
maximum distance the mass reaches after rebounding. A button on the side of the body
is pushed to lock the plunger into the retracted position and the rebound number is read
from a scale on the body.

APPLICATIONS OF SCHMIDT REBOUND HAMMER TEST

The hammer can be used in the horizontal, vertically overhead or vertically
downward positions as well as at any intermediate angle, provided the hammer is
perpendicular to the surface under test. The position of the mass relative to the vertical,
however, affects the rebound number due to the action of gravity on the mass in the
hammer. Thus the rebound number of a floor would be expected to be smaller than that
of a soffit and inclined and vertical surfaces would yield intermediate results. Although a
high rebound number represents concrete with a higher compressive strength than
concrete with a low rebound number, the test is only useful if a correlation can be
developed between the rebound number and concrete made with the same coarse
aggregate as that being tested. Too much reliance should not be placed on the calibration
curve supplied with the hammer since the manufacturer develops this curve using
standard cube specimens and the mix used could be very different from the one being
tested.

A typical correlation procedure is, as follows:

(1) Prepare a number of 150 mm × 300 mm cylinders (or 150 mm3 cube specimens)
covering the strength range to be encountered on the job site. Use the same
cement and aggregates as are to be used on the job. Cure the cylinders under
standard moist-curing room conditions, keeping the curing period the same as
the specified control age in the field.
(2) After capping, place the cylinders in a compression-testing machine under an
initial load of approximately 15% of the ultimate load to restrain the specimen.
Ensure that cylinders are in a saturated surface-dry condition.
(3) Make 15 hammer rebound readings, 5 on each of 3 vertical lines 120° apart,
against the side surface in the middle two thirds of each cylinder. Avoid testing the

81
 same spot twice. For cubes, take 5 readings on each of the 4 molded faces without
testing the same spot twice.
(4) Average the readings and call this the rebound number for the cylinder under test.
Repeat this procedure for all the cylinders.
(5) Test the cylinders to failure in compression and plot the rebound numbers against
the compressive strengths on a graph.
(6) Fit a curve or a line by the method of least squares.

A typical curve established by Zoldners for limestone aggregate concrete is shown in

Fig. below. This curve was based on tests performed during 28 days using different
concrete mixtures.

Fig. Relationship between 28 day compressive strength and rebound number for lime
stone aggregate concrete obtained with Type N-2 hammer.

Below Fig. shows further three calibration curves obtained by research workers
compared to the curve supplied with the hammer identified as “Schmidt”. It is important
to note that some of the curves deviate considerably from the curve supplied with the
hammer.

Correlation curves produced by different researchers. (Greene curve used Type N

hammer; others used Type N-2).

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RANGE AND LIMITATIONS OF SCHMIDT REBOUND HAMMER TEST
Although the rebound hammer does provide a quick, inexpensive method of checking
the uniformity of concrete, it has some serious limitations. The results are affected by:

1. Smoothness of the test surface

Hammer has to be used against a smooth surface, preferably a formed one. Open
textured concrete cannot therefore be tested. If the surface is rough, e.g. a trowelled
surface, it should be rubbed smooth with a carborundum stone.

2. Size, shape and rigidity of the specimen

If the concrete does not form part of a large mass any movement caused by the impact
of the hammer will result in a reduction in the rebound number. In such cases the member
has to be rigidly held or backed up by a heavy mass.

3. Age of the specimen

For equal strengths, higher rebound numbers are obtained with a 7 day old concrete
than with a 28 day old. Therefore, when old concrete is to be tested in a structure a direct
correlation is necessary between the rebound numbers and compressive strengths of
cores taken from the structure. Rebound testing should not be carried out on low strength
concrete at early ages or when the concrete strength is less than 7 MPa since the concrete
surface could be damaged by the hammer.

4. Surface and internal moisture conditions of concrete

The rebound numbers are lower for well-cured air dried specimens than for the same
specimens tested after being soaked in water and tested in the saturated surface dried
conditions. Therefore, whenever the actual moisture condition of the field concrete or
specimen is unknown, the surface should be pre-saturated for several hours before
testing. A correlation curve for tests performed on saturated surface dried specimens
should then be used to estimate the compressive strength.

5. Type of coarse aggregate

Even though the same aggregate type is used in the concrete mix, the correlation
curves can be different if the source of the aggregate is different. An example is shown in
Fig. below, where correlation curves for four different sources of gravel are plotted.

Fig. Effect of gravel from different sources on correlation curves.

83
 Below Fig. shows the considerable difference that can occur between correlation
curves developed for different aggregate types.

Fig. Comparison between correlation curves for crushed limestone and siliceous.

6. Type of cement
High alumina cement can have a compressive strength 100% higher than the
strength estimated using a correlation curve based on ordinary Portland cement. Also,
super sulphated cement concrete can have strength 50% lower than ordinary Portland
cement.

7. Carbonation of the concrete surface

In older concrete the carbonation depth can be several millimeters thick and, in
extreme cases, up to 20 mm thick. In such cases the rebound numbers can be up to 50%
higher than those obtained on an uncarbonated concrete surface.

PENETRATION RESISTANCE OR WINDSOR PROBE TEST

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE
The Windsor probe, like the rebound hammer, is a hardness tester, and its inventors’
claim that the penetration of the probe reflects the precise compressive strength in a
localized area is not strictly true. However, the probe penetration does relate to some
property of the concrete below the surface, and, within limits, it has been possible to
develop empirical correlations between strength properties and the penetration of the
probe.

EQUIPMENT FOR WINDSOR PROBE TEST

The Windsor probe consists of a powder-actuated gun or driver, hardened alloy steel
probes, loaded cartridges, a depth gauge for measuring the penetration of probes, and
other related equipment. As the device looks like a firearm it may be necessary to obtain
official approval for its use in some countries. The probes have a tip diameter of 6.3 mm,
a length of 79.5 mm, and a conical point. Probes of 7.9 mm diameter are also available for
the testing of concrete made with lightweight aggregates. The rear of the probe is
threaded and screws into a probe driving head, which is 12.7 mm in diameter and fits

84
snugly into the bore of the driver. The probe is driven into the concrete by the firing of a
precision powder charge that develops energy of 79.5 m kg. For the testing of relatively
low strength concrete, the power level can be reduced by pushing the driver head further
into the barrel.

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR WINDSOR PROBE TEST

The area to be tested must have a brush finish or a smooth surface. To test structures
with coarse finishes, the surface first must be ground smooth in the area of the test.
Briefly, the powder-actuated driver is used to drive a probe into the concrete. If flat
surfaces are to be tested a suitable locating template to provide 178 mm equilateral
triangular pattern is used, and three probes are driven into the concrete, one at each
corner. A depth gauge measures the exposed lengths of the individual probes. The
manufacturer also supplies a mechanical averaging device for measuring the average
exposed length of the three probes fired in a triangular pattern. The mechanical averaging
device consists of two triangular plates. The reference plate with three legs slips over the
three probes and rests on the surface of the concrete. The other triangular plate rests
against the tops of the three probes. The distance between the two plates, giving the
mechanical average of exposed lengths of the three probes, is measured by a depth gauge
inserted through a hole in the centre of the top plate. For testing structures with curved
surfaces, three probes are driven individually using the single probe-locating template.
In either case, the measured average value of exposed probe length may then be used to
estimate the compressive strength of concrete by means of appropriate correlation data.
The manufacturer of the Windsor probe test system has published tables relating
the exposed length of the probe with the compressive strength of the concrete. For each
exposed length value, different values for compressive strength are given, depending on
the hardness of the aggregate as measured by the Mohs' scale of hardness. The tables
provided by the manufacturer are based on empirical relationships established in his
laboratory. However, investigations carried out by Gaynor, Arni, Mallotra, and several
others indicate that the manufacturer's tables do not always give satisfactory results.
Sometimes they considerably overestimate the actual strength and in other instances
they underestimate the strength.

It is, therefore, imperative for each user of the probe to correlate probe test results
with the type of concrete being used. Although the penetration resistance technique has
been standardized the standard does not provide a procedure for developing a
correlation. A practical procedure for developing such a relationship is outlined below.

(1) Prepare a number of 150 mm × 300 mm cylinders, or 150 mm 3 cubes, and

companion 600 mm × 600 mm × 200 mm concrete slabs covering a strength range
that is to be encountered on a job site. Use the same cement and the same type and
size of aggregates as those to be used on the job. Cure the specimens under
standard moist curing conditions, keeping the curing period the same as the
specified control age in the field.
(2) Test three specimens in compression at the age specified, using standard testing
procedure. Then fire three probes into the top surface of the slab at least 150 mm
apart and at least 150 mm in from the edges. If any of the three probes fails to
properly penetrate the slab, remove it and fire another. Make sure that at least
three valid probe results are available. Measure the exposed probe lengths and
average the three results.

85
 (3) Repeat the above procedure for all test specimens.
(4) Plot the exposed probe length against the compressive strength, and fit a curve or
line by the method of least squares. The 95% confidence limits for individual
results may also be drawn on the graph. These limits will describe the interval
within which the probability of a test result falling is 95%.

Fig. Relationship between exposed probe length and 28 day compressive strength of
concrete.

A typical correlation curve is shown in Fig. above, together with the 95% confidence
limits for individual values. The correlation published by several investigators for
concrete made with limestone gravel, chert, and traprock aggregates are shown in Fig.
7.2. Note that different relationships have been obtained for concrete with aggregates
having similar Mohs' hardness numbers.

Fig. Relation between exposed probe length and compressive strength for
different coarse aggregates.

86
APPLICATIONS OF WINDSOR PROBE TEST
1. Formwork removal
The Windsor probe test has been used to estimate the early age strength of concrete in
order to determine when formwork can be removed. The simplicity of the test is its
greatest attraction. The depth of penetration of the probe, based on previously
established criteria, allows a decision to be made on the time when the formwork can be
stripped.

2. As a substitute for core testing

If the standard cylinder compression tests do not reach the specified values or the quality
of the concrete is being questioned because of inadequate placing methods or curing
problems, it may be necessary to establish the in situ compressive strength of the
concrete. This need may also arise if an older structure is being investigated and an
estimate of the compressive strength is required. In all those situations the usual option
is to take a drill core sample since the specification will generally require a compressive
strength to be achieved. It is claimed, however, that the Windsor probe test is superior to
taking a core. With a core test, if ASTM C42 –87 is applied, the area from which the cores
are taken needs to be soaked for 40 h before the sample is drilled. Also the sample often
has to be transported to a testing laboratory which may be some distance from the
structure being tested and can result in an appreciable delay before the test result is
known. Swamy and Al-Hamed report that the Windsor probe estimated the wet cube
strength to be better than small diameter cores for ages up to 28 days. For older concrete
the cores estimated the strength better than the probe.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF WINDSOR PROBE TEST

The advantages are:
 The test is relatively quick and the result is achieved immediately provided an
appropriate correlation curve is available.
 The probe is simple to operate, requires little maintenance except cleaning the
barrel and is not sensitive to operator technique.
 Access is only needed to one surface.
 The correlation with concrete strength is affected by a relatively small number of
variables.
 The test result is likely to represent the concrete at a depth of from 25 mm to 75
mm from the surface rather than just the property of the surface layer as in the
Schmidt rebound test.
The limitations are:
 The minimum acceptable distance from a test location to any edges of the concrete
member or between two test locations is of the order of 150 mm to 200 mm.
 The minimum thickness of the member, which can be tested, is about three times
the expected depth of probe penetration.
 The distance from reinforcement can also have an effect on the depth of probe
penetration especially when the distance is less than about 100 mm.
 The test is limited to <40 MPa and if two different powder levels are used in an
investigation to accommodate a larger range of concrete strengths, the correlation
procedure becomes complicated.
 The test leaves an 8 mm hole in the concrete where the probe penetrated and, in
older concrete, the area around the point of penetration is heavily fractured.
 On an exposed face the probes have to be removed and the damaged area repaired.

87
HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL METHOD

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE
The method of half-cell potential measurements normally involves measuring
the potential of an embedded reinforcing bar relative to a reference half-cell
placed on the concrete surface. The half-cell is usually a copper/copper sulphate
or silver/silver chloride cell but other combinations are used. The concrete
functions as an electrolyte and the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement in the
immediate region of the test location may be related empirically to the measured
potential difference. In some circumstances, useful measurements can be obtained
between two half-cells on the concrete surface. ASTM C876 - 91 gives a Standard
Test Method for Half-Cell Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete.

EQUIPMENT FOR HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL METHOD

The testing apparatus consists of the following fig.:

Fig. A copper-copper sulphate half-cell.

Half-cell: The cell consists of a rigid tube or container composed of dielectric

material that is non-reactive with copper or copper sulphate, a porous wooden or
plastic plug that remains wet by capillary action, and a copper rod that is
immersed within the tube in a saturated solution of copper sulphate. The solution
is prepared using reagent grade copper sulphate dissolved to saturation in a
distilled or deionized water.
The rigid tube should have an inside diameter of not less than 25 mm; the
diameter of the porous tube should not be less than 13 mm; the diameter of the
immersed copper rod should not be less than 6 mm and its length should be at
least 50 mm.
Present criteria based on the half-cell reaction of Cu → Cu++ + 2e indicate that
the potential of the saturated copper-copper sulphate half-cell as referenced to the
hydrogen electrode is -0.316 V at 72o F (22.2oC). The cell has a temperature
coefficient of about 0.0005V more negative per oF for the temperature range from
32 to 120oF (0 to 49oC).

88
Electrical junction device:
An electrical junction device is used to provide a low electrical resistance liquid bridge
between the surface of the concrete and the half cell. It consists of a sponge or several
sponges pre-wetted with a low electrical resistance contact solution. The sponge can be
folded around and attached to the tip of the half-cell so that it provides electrical
continuity between the porous plug and the concrete member.

Electrical contact solution:

In order to standardize the potential drop through the concrete portion of the circuit, an
electrical contact solution is used to wet the electrical junction device. One solution,
which is used, is a mixture of 95 mL of wetting agent or a liquid household detergent
thoroughly mixed with 19 L of potable water. At temperatures less than 10oC
approximately 15% by volume of either isopropyl or denatured alcohol must be added to
prevent clouding of the electrical contact solution, since clouding may inhibit penetration
of water into the concrete to be tested.

Voltmeter:
The voltmeter should be battery operated and have ± 3% end of scale accuracy at the
voltage ranges in use. The input impedance should be not less than 10MW when operated
at a full scale of 100 mV. The divisions on the scale used should be such that a potential
of 0.02 V or less can be read without interpolation.

Electrical lead wires:

The electrical lead wire should be such that its electrical resistance for the length used
does not disturb the electrical circuit by more than 0.0001 V. This has been accomplished
by using no more than a total of 150 m of at least AWG No. 24 wire. The wire should be
suitably coated with direct burial type of insulation.

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL METHOD

Measurements are made in either a grid or random pattern. The spacing between
measurements is generally chosen such that adjacent readings are less than 150 mV with
the minimum spacing so that there is at least 100 mV between readings. An area with
greater than 150 mV indicates an area of high corrosion activity. A direct electrical
connection is made to the reinforcing steel with a compression clamp or by brazing or
welding a protruding rod. To get a low electrical resistance connection, the rod should be
scraped or brushed before connecting it to the reinforcing bar. It may be necessary to drill
into the concrete to expose a reinforcing bar. The bar is connected to the positive terminal
of the voltmeter. One end of the lead wire is connected to the half-cell and the other end
to the negative terminal of the voltmeter. Under some circumstances the concrete surface
has to be pre-wetted with a wetting agent. This is necessary if the half-cell reading
fluctuates with time when it is placed in contact with the concrete. If fluctuation occurs
either the whole concrete surface is made wet with the wetting agent or only the spots
where the half-cell is to be placed. The electrical half-cell potentials are recorded to the
nearest 0.01 V correcting for temperature if the temperature is outside the range 22.2 ±
5.5oC.

Measurements can be presented either with a equipotential contour map which

provides a graphical delineation of areas in the member where corrosion activity may be

89
occurring or with a cumulative frequency diagram which provides an indication of the
magnitude of affected area of the concrete member.

Equipotential contour map: On a suitably scaled plan view of the member the locations
of the half-cell potential values are plotted and contours of equal potential drawn through
the points of equal or interpolated equal values. The maximum contour interval should
be 0.10 V.
An example is shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. Equipotential contour map.

Cumulative frequency distribution: The distribution of the measured half-cell

potentials for the concrete member are plotted on normal probability paper by arranging
and consecutively numbering all the half-cell potentials in a ranking from least negative
potential to greatest negative potential. The plotting position of each numbered half-cell
potential is determined by using the following equation.

where
fx plotting position of total observations for the observed value, %
r rank of individual half-cell potential,
𝞢n total number of observations.

The ordinate of the probability paper should be labeled “Half-cell potential

(millivolts, CSE)” where CSE is the designation for copper-copper sulphate electrode. The
abscissa is labeled “Cumulative frequency (%)”. Two horizontal parallel lines are then
drawn intersecting the –200mv and –350mv values on the ordinate across the chart,
respectively. After the half-cell potentials are plotted, a line is drawn through the values.
The potential risks of corrosion based on potential difference readings are shown below.

90
 RISK OF CORROSION AGAINST THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE READINGS

However, half-cell electrode potentials in part reflect the chemistry of the electrode
environment and therefore there are factors which can complicate these simple
assumptions. For example, interpretation is complicated when concrete is saturated with
water, where the concrete is carbonated at the depth of the reinforcing steel, where the
steel is coated and under many other conditions. In those situations an experienced
corrosion engineer may be required to interpret the results and additional testing may
be required such as analysis for carbonation, metallic coatings and halides. For example,
increasing concentrations of chloride can reduce the ferrous ion concentration at a steel
anode thus lowering (making more negative) the potential.

APPLICATIONS OF HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL TESTING METHOD

This technique is most likely to be used for assessment of the durability of reinforced
concrete members where reinforcement corrosion is suspected. Reported uses include
the location of areas of high reinforcement corrosion risk in marine structures, bridge
decks and abutments. Used in conjunction with other tests, it has been found helpful
when investigating concrete contaminated by salts.

RANGE AND LIMITATIONS OF HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL INSPECTION

METHOD
The method has the advantage of being simple with equipment also simple. This
allows an almost non-destructive survey to be made to produce isopotential contour
maps of the surface of the concrete member. Zones of varying degrees of corrosion risk
may be identified from these maps.

The limitation of the method is that the method cannot indicate the actual corrosion
rate. It may require to drill a small hole to enable electrical contact with the reinforcement
in the member under examination, and surface preparation may also be required. It is
important to recognize that the use and interpretation of the results obtained from the
test require an experienced operator who will be aware of other limitations such as the
effect of protective or decorative coatings applied to the concrete.

91
RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
There are many techniques used to assess the corrosion risk or activity of steel in
concrete. The most commonly used is the half cell potential measurement that
determines the risk of corrosion activity. Whilst the half cell potential measurement is
effective in locating regions of corrosion activity, it provides no indication of the rate of
corrosion. However, a low resistance path between anodic and cathodic sites would
normally be associated with a high rate of corrosion than a high resistance path. Such
resistivity measurements determine the current levels flowing between anodic and
cathodic portions, or the concrete conductivity over the test area, and are usually used in
conjunction with the half-cell potential technique. This is an electrolytic process as a
consequence of ionic movement in the aqueous pore solution of the concrete matrix. An
alternative technique to estimate the rate of corrosion, which is becoming increasingly
popular, is the linear polarization resistance.

EQUIPMENT
Although other commercial devices like the less accurate two probe system are also
available, the Wenner four probe technique is generally adopted for resistivity
measurement of in situ concrete. The technique was first used by geologists to investigate
soil strata. The technique can be used to determine resistivities quickly and with little or
no damage to the concrete structures under study, Fig. below.

Fig. Schematic of Wenner 4 probe resistivity meter.

The equipment consists of four electrodes (two outer current probes and two inner
voltage probes) which are placed in a straight line on or just below the concrete surface
at equal spacings. A low frequency alternating electrical current is passed between the
two outer electrodes whilst the voltage drop between the inner electrodes is measured.
The apparent resistivity (ρ) in “ohm-cm” may be expressed as:
ρ = 2πaV/I (12)
where
V is voltage drop,
I is applied current,
a is electrode spacing.
92
 The calculation assumes the concrete to be homogeneous and the inhomogeneity
caused by the reinforcement network must be allowed for by properly placing the probes
to minimize its effect.

GENERAL PROCEDURE
Resistivity measurement is a fast, simple and cheap in situ non-destructive method
to obtain information related to the corrosion hazard of embedded reinforcement.
The spacing of the four probes determines the regions of concrete being measured.
It is generally accepted that for practical purposes, the depth of the concrete zone
affecting the measurement will be equal to the electrode spacing. If the spacing is too
small, the presence or absence of individual aggregate particles, usually having a very
high resistivity, will lead to a high degree of scatter in the measurement. Using a larger
spacing may lead to inaccuracies due to the current field being constricted by the edges
of the structure being studied. In addition, increased error can also be caused by the
influence of the embedded steel when larger spacings are employed. A spacing of 50 mm
is commonly adopted, gives a very small degree of scatter and allows concrete sections
in excess of 200 mm thick to be measured with acceptable accuracy.
The efficiency of surface coupling is also important. In order to establish
satisfactory electrical contact between the probes and the concrete, limited damage to
the concrete surface sometimes can not be avoided. In some commercial devices, wetting
or conductive gel is applied when the probes are pushed against the concrete surface to
get better contact. Prewetting of the surface before measurement is also advised. Small
shallow holes may also be drilled into the concrete which are filled with a conductive gel.
The probes are then dipped into each hole. However, this procedure is not practical for
site use.

APPLICATIONS
The ability of corrosion currents to flow through the concrete can be assessed in
terms of the electrolytic resistivity of the material. This resistivity can determine the rate
of corrosion once reinforcement is no longer passive. The presence of ions such as
chloride will also have an effect. At high resistivity, the rate of corrosion can be very low
even if the steel is not passive. For example, reinforcement in carbonated concrete in an
internal environment may not cause cracking or spalling due to the very low corrosion
currents flowing.

The electrical resistivity of concrete is known to be influenced by many factors

including moisture, salt content, temperature, water/cement ratio and mix proportions.
In particular, the variations of moisture condition have a major influence on in situ test
readings. Fortunately, in practice, the moisture content of external concrete does not vary
sufficiently to significantly affect the results. Nevertheless, precautions need to be taken
when comparing results of saturated concrete, e.g. those exposed to sea water or
measurements taken after rain showers, with those obtained on protected concrete
surfaces. Another important influence is the ambient temperature. Concrete has
electrolytic properties; hence, resistivity will increase as temperature decreases. This is
particularly critical when measurements are taken during the different seasons, with
markedly higher readings during the winter period than the summer period.

93
 The principle application of this measurement is for the assessment of the corrosion
rate and it is used in conjunction with other corrosion tests such as the half-cell potential
measurement or linear polarization measurement methods. There are no generally
accepted rules relating resistivity to corrosion rate. However, a commonly used guide has
been suggested for the interpretation of measurements of the likelihood of significant
corrosion for non-saturated concrete where the steel is activated, see Table below.

GUIDE FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF THE MEASUREMENTS DURING

CORROSION ASSESSMENT

In practice, it is necessary to calibrate the technique, either through exposing the

steel to assess its condition, or by correlating the resistivity values with data collected
with other techniques. For instance, the values given in Table 8.1 apply when the half-cell
potential measurement shows that corrosion is possible.

94
CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE
Carbonation of concrete occurs when the carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere in the
presence of moisture, reacts with hydrated cement minerals to produce carbonates, e.g.
calcium carbonate. The carbonation process is also called depassivation. Carbonation
penetrates below the exposed surface of concrete extremely slowly. The time required
for carbonation can be estimated knowing the concrete grade and using the following
equation:

where
t is the time for carbonation,
d is the concrete cover,
k is the permeability.

Typical permeability values are shown in Table below.

PERMEABILITY VALUES VERSUS CONCRETE GRADE

EQUIPMENT FOR CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST

If there is a need to physically measure the extent of carbonation it can be
determined easily by spraying a freshly exposed surface of the concrete with a 1%
phenolphthalein solution. The calcium hydroxide is coloured pink while the carbonated
portion is uncoloured.

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST

The 1% phenolthalein solution is made by dissolving 1gm of phenolthalein in 90 cc of
ethanol. The solution is then made up to 100 cc by adding distilled water. On freshly
extracted cores the core is sprayed with phenolphthalein solution, the depth of the
uncoloured layer (the carbonated layer) from the external surface is measured to the
nearest mm at 4 or 8 positions, and the average taken. If the test is to be done in a drilled
hole, the dust is first removed from the hole using an air brush and again the depth of the
uncoloured layer measured at 4 or 8 positions and the average taken. If the concrete still
retains its alkaline characteristic the colour of the concrete will change to purple. If
carbonation has taken place the pH will have changed to 7 (i.e. neutral condition) and
there will be no colour change.

95
Another formula, which can be used to estimate the depth of carbonation, utilizes the age
of the building, the water-to-cement ratio and a constant, which varies depending on the
surface coating on the concrete.

where
y is age of building in years,
x is water-to-cement ratio,
C is carbonation depth,
R is a constant (R= 𝞢𝞢).

R varies depending on the surface coating on the concrete (𝞢) and whether the
concrete has been in external or internal service (𝞢). This formula is contained in the
Japanese Construction Ministry publication “Engineering for improving the durability of
reinforced concrete structures.” 𝞢 is 1.7 for indoor concrete and 1.0 for outdoor concrete.
𝞢 values are shown in Table below.

VALUES OF 𝞢

The carbonation depth is therefore given by:

RANGE AND LIMITATIONS OF CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT TEST

The phenolphthalein test is a simple and cheap method of determining the depth of
carbonation in concrete and provides information on the risk of reinforcement corrosion
taking place. The only limitation is the minor amount of damage done to the concrete
surface by drilling or coring.

96
ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS OF TESTING CONCRETE

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
The physical principle involved can either be by utilizing eddy current effects or
magnetic induction effects.
With cover meters using eddy current effects, currents in a search coil set up eddy
currents in the reinforcement which in turn cause a change in the measured impedance
of the search coil. Instruments working on this principle operate at frequencies above 1
kHz and are thus sensitive to the presence of any conducting metal in the vicinity of the
search head.
With cover meters using magnetic induction, a multi coil search head is used with a
lower operating frequency than the eddy current type of device (typically below 90 Hz).
The principle used is similar to that of a transformer, in that one or two coils (the primary
coils) carry the driving current while one or two further coils (the secondary coils) pick
up the voltage transferred via the magnetic circuit formed by the search head and
embedded reinforcing bar. Such instruments are less sensitive to non-magnetic materials
than those using the eddy current principle. When there is a change to the amount of
ferromagnetic material under the search head e.g by the presence of reinforcing bar or
other metal object, there is an increase in the field strength. This results in an increase in
the voltage detected by the secondary coil, which can be displayed after amplification by
a meter.
In both types of instruments both the orientation and the proximity of the metal to
the search head affect the meter reading. It is therefore possible to locate reinforcing bars
and determine their orientation. The cover to a bar may also be determined if a suitable
calibration can be obtained for the particular size of bar and the materials under
investigation. Most instruments have a procedure to allow an estimate to be made of both
bar size and distance from the probe to the bar when neither is known.

EQUIPMENT FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC INSPECTION

A number of suitable battery or mains operated covermeters exist. They comprise a
search head, meter and interconnecting cable. The concrete surface is scanned, with the
search head kept in contact with it while the meter indicates, by analogue or digital
means, the proximity of reinforcement.

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC TESTING

Calibration of the cover meter:

Regular checks on the cover meter should be carried out to establish the accuracy of
the instrument. A basic calibration method is given in BS4408 part1 involving a cube of
concrete of given proportions with reinforcing bars at specified distances from the
surface. If different search heads are to be used with the same meter, calibration checks
should be carried out for each head.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC TESTING METHOD

Electromagnetic cover meters can be used for:
(a) quality control to ensure correct location and cover to reinforcing bars after
concrete Placement

97
 (b) investigation of concrete members for which records are not available or need to
be checked
(c) location of reinforcement as a preliminary to some other form of testing in which
reinforcement should be avoided or its nature taken into account, e.g. extraction
of cores, ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements or near to surface methods
(d) location of buried ferromagnetic objects other than reinforcement, e.g. water
pipes, steel joists, lighting conduits.

RANGE AND LIMITATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC TESTING METHOD

The search head is traversed systematically across the concrete and, where
reinforcement is located, rotated until a position of maximum disturbance of the
electromagnetic field is indicated by a meter or by an audible signal. In such a position,
under ideal conditions, the indicated cover to the nearest piece of reinforcement may be
read if the bar size is known. Further, the axis of the reinforcement will then lie in the
plane containing the centre line through the poles of the search head. Where
reinforcement is not too congested, it is possible to map out all bars within the area under
examination, which lie sufficiently close to the surface. It may also be possible to
determine the position of laps. If the bar size is known, the cover can be measured. If the
cover is known, the bar size can be estimated. In some equipment it is claimed to be
possible to determine the concrete cover over the first layer of reinforcement and then,
by using a spacer, estimate the size of the reinforcement used in that layer. It cannot be
too strongly emphasized that for maximum accuracy, interference from other
reinforcement or magnetic material has to be avoided.
If the concrete cover is in the range of 0 to 20 mm, which is less than the normal
operating range of some instruments, the following procedure can be used. A 20 mm thick
spacer of material inert to the cover meter, such as wood or plastic, is placed between the
search head and the concrete surface. An apparent cover for the particular bar size is read
directly from the meter and the indicated cover obtained by subtracting 20 mm from this
value. This method is only suitable where the concrete surface is flat and smooth.

The limitations of the method are:

 It is very slow and labour intensive.
 The results are affected by the presence of more than one reinforcing bar in the
test area, by laps, by second layers, by metal tie wires and by bar supports.
 For maximum accuracy it has to be calibrated for the concrete used in the
structure to eliminate the influence of iron content of the aggregate and cement
used.
 The method is unsuitable in the case of closely packed bar assemblies.
 The accuracy is reduced if rough or undulating surfaces are present, e.g. exposed
aggregate finishes. The effect on the indicated cover will be similar in magnitude
to the surface irregularities within the area of the search head.
 The claims made for the accuracy of reinforcing bar size estimation range from
±2% to ±15%. Care must therefore be taken in reporting a reinforcing bar size
which differs from a design requirement without seeking confirmation by
exposing the bar. A bar size may only be able to be reliably estimated to within
one bar size of the actual bar size.
 Calibrated meter scales are generally valid for a particular grade of reinforcing
steel. The effect of different types of steel on the readings obtained is generally
small but, in special cases, such as high tensile prestressing bars, it may include

98
 errors as high as ±5% or more. Where such materials are present, the cover meter
should be calibrated for the reinforcing steel used by constructing a calibration
curve.
 For accurate measurement of cover and size, the bar has to be both straight and
parallel to the concrete surface.
 Where significant corrosion to reinforcement has occurred, in particular, scaling
and migration of corrosion products, misleading indicated cover readings are
likely to be obtained.
 Interference effects will occur in the neighbourhood of metallic structures of
significant size, such as window fixings, scaffolding and steel pipes, especially
when they are immediately behind the search head. The degree of influence will
depend on the particular cover meter used but all are affected by either stray
magnetic fields or electric fields or both. In such cases reliable use of the
instrument may be severely restricted.

WORK OR SITE CALIBRATION

A site calibration of the cover meter can be carried out by drilling a series of test holes
to the bars at positions representing different covers as found by the cover meter. Care
should be taken not to damage the reinforcement. The distance between each bar and the
concrete surface is then measured at each point using a depth gauge. A calibration curve
can then be constructed comparing the actual depth with that given by the cover meter.
In situ covers are then calculated using the reference scale readings and this calibration
curve.
It may be possible to take advantage of projecting reinforcement to check the
performance of the cover meter.

99
 UNIT -IV
Repair Materials and Techniques: Repair Methodology, Repair materials
(cement-based, polymer-based, resin based, microcrete, composites, etc.)
compatibility considerations, Repair techniques: Using mortars, dry pack,
epoxy bonded pack, pre-placed aggregate concrete, gunite, shotcrete,
grouting, polymer impregnation, resin injection, routing & sealing, stitching,
surface patching. overlays & surface coatings, autogenous healing, gravity
filling, drilling and plugging.

REPAIR METHODOLOGY
There is a variety of materials available that can be used to repair and rehabilitate
dilapidated structures. The materials for rehabilitation include the following:

Polymer concrete: Polymer impregnation in concrete by compounds such as polymers,

monomers, styrene, polyesters, methyl methacrylate, and similar compounds is a useful
method to repair structures.
Epoxy grouts, mortars, and coatings These are used
 for bonding plastic concrete to hardened concrete.
 for bonding rigid materials to each other
 for patchwork.
 for coating over concrete to give a preferred colour and to resist the action of
chemicals, water penetration, abrasion, etc. Epoxy coatings are available for
marine, underwater, and moisture-resistant conditions.
Latex-modified concrete Such concrete is used to improve
 bond strength
 shear strength
 durability of the structure
Miscellaneous materials and techniques In addition, there are some other materials
and techniques which can be used for repairing structures under special circumstances.

Coating: Bituminous compounds such as linseed oil, fluorosilicate compounds, paints,

styrene-butadiene rubber (for protection from rain), etc.

Jacketing: Materials used for jacketing purposes include rubber, metals, plastic, concrete,
fibre-reinforced plastics, ferrocement, polypropylene, etc.

Sand blasting: This is used to remove foreign materials and stains.

Bentonite: Bentonite and kaolinite are basically clay products. They prevent penetration
of water thorough masonry soil or concrete structures.

Shrinkcomp grouting: This is used for preventing problems of differential shrinkage

between hardened and fresh concrete.

Proper and timely repair and rehabilitation ensure safety and serviceability of structures.
The selection of material is the most important step in the repair and rehabilitation
programme. The rehabilitation engineer has to choose from the different materials

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available in the market. The choice of the material has a chemical angle. The
manufacturer's literature normally highlights the composition of materials rather than
its performance characteristics. Since repair schemes are not the same every where
different materials have to be employed at different sites for different conditions. The
selection of material is guided by the type of structure, nature and extent of deterioration,
and economic consideration. Commonly, material requirement for repair are corrosion
inhibiting coat, bond coat, polymer patch mortars (coarse and fine), and flexible crack
bridging surface protection coatings.
It is preferable to have all the materials based on one generic polymer so as to make
the materials more compatible. The patching materials commonly used are cement-based
materials or epoxy mortars .Due to similar coefficients of thermal expansion cementitious
materials are preferred over epoxy materials. The major problem in cement-based
materials is the shrinkage characteristic. Therefore, formulations of patch mortar
incorporate in the cement matrix several specialty chemicals to mitigate the shrinkage
effects. The drying shrinkage should
be reduced by using low binder content and low water-cement ratio.

Issues Related to Material Technology

The damage that occurs to a structural system stems from the deterioration of material.
It may manifest in the form of cracking and/or disintegration of a member of a structural
system. The cause needs to be examined at a microstructural level.
Concrete repair involves the use of a wide variety of materials with different physical
and chemical properties and application techniques. Its compatibility with original
construction material, availability, ease of use, and toxicity are some of the important
attributes to be examined while choosing a repair material.
Compatibility is a measure of matching of physical, chemical, electrochemical, and
dimensional properties of the repair materials with those of the original construction
material. The original construction material is normally designated as the substrate.
Figure below shows the effects of the mismatch between the original low-modulus
material (e.g., concrete) and the new repair material (e.g., patch mortar made of epoxy).
It is necessary to choose the correct repair material for achieving the desired service life
of the repaired structure. Note that the low-modulus material is likely to peel in case the
member load is parallel to patchwork. However any loading perpendicular to the surface
of patchwork will not affect the load transfer.

Fig. Effects of mismatched elastic moduli.

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 Table below shows the general requirements of a patch repair material with respect
to the properties of the substrate.

The performance of the repair material should be much superior to the original
material. It should be capable of being easily placed at a desired location. Thus, it should
be possible to engineer the material for a specific repair performance. Repair materials
are special material whose microstructural properties are doctored so that a desired
macro-behaviour results. These materials are costly. However, their higher cost is
justified by their superior long-term lifecycle behaviour with minimum or no
maintenance.
Table. General compatibility requirements of patch repair materials
Property Relationship of repair material (R) with
Concrete substrate (C)
Shrinkage strain R<C
Creep coefficient (for repairs in compression) R<C
Creep coefficient (for repairs in tension) R>C
Thermal expansion coefficient R=C
Modulus of elasticity R=C
Poisson’s ratio R=C
Tensile strength R>C
Fatigue performance R>C
Adhesion R>C
Porosity and resistivity R=C
Chemical reactivity R<C

Desired Properties of Repair Materials

In order to be used as repair materials, the materials need to have some desired
properties. Some of the desired properties of these special materials are listed below:

1. Engineered materials with high performance, high durability, but low maintenance.
The examples are:
 composites
 block copolymer
 high-performance concrete

2.Materials that are easy to use, have increased productivity, and reduced construction
cycle time. The examples are
 high-now self-levelling concrete/mortar
 set controlling materials
 materials with reduced sensitivity for size, storage, and substrate condition such
as temperature, moisture and place of application.

3.Safe materials which are environment-friendly: those which do not release harmful
fumes during application and during service.

4. Materials that do not add to the dead weight of the repaired component or structure.

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REPAIR MATERIALS
The various materials for repair are tabulated in Table below.
Table: Materials used for repairs

Portland cement based materials

Cement, sand mortar and cement, and sand and aggregate concrete have been used for
repair. The application of these materials for repair jobs poses several problems such as
shrinkage, cracking, and eventual failure of the repair work.
Resin-based products
Epoxy resin formulations are used predominantly for repair work. The resin used for
repair is typically a light-amber-coloured liquid having the consistency of motor oil. It
must be combined with an amine or polyamide which is a hardener or curing agent.
Once combined, a molecular crust linkage takes place. The following types of epoxies
are in use:
a. Normal grade epoxy is suitable for bonding.
b. Low-viscosity epoxy is used if the crack width is less than 0.1 mm or less.
c. Normal epoxy grade mixed with sand (to increase the volume) is useful for
grouting and patch work. This gives fast development of strength. Especially
when injection is involved, core samples should be taken to check the efficiency
of execution.

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Table below shows the properties needed for epoxy resin to bond fresh concrete to old
hardened concrete.
Table: Properties needed for epoxy resin to bond fresh concrete to hardened concrete.

Polymer-modified cement products The classification of polymers is shown in Figure

below. Acrylic polymer products are widely used because of their better durability under

Fig. Formation of polymer-cement co-matrix

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long-term exposure to UV radiation. In cement mortar or concrete. the polymer can be
incorporated as a second binder into the mix. These polymer mortars are two-phase
systems which form matrix with cement. In the cementitious water phase, fine polymer
particles of size 0.1-0.2 mm are dispersed.
In the cement-polymer system, the polymer particles join and form chain link
reinforcement (above figure）increasing tensile and flexural strengths. This helps
achieve greater plasticity and reduce the shrinkage stress. Hence the addition of
polymers vastly improves the property of plain cement mortar. Table below gives
important properties of polymer mortars.
Table: Properties of polymer-cement mortar

Micro-concrete Based on hydraulic binders, readymade formulations of concrete are

tailored to give concrete which is flowable and shrinkage-free. Only addition of water is
required at site. Such formulations can be applied in complicated locations, and also
enable achievement of high early strength. They are available either as type A (normal
strength) or as type B (high strength).
Table below gives the important properties of these types of micro-concrete.
Table: Properties of micro-concrete

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Fibre-reinforced cement composites Fibre-reinforced concretes have improved
tensile strength and roughness compared to conventional concrete. They also have
improved energy absorption capacity. Advanced composites offer high tensile strength,
durability, ductility, and preferred energy absorption capacity.
Table below summarizes various products useful for repair and their properties.
Table: Materials guide

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NEW REPAIR SYSTEM/ PRODUCTS

In this section we will discuss some recently developed repair products and systems.

Composites New and improved composite materials which are stronger lighter, and
durable are constantly being developed for repairing structures. These improved
composites are costly. But considering the long service life they provide, their high
strength-to-weight ratio, and the ease with which they can be applied in situ without
suspending function, their use is well justified.

FRP composite bars FRP composite bars as well as carbon aramid meshes are an
effective replacement for defective steel or corroded reinforcement. They are most
effective as repair material in atmospheres where corrosion is a major problem. They can
provide the required strength and toughness and hence are being increasingly
considered for use in structures subjected to severe weather or de-icing salts. Figure
below shows the repair methodology that uses carbon FRP composites to repair a
column.

Fig. Schematic of column repair with FRP composites

High-performance concretes This type of concrete is finding applications in high-rise

building columns, off-shore platforms, and heavy-duty floors with congested
reinforcements because of its high workability strength, toughness, and dimensional
stability. Such concretes have been used in places where superior non-porous concrete is
needed. Their microstructure properties have been effectively modified by addition of
microsilica (silica fume) in order to strengthen the weak transition zone between the
aggregate and paste phases of concrete.

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Special admixtures Many special admixtures are in use in normal concrete. For repair
work, following types of admixtures arc in use.
i. Air-entraining agents: These agents have shown better compatibility with
newer plasticizers.
ii. Superplasticizers: New plasticizing agents work on delayed release
mechanism and hence the behaviour of these is independent of the time of
addition. This property can be advantageously used for repair works.
iii. Shrinkage-reducing agents: The most, frustrating problem in repair work is.
Shrinkage, which leads to cracks in repair material, Current method of
combating this problem includes the use of very low water-cement ratio and
using shrinkage reducing admixtures (SRA). These agents reduce shrinkage
by reducing the surface tension of water in the pores between 2.5 and 50 nm
in diameter. Even after the concrete hardens admixtures remain in the pores
and continue to reduce the surface tension, thus reducing shrinkage.
iv. Viscosity-modifying agents: These admixtures provide pseudoplastic
(Viscosity decreasing) flow behaviour for concrete or slurries which are
pumped or sprayed. Such self-levelling (SL) or self-compacting (SC) concrete
are particularly needed for repair works. Highly flowable concrete can be
effectively used in place without undergoing significant shrinkage or
separation.
v. Retarders: Retarders that control the hydration process for extended periods
enable ready-mixed concrete to be transported over long distances. These also
enable repair material to be plastic till the repair is over.
vi. Corrosion-inhibiting admixture: Corrosion inhibitors provide required
protection against reinforcement corrosion of repaired materials. The current
practice is to use multifunctional admixtures which provide more than one
property modification. For example, corrosion inhibition can be achieved
along with retardation or shrinkage reduction.
vii. High performance cementitious system: High performance cementitious
systems are chemically bonded ceramics (CBC) that have properties similar to
fired ceramics. These have good potential as they are very strong, dense, are
micro-defect free (MDF), and densified systems containing ultra-fine particles
(DSUP). These are known as belite cement or sulfo-aluminate cements. These
are technology-shaping parameters of repair materials.
Injection materials Cracks may be an indication of a damaged or distressed
structure. However, all types of cracks are not to be treated alike. Basically, the cracks
have to be repaired for two reasons, namely. For structural purposes and for
durability purposes. One of the most prevalent techniques of repairing cracks is
injection of different types of materials (depending upon the nature of the defect). The
selection of material for injection requires a thorough understanding of the properties
of the material and functions that such a repair has to perform. In all the cases, it is
imperative that the cause of cracking is properly determined, so that the selection of
material is appropriate. Basically, material injection can be used for three purposes.
Firstly, injection materials that are used to restore the structural stability of the
structures. Secondly, injection materials that are used to protect the reinforcement
against moisture and air entering the concrete, thereby lowering the rate of corrosion.
Thirdly, injection materials which are used to stop the water from entering the
structure.

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 The selection of material for injecting into cracks largely depends on the following
factors:
 pattern of cracks
 width of cracks
 movements in the crack faces
-due to temperature variations
-due to dynamic loading
 moisture in cracks
 dirt in cracks
The pattern of cracking helps in ascertaining the reason for cracking, which in turn
helps in the selection of base material. The width of crack has a direct bearing on the
viscosity of the material required: it depends on the movements in the crack, which
reflects on the type of material required, i.e., whether it should act as structural injection
or just an elastic seal. In case the injection is used for structural purpose, it should be able
to transfer the stresses from one crack face to the other and should have adequate
compressive and flexural strengths, at least 10-15% higher than the neighbouring
concrete. The moisture in the crack calls for a water-compatible system of injection.
Presence of dirt in the crack will affect the choice of the crack preparation system. Below
table shows the criteria for selection of materials.
Table: Selection of material.

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 UNIT-V
Retrofitting & Rehabilitation Procedures: Strengthening of Existing
Structures - Overview, general procedures Techniques: section enlargement
composite construction, post-tensioning, stress reduction, strengthening by
reinforcement, methods of strengthening in beams, slabs, columns (plate
bonding, RC jacketing, FRP methods, concrete overlays etc.) strengthening
of substructure (shoring, underpinning)

Strengthening of Existing Structures:-

Overview of Strengthening of Concrete Structures
Strengthening is the modification of a structure. How ever each time the structure need
not to be a damaged one. Many a time the sole purpose of strengthening could be to
increase the load carrying capacity or stability with respect to its previous condition.
Never the less most commonly, the strengthening is carried out to restore the structure
which through evaluation process is found to be deficient.
Structures may need strengthening in case of any of the situations outlined here that
might arise due to:
(a) deficiencies caused by erroneous design and detailing, deterioration caused due to
ageing, lack of adequate maintenance. environmental effects like corrosion, exposure to
marine environment, deicing salts, aggressive industrial pollutants
(b) structures requiring to be upgraded to a different load category superior to that for
which it had been originally designed (for instance in case of bridge, increase traffic
volume that exceeds the initial design load)
(c) to adapt to the code changes in lieu of seismic upgrade of the region where the
structure is located.

Design Philosophy of Strengthening

Strengthening of structural members should be designed and constructed in accordance
with appropriate buildings codes. One of the most typical problems arise in strengthening
is the transfer of shear forces between the old concrete and the new concrete that is
applied for strengthening of the reinforcement. Strengthening can be achieved by myriad
ways such as span shortening, enlargement of section, externally bonded steel plates,
jacketing, stress reduction, external or internal post tensioning or combination of either
of these techniques. Irrespective of the technique that is used, the goal should be that the
upgraded or the strengthened system must have the ability to perform as an integrated
system with adequate bond between the existing concrete member and the new system
that is applied. The old concrete and the new system must act homogeneously and must
be capable of transferring the shear stresses without relative movement that can impair
the efficiency of the strengthened system.
When dealing with large volumes of concrete in the strengthening works, care must
be taken to avoid the additional stress that can be generated owing to the heat of
hydration of the new concrete. The temperature differential between the new and old
concrete must be limited either by pre-heating the old structural elements or by cooling
the new concrete.
Compatibility between the old and new concrete in terms of shrinkage, creep, strength
and modulus of elasticity must be given due consideration. Suitable mortars or concrete

110
with low shrinkage, creep and minimal heat of hydration must be used for the upgrading
works of structural members.
The major difference between the design of a new structure and strengthening/retrofit
design is the existing members that influence the retrofit design. The influential
parameters of the existing members include their present condition such as the actual
loading state, the surrounding environment, the construction feasibility, safety and
economic factors involved in the application of the proposed retrofit strategy. All these
factors must be considered substantially when coming up with a retrofit design.
There are generally two approaches to strengthening of structural members:
Active and Passive.

Active repair/method
The techniques in which existing members are upgraded so as to resist the future (live
and superimposed) and present (dead) loads are known as active repairs. Active systems
require either pre-stressing or jacking of the repaired members to temporarily remove
the existing stresses in them. This is done to ensure that the existing parent material and
the newly applied system share the stresses due to loads jointly. For example, a concrete
beam strengthened with pre-tensioned steel rod will immediately allow the beam to
carry live and dead loads.

Passive repairs/methods
The techniques in which repairs do not participate in stress sharing until the additional
live loads or dead loads are applied or until the additional deformation occurs. For
example, a concrete beam strengthened with bonded steel plate which will not be
stressed until live loads are introduced. The steel plate will begin to share the tension
loads only when the beam deflects.
The choice of the repair method, i.e. active or passive will depend upon the situation,
i.e., kind of condition the structure is subjected to while being in service. For instance, if
a structural member is already overstressed, then any additional system of
reinforcement(passive strengthening) will not be of use until it is relieved of some load
(active strengthening) there by eliminating the overstressed condition. Similarly passive
repairs will work well when live load changes are anticipated as would be required in
upgrading a bridge to sustain heavier loads.

General Procedure for Strengthening of Structures Strengthening is carried out to

enhance the ability of the structural elements to resist the internal forces that are
generated due to any of the loading such as flexure, axial, shear or torsion. Various
techniques are available to strengthen however the goal of the adopted technique must
be to ensure a safe, durable and cost-effective means of upgrading the structure.
Below schematic diagram clearly describes the procedure for strengthening of
structures that covers the activities starting from the conditional assessment of the
structure to the execution of the strengthening technique.

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 Figure: Procedure for strengthening of structures

Strengthening Techniques
The various techniques that are used for strengthening/retrofitting of structural
members include section enlargement, composite construction, post tensioning, stress
reduction and strengthening by reinforcement.

1. Section Enlargement
This method involves the placement of additional concrete on an existing structural
member. This additional concrete forms an overlay or jacket that might be reinforced or
unreinforced. Beams slabs, columns and walls can be enlarged to add stiffness or load-
carrying capacity. The enlarging can be done from one side, two sides or three sides as
shown in Figure below depending upon loading and construction condition. The concrete
that is added on the tension zone prevents the additional reinforcement against
corrosion, while the concrete added in the compression zone enhances the effective
depth of the section thereby increasing the strength and stiffness of the member.

Figure: Section Enlarging Method

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 The weight of the additional concrete must be incorporated in the design of
enlargement. Sufficient clearance should be allowed between the surface of the concrete
member and the newly added concrete with reinforcement, to ensure adequate flow of
concrete around the bars. It is generally recommended that the thickness of the new
concrete layer should be less than one-third of the thickness of the existing concrete.
Adequate monolithic bond must be assured between the old concrete and the new
enlarged section. This can be achieved by proper bond and shear transfer mechanism. In
case of larger, well cured interfaces a maximum bond stress value less than two-thirds of
the mean tensile strength of the old concrete is recommended. For flexural elements like
beams and slabs, a maximum bond stress of less than one-fourth of the mean tensile
strength of the old concrete is recommended. For the cases, which are vulnerable to
flexural reversals or dynamic loading, the entire shear force at the interface should be
transferred through shear connectors and the maximum shear stress should be limited
toless than the two-thirds of the means strength of the old concrete.

2.Composite Construction
In this method, the materials other than concrete such as steel, steel plates, fabricated
structural shapes ,FRP wraps, pre-fabricated reinforced concrete or precast elements are
added to the original concrete cross-section to add stiffness or load carrying capacity.
Load transfer in the composite member is accomplished by the use of adhesives grouts
and mechanical anchorage systems. The method of using pre-fabricated elements
requires a distressing (unloading) of the original cross-section. After adding the precast
element, the composite section is then re-stressed(loaded) to provide an improved
transmission of prestress force throughout the composite section. When using precast
elements adequate bond must be ensured at the interface. The latter can be achieved by
using a resin-modified cement-bond mortar or epoxy resin mortar.

3 Post-tensioning
Strengthening by post tensioning is considered to be a very effective method. The method
can be used to strengthen both reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete structures.
This technique provides the member with an immediate and active load-carrying
capability. The principle under lying the technique is that the active external forces are
applied to the structural member using post-tensioned components to resist some of the
internal forces caused by certain loading. The post-tensioning in components is achieved
either through jacking or less commonly by pre-heating. Generally the tension
components used comprise bonded and unbounded tendons or strands, steel plates and
rods. These tension components can be located either internally with in the member (i.e.
internal prestressing) or externally to the member (external prestressing) as shown in
Figure below. The latter is more common.

Figure: Post-tensioning of reinforced concrete member

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 In case of external post-tensioning, the tendons are connected to the structure at
anchor points which are typically located at the member ends. The desired jacking force
is provided by deviation blocks, or deflectors, fastened at the high or low points of the
structure. The advantages of this technique are its simplicity, ease of inspection,
possibility of replacing the tendons ,enhancing the member's ability to relieve
overstressed conditions in tension shear, bending and torsion and reducing the
unwanted displacement in the members. However. sufficient care needs to be taken to
protect the tendons from corrosion and fire. Prior to external prestressing, the original
member must be repaired, all the cracks in member if any must be filled and spalls must
be patched. This is to be done to ensure that the new forces are distributed uniformly
across its section.

4.Stress Reduction
In this technique, the main aim is to reduce the stresses in a member and hence a
structure. Some of the most common methods that included in Stress reduction technique
are listed as follows:
1. Reducing the dead loads and live loads
2. Replacing the heavy solid partition walls with lightweight partitions
3. Enlarging the opening by removal of the filler walls
4. Reducing span of beam by providing the struts
5. Reducing the number of storeys.
6. Changing the building use to a lower classification of loading.
7. Cutting of the new expansion joints.
8. Jacking the displaced structures.
9. Installing isolation bearings

5.Strengthening by Reinforcement
It is a simple technique to strengthen the tension zone of the concrete by addition of the
reinforcing steel. The addition is, however, to be made after unloading, removing the
concrete cover or after the recesses have been cut to the cover to accommodate the added
reinforcement. Required concrete cover should then be re-established.
This additional steel requires effective anchoring at its ends, and the same can be done
either by providing sufficient anchorage length to the concrete, or by steel plates and
bolts with anchoring discs. Severely damaged reinforcing bars in case of corroded
structures, when strengthened using this technique, requires the damaged section of the
corroded bars to be removed and the new reinforcing bar to be joined to the ends of the
old ones by lapped splices by means of welding or by coupling devices. However,
transverse reinforcement is to be provided to ensure the ductile behaviour of the splice.

6. Consideration for Selecting Effective Strengthening Technique

A number of techniques are available, however, the selection of the most appropriate
technique will be based on a number of factors such as required increase in strength,
effect of technique on other members in terms of stiffness, stress, load, etc.,
environmental condition of the structure, in-situ condition of the substrate base material,
i.e., concrete, space availability, accessibility, budget of the project ,building operation
(for instance, technique requiring long time is not feasible, if the building is to be kept
operational), availability of materials, equipment. workmanship and finally the aesthetics
and maintenance costs.

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 Once the strengthening technique is selected based on the procedure and the factors
listed earlier, some of the following things must be kept in mind while carrying out the
strengthening works:
 Ensure the short-term and long-term properties of materials to be used in
technique.
 Ensure more than one mechanism of load transfer between the existing and the
newly applied material.
 Reinforcement provided in the new concrete either must be welded to the old
reinforcement or must be properly anchored using special grouts.

STRENGTHENING OF BEAMS
Concrete beams need to be strengthened in flexure or in shear when the beams either are
deteriorated, or are extensively overstressed by the proposed loading. The flexural
strength of the beams can be enhanced by the following techniques:
(a) Adding new members
(b) Section enlargement
(c） Span shortening
(d) Adding bolted steel tension reinforcement
(e) Adding bonded steel plates
(f) Adding bonded FRP plates and wraps
(g) Reinforcing by post-tensioning
The strengthening of the beams in shear is achieved by similar methods. The same will
be described in detail in the subsequent sections.
1. FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING OF BEAMS
Adding new members
In this method, additional members are placed either between the existing beams(active
repair)or along the sides of the beam (passive repair),depending upon the structural
capacity of the slab.
In the active approach, the new member is placed at the mid-span, thereby cutting the
span of the slab into half thus increasing the load-carrying capacity of the slab as well as
that of the beam. The slab and the beam are initially jacked up by amount of dead-load
deflection ,so that later the new member can share the loads. The new member is
preferably of structural steel, as the latter is easy to install in comparison to installing a
member of concrete that will require formwork and shoring and will pose difficulty to
build with the slab in place.
Load transfer to newly placed steel beams is achieved by maintaining a tight contact
between steel beam and concrete slab by means of dry packing or shimming any voids.
The additional steel beams are connected to the slab by positive connections made of
expansion bolts staggered about the web as shown in Figure below.

115
 Figure: Adding steel beams in mid span
As a part of the passive repair, sometimes the steel channels are added on each side of an
existing concrete beam as shown in Figure below. The load sharing in this case is achieved
by inter connecting the three beams by through-bolting. The load gets distributed among
the new steel beams and existing concrete beams in accordance with their relative
rigidities, i.e., in order to make this assembly effective, steel beams must maintain
deformational compatibility with concrete beams.

Figure: Adding steel beams on each side of existing beam. (a) rigid channels for strain
compatibility(b) flexible channels deflected downward to remove some load from
existing beams.

Section enlargement
This is generally adopted when the addition of steel beams is not the most viable solution
owing to the requirement such as fire protection or aesthetics. Aesthetics here mean that
post-strengthening, the strengthened structure must retain the original look of the
structure being strengthened. In such cases, section enlargement offers the best solution.
The procedure involves the following steps.
1. Unloading of the existing beams to maximum extent as possible
2. Roughening the surface to remove contaminants making way for proper bond
3. Placing new reinforced concrete or shotcrete around the existing beam

This method requires proper surface preparation and interconnection so that the
assemblage of existing concrete and new section of concrete can function as a composite
system and must not delaminate under the load. Section enlargement is done either by
connecting the new and existing concrete sections by means of stirrups placed in
horizontally drilled holes in the web of the existing beam as shown in Figure below.

116
 Figure: Section Enlargement-Connecting new and old by stirrups placed in horizontally
drilled holes
It can also be done by placing a new floor overlay by enveloping the existing beam as
shown in Figure below.

Figure: Section Enlargement by enveloping the existing beam

Although the technique of section enlargement is relatively simple and popular, it has
a few drawbacks. The new concrete or the shotcrete is prone to shrinkage as it cures but
its connection with the existing concrete will not let it shrink thereby developing the
tensile stresses. If the stresses are high then the new concrete may end up cracking or
getting debonded from the existing concrete. Another drawback is the corrosion of the
newly placed bars or dowels because of the ongoing corrosive process in the existing
concrete. The problem of shrinkage can be dealt with by using non-shrink concrete or
using concrete with higher capacity to resist the tensile strains. Using preplaced-
aggregate concrete is another better solution to mitigate the problems of shrinkage.

Span shortening
In this method, the beam is upgraded by shortening its design span. It is accomplished by
installing additional columns some distance away from the existing ones as shown in
Figure below. However, this technique involves additional expenses because the new
columns require footings and necessitates the removal of some portion of floor slab.

Figure: Additional supports.

The another approach to achieve span shortening is by installing diagonal braces that
extend from the base of the existing column to some point at the bottom of the beam as
shown in Figure below. This solution does not pose the requirement of additional
foundation thus rendering it advantageous.

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 Figure: Diagonal bracings installed for span shortening

The span shortening solution results in loss of space under the existing beams due to
new installations, however, it is acceptable in some applications. Steel is generally the
most preferable material for new columns or diagonals since it does not shrink, and it can
be installed quickly.

Adding bolted steel tension reinforcement

The positive moment capacity of the existing beams can be enhanced by adding
structural-steel tension plates or built-up members bolted to the beam as shown in Figure
below.

Figure: Bolting a built-up steel member to improve positive moment capacity of beam.

As shown in Figure above, the welded U-bracket is used, if substantial additional steel
is needed. This is a form of passive repair because the new steel does not share the load
until the existing concrete deforms under any additional load. Size and spacing of the
connecting bolts in this method, depends upon the forces needed to transfer the factored
loads from the steel members into the concrete by bolt bearing or shear. It is prudent to
locate the existing concrete bars in advance, since this involves through bolting,i.e.
through the existing bottom reinforcing bars.
The other approach of this technique involves adding two plates at the top and
bottom of the beams. The plates are then interconnected by bolting vertically(internal
stirrups) through the whole depth of the beam as shown in Figure below. This technique
is most effective to increase the live load capacity of the bridge, or to enhance the

Figure: Bolted steel plates at top and bottom of the beam

118
increase the live load capacity of the bridge, or to enhance the deficient flexural and shear
strength in the beam of the bridge due to higher vehicular loading. The plate bonded to
the soffit resolves the flexural deficiency, while the plate bonded at the top provides not
only the compression reinforcement but also anchors the internal stirrups. These
stirrups that are installed along the entire length of the beam by means of epoxy-bonded
in drilled holes and anchored at top and bottom to the steel plates, provides the
necessitated shear upgrading of the deficient beam. The internal stirrups provide
adequate mechanical anchorage apart from enhancing the shear strength. The complete
assembly of epoxy gel and mechanical anchors provides adequate transfer of shear
between the existing concrete and the new bolted steel, thereby ensuring the composite
behaviour of the strengthened members.
Another advantage is that this method results in a very marginal increase in
dimensions there by helping to retain the aesthetics and is also important for vehicle
transfer clearance. The drawback is that it requires a lot of difficult drilling through the
beam and also a new overlay for concealing the top plate and its anchors.

Adding bonded steel plates

In this method, the steel plates or other shapes like channels, angles, or built-up members
instead of being bolted, are attached to the existing concrete by two-part epoxy adhesives.
The use of adhesives as a connecting mechanism provides for uniform load transfer and
corrosion protection at the concrete-steel interface. Bonding of steel plates to the existing
deficient concrete structures beams is an inexpensive, versatile and advanced technique
of rehabilitation. Moreover gluing of the plates is certainly easier than drilling and bolting
them. Steel elements, preferably plates when bonded to the tension zone of concrete as
shown in Figure below, enhances the flexural capacity and flexural stiffness of the
member. The steel elements bonded to the sides of the member upgrades the shear
strength.

Figure: Adding of bonded plates

This technique is highly effective in correcting the deflected beam or slabs. The
procedure involves lifting the deflected beam/slab to the design position. Thereafter the
new bonded reinforcement in form of steel plate is installed in the soffit of the member
as shown in Figure below.

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 Figure: Adding bonded steel plate to control deflection

The connecting of the members with a two-part epoxy requires pressing them together
for temporary period. Hence this technique requires temporary shoring and erection
anchors as shown in the figure. Once the temporary shoring is released, the loads get to
the new bonded reinforcement thus controlling the deflection.
These grouted-in threaded rods or anchors not only provides support during
installation, but also provides additional shear capacity. Some supplemental anchors
must also be provided at the ends of the plate to prevent debonding caused by the high
local bond stresses that develop as the load gets transferred to the plate.
Some of the factors that are critical to the success of this technique are enlisted here:
1. The preparation of the surfaces that receive the bonded elements as well as the
bonding operation must be carried out with great precision in order to actuate the
composite action of the system.
2. The concrete surface must be free from any type of surface laitance or
contaminants prior to bonding. The surface must be roughened by mechanical or
abrasive/liquid blasting methods.
3. The two-part epoxy system must have a bond strength equal to or exceeding that
of the concrete substrate and must be suitable for the given environment
conditions.
4. The steel plate must be long and thin enough to avoid brittle plate separation from
the concrete.
5. Mechanical anchors or the bolts which are used to put the plate in position during
construction must be provided at the appropriate spacings. The mechanical
anchorage with epoxy bonding is more reliable as it ensures that the steel element
will share some load in case of adhesive failure due to fire, chemical breakdown,
rusting or poor workmanship.

Adding bonded FRP plates and wraps

The flexural strengthening of the beams is done by wrapping the FRP fabric on the tension
side or on the side faces of the beam with the fibers parallel to the direction of maximum
tensile stress. FRP wrapping provides additional tensile reinforcement and confinement
which increases the strength of the beam members in bending. The carbon FRP, i.e., CFRP
wrapping is more effective because of its superior mechanical properties like strength,
stiffness and ductility.
The success of technique lies in surface preparation and removing of any existing
corrosion problems. FRP although has a high cost value attached to it, still is preferred
moreover conventional steel bonding because of its extremely high strength to weight
ratio, easy installation, reduced cost of labour, equipment, nil downtime loss and
excellent durability.

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Reinforcing by post-tensioning
The complete mechanism of reinforcing by post-tensioning, also called as external
prestressing is described earlier. The technique of using external post-tension
reinforcement is an excellent way to increase the flexural capacity or to replace the
damaged pre-stressed strands. External post-tensioning is extensively used in bridge
rehabilitation as it provides immediate and active participation in both dead and live
load. Strengthening of concrete beams by external prestressing is shown in Figure below.

Figure: Strengthening of concrete beams by post-tensioning.

The post-tensioned strands/tendons are connected to the structure at anchor points

which are either side-mounted or soffit-mounted to the flexural member and bolted
through to provide sufficient shear transfer.
The desired uplift force is provided by means of deviators that consist of structural
steel brackets or saddle clamps seated in the soffit of the member being upgraded. The
external post-tensioning reinforcement needs to be protected from fire, corrosion,
aggressive environmental agents, or from vandalism by encasing the strands in concrete,
shotcrete or grouted ducts.

2. SHEAR STRENGTHENING OF BEAMS

Concrete beams with insufficient shear capacities may exhibit diagonal cracks initiating
from the in edges of the supports towards the middle. The methods that been described
in the previous section for the flexural strengthening of the beams can be as well used to
improve the shear capacities. Apart from these methods, there are other techniques used
to enhance the shear capacity that include:
(a) Addition of new stirrups
(b) Internally placed passive shear strengthening
(C) Adding clamps
(d) Other methods

Addition of new stirrups

In this method, the U-shape bars in adhesive anchors are drilled vertically into the bottom
of the beam. But since there is not enough concrete cover to place these new U-shaped
stirrups outside the already existing tension bars, the new stirrups are required to be
drilled in between the bottom bars. This necessitates the location of bottom bars prior to
drilling. Another method could be to add new steel plates covering the sides of existing
beam and connected by through-bolting in at least two places as shown in Figure below.

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 Figure: Shear strengthening of beam by adding new steel plates.

Internally placed passive shear strengthening

In this technique, additional shear reinforcement such as mild steel dowels are inserted
into the member perpendicular to the direction of the shear cracks, into the drilled holes
as shown in Figure below. The dowels are then grouted in epoxy.

Figure: Mild steel dowels placed in drilled holes.

Adding clamps
This method is used when the shear cracks are too wide and the additional steel plate
bonding or grouted stirrups cannot strengthen beams with such severe shear damage. In
this case. Clamping action is provided by means of several pairs of bolts that are placed
on each side of the cracked beam as close as possible and are tensioned to tighten the
crack as shown in Figure below. The clamping action provided by bolts helps to prevent
the concrete from physical separation.

Figure: Upgrading of shear capacity by clamping action provided by bolts.

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Other methods
The shear cracks weaken the aggregate inter-locking mechanism. Shear strengthening
can bed one by reestablishing this mechanism by injecting epoxy into the cracks. Another
approach is that the span with visible shear damage can be shortened by adding columns,
or diagonal braces or steel brackets bolted to the columns.

STRENGTHENING OF SLABS
The load bearing capacity of the slabs can be insufficient in the bending moment capacity
or in the shear capacity. This limited capacity when not able to meet the intended demand
or requirement of the additional loading, requires retrofit/strengthening to ensure
structural safety. The reduction in capacity in case of RCC slabs get manifested by
excessive deflection widening of the cracks, steel corrosion and crushing of concrete in
compression.
The strengthening methods that are utilized for beams such as addition of external
or internal plates (bolted or bonded), enlarging of the section, cannot be practically
applied to the slabs. Slabs are normally under-reinforced hence the deficiency in the
flexural capacity can be overcome by supplementary tensile reinforcement. In case of
over-reinforced slab, the effective thickness must be increased.
One of the most common and practical technique for enhancing the performance of
the slab is by providing the overlays. The addition of overlay/underlay helps to increase
the stiffness of the slab and reduce the excessive deflections. However, this technique
involves considerable increase in the dead loads, hence it requires careful analysis.

Strengthening of slab by overlays

Overlays can be assumed either to interact with the old slab or to function independently.
Overlays(on top of the slab) are provided to overcome the negative moment deficiency.
In this the thickness of the slab is increased by placing the cast in place of concrete on the
upper side. In case of overlay, if the existing concrete is required to interact with the new
concrete, then transfer of shear stresses must be ensured. It is advisable to provide shear
keys in the existing slab in addition to the bond coat. The mild steel shear keys, as shown
in Figure below must be provided, preferably the shear keys are provided at rate of
3 nos./m of the surface area to be covered. When concrete is added to the compression
zone as in case of overlay. care must be taken to avoid the new concrete from shrinking
as this will affect the bond and ultimate load sharing.

Figure: Strengthening of slab by overlay.

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Strengthening of slab by underlays
The underlay (on the soffit of the slab) is provided to overcome the positive moment
deficiency. Here the thickness of the slab is increased by placing additional reinforcement
below the slab as shown in Figure below.

Figure: Strengthening of slab by underlaying.

Additional z-bars are provided to connect with the existing tensile reinforcement and also
to ensure adequate transfer of shear stresses. In this technique, since additional tensile
reinforcement is provided, the latter must be covered with concrete to protect it from fire
and corrosion. When the overlays are given on the soffit side of the slab, it gets difficult
to carry out the conventional concreting hence shotcreting must be applied.

One of the easiest methods of strengthening the one-way slab is by shortening their
span by adding additional steel beam at mid span.
The another most reliable method for upgrading the strength of the slab which are
generally thin, can be done by adding plate reinforcement by through-bolting as shown
in Figure below.

Figure: Flexural strengthening of slab by adding bolted steel plates.

Strengthening of the slabs can also be done by using various fiber composites such as
FRP or CFRP. The common types of CFRP are fabrics, plates and rods. CFRP fabric sheets
come in continuous rolls. These sheets can be quickly tailored and wrapped around any
profile. Prior to wrapping, the surface of the concrete must be prepared by sandblasting.
A low-viscosity. high solid epoxy primer is applied first, and the surface is levelled with a
special epoxy putty. A coat of resin saturant is applied followed by a sheet of CFRP. In case

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a second wrap of CFRP is to be made then a second coat of resin saturant is to be brushed
before wrapping up of the sheet.
The shear stresses are fairly low in slabs hence the shear strengthening of slabs is
unusual. However, the latter can be achieved by means of vertical bolts through the slab
or by supplementing the slab with external steel sections. The protection of the bolts from
fire must be ensured. Increasing the slab thickness is another method of increasing the
shear capacity of the slabs.

STRENGTHENING OF COLUMNS
Columns need to be strengthened when they are found to be deficient in their load
carrying capacity either due to weaker concrete, or due to neglect of actual loads or
relatively small sections chosen for columns. Column strengthening might also be
required in case of vertical addition in a building, i.e., when columns have to support
additional floors. Strengthening of columns can be achieved by any of the following
techniques:
(a) Section enlargement
(b) Addition of new columns
(c) Reinforcing with structural steel/steel jacketing
(d) Reinforcing with fiber wraps and fiberglass jackets
(e) Shortening the length of the columns

Section enlargement
This technique strengthens the column by increasing its load carrying capacity. The
advantage of this technique is that it allows the upgraded framing to remain all-concrete.
It also provides in-built fireproofing and in major cases helps to retain the rectangular
column configuration. By encasing the column in concrete also helps to reduce its
slenderness and increase the rigidity. Column section can be enlarged in various
configurations as shown in Figures[(a), (b) and(c)] below.

Figure 5.21 Section enlargement of column.

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As shown in Figure (a), for the effective load transfer to take place, bond breaker must be
provided between the new and the old one. The ties that link the old and new concrete
must be installed only after the drying shrinkage ceases to occur. The gap between the
new portion of the column and the existing member (to be partially supported by the new
column) must be filled with dry packing material so that it allows the new concrete
member to share the load. When the section enlargement is done, as shown in Figures[(b)
and (c)], it should be ensured that the new concrete member is encased in concrete mix
with very low shrinkage rates. The latter can be best achieved by using pre-placed
aggregate concrete that generally offers the lowest drying shrinkage.

Addition of new columns

The load carrying capacity of the column can be increased by constructing a new column
adjacent to the existing one. The two columns can either be completely separated or
interconnected by drilled-through bolts or grouted-threaded rods. This technique is
considered to be most viable when the existing column receives a large part of its load
from a single beam. Here also the new column will resist only the future superimposed
loads.
The new column can be made of structural steel, if space saving is the concern, or can
be made of concrete keeping in view the fire protection. However, the method of adding
columns works best when the existing foundation or supports are wide enough to
accommodate the new ones besides the old column.

Reinforcing with structural steel/steel jacketing

In this technique, the columns are strengthened by reinforcing them with steel shapes.
This can be achieved by various ways. One such method is placing steel angles in the
corners and attaching the angles with the existing concrete using adhesives or drilled-in
anchors as shown in Figure (a). Another version of the same method is to totally envelop
the column with steel plates as shown in Figure (b).

Figure: (a) Steel angles placed in corner (b) column section enveloped with steel plates.

Sometimes complete steel jacketing is also recommended for strengthening of the

columns. The same is achieved by encasing the existing concrete column in a loosely fitted
welded steel jacket and filling the resulting gap with cement grout. This approach of steel
jacketing is shown in Figures[(a) and (b)] below.

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In Figure(a) above, longitudinal reinforcing steel is placed at the corners to keep the
additional transverse reinforcement in place. In case more than four longitudinal
reinforcements are used, then care must be taken to position them in such a manner so
as they do not intersect with the existing beams. Another method to steel jacket the
column, is providing a welded steel wire mesh all around the existing column as shown
in Figure (b) above. The final surface can then be done with shotcreting. This technique
of steel jacketing provides the confining effect on concrete thereby increasing the
capacity of column in compression, bending and also imparts ductility.

Reinforcing with fiber wraps and fiberglass jackets

This technique is most widely accepted means of retrofitting the structures. The
procedure involves wrapping of RC columns by high-strength low weight fiber wraps,
thus replacing the steel jacketing for flexural and shear strengthening (Figure below).

Figure: Jacketing of columns in parking area using fiber wraps.

The FRP sheets are wrapped with fibers oriented perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
of the column. The wraps are fixed to column using epoxy resin. Just as in case of steel
jacketing, the fiber wraps to column also provides the passive confinement. However,
fiber wraps also increases the concrete strength and shear strength.

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Shortening the length of the columns
This technique is helpful when the existing columns are found to be too slender for the
imposed loading. In such cases, the unbraced length of columns is shortened by adding
square drop panels which are 1’-1.5'deep.Another method to shorten the unbraced
length is by providing the sturdy steel knee braces bolted to the column and to the slab.

STRENGTHENING OF FOOTINGS
The strengthening of the foundation is required under any of the following
circumstances:
1. Original foundation is found to be inadequate for vertical or lateral loads.
2. Change in the load path of the structure or additional elements added to structure.
3. Additional loading is proposed due to change in occupancy.
4. Accommodate changes in the existing structure for instance, large openings in
walls to be given.
5. High overturning forces are generated due to eanthquake or wind resulting into
increased load on foundation.
6. Deterioration caused due to aggressive environment, or erosion due to ground
water level.
The various methods that are generally used to strengthen the foundation of building
are explained as follows:

Shoring
Shoring is temporary support that is provided to the building above the foundation so as
to avoid its collapse during the execution of the repair works. This can be done either by
using the needle beams (Figure below) for

Figure: Needle beams.

shoring up the column or wall or by using inclined shoring techniques (Figure below).

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 Figure: Inclined shoring
Incline shoring include raking shores. The shores in the latter are placed at an angle
of60°to 75°.Flying shores provide restraint against building or tilting. Dead shores are
used a long with the flying shores for supporting vertical load of the wall.

Underpinning
This is a technique that involves installation of a temporary or a permanent support to
the existing foundation of a distressed building. This strengthening method helps to
transfer the load at a greater depth. This technique is also used to lower or enlarge the
given footing. This can be done by using any of the following methods:
Underpinning piles: Piles or piers are drilled through and provided either in pairs one
on each side of the load bearing wall, or in groups around the sides of footing, if the footing
is large.

Micro-piles Different types of micro-piles such as mini-piles pin needle, root piles are
used for underpinning. The advantage is the piles can be installed from the ground
surface without deep excavation and it is appropriate for a wide range of ground
conditions. It is best suited for the locations with low headroom and restricted access.

Underpinning by injecting chemical grouts This is done by installing the sleeve ports
grout pipes with holes in its sides and injecting chemical grouts through it. The chemical
grouting helps to fill the voids or permeate the ground to form composite material that
results into higher soil strength.

Increasing the bearing area of the footing with or without strengthening of column
This is the most appropriate technique for strengthening conventional spread footing
where any of the dimensions i.e., length, width or depth of the footing is increased (Figure
below).

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 Figure: Extended area of spread footing for strengthening

Additional reinforcement is placed and is thoroughly connected with the existing

concrete by means of dowels placed in position by drilled and epoxy grout filled holes.
Dowels in this case play an important role as there is a greater chance of splitting of the
new concrete from the existing concrete. Shotcrete technique is generally used in this
method. Since this is done without strengthening of the column, soil pressure beneath the
extended area of the footing will be transferred to the existing footing. Hence the whole
or the part of the building should be properly supported so as to avoid settlement.
The area of the footing, when extended with the column being jacketed or
strengthened, results in easier transfer of forces from extended footing to the column
jacket.
Increasing lateral resistance of column footings
This can be achieved by increasing the passive pressure either by increasing the size of
the footing or by improving the soil behind the footing. The lateral resistance of isolated
column footings can be increased by interconnecting the adjacent footings with deep tie
beams or grade beams. This helps in resisting differential settlement as well as the
rotation.
Anchoring column jacket reinforcement into unstrengthened footing
In this technique, the jacket reinforcement is properly anchored into the footing by
drilling holes through which the longitudinal reinforcement is passed into the existing
concrete of footing and the holes are then filled with epoxy grout. Another approach in
this method is extending the column jacket at the top of footing thereby providing full
anchorage length to the longitudinal reinforcement of the column jacket as shown in
Figure below.

Figure: Column jacket extended to top of footing.

Soil improvement
This can be done by grouting or in-situ densification of soil layers. Cement grouting is
preferred in case of coarse sand and gravel, chemical grout injections for fine sand and
coarse silts and compaction grouting for other soils.

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