Introduction

Mathematical Models of Systems • Classical concepts of continuous-time feedback system

 Introduction – Modeling
 Mathematical Models – Analysis
 Review of Differential Equations – Compensation techniques

 Dynamic, Electrical, Mechanical Systems

• Stability of feedback systems
 Differential Equation Representation of
– Bode diagrams
Electrical, Mechanical, and Electromechanical
Systems
 Laplace Transforms
 Application to Circuits
 Board Works

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What is a Model? Mathematical Models

 Dictionary definitions:  Verbal Model

– n. A small object, usually built to scale, that represents in detail another, • model described by pure words and may be proven after some time
often larger object.
• Example:
– n. A preliminary work or construction that serves as a plan from which a
 Bohr Atomic Model
product is to be made.
– Atoms are restricted to certain fixed (quantized) orbits.
– n. A schematic description of a system, theory, or phenomenon that accounts
– An electron can jump, suddenly, between these orbits by absorbing or emitting a
for its known or inferred properties and may be used for further study of its photon the appropriate precise wavelength.
characteristics.
– n. A style or design of an item.
– n. One serving as an example to be imitated or compared.

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 Mathematical Models Mathematical Models

 Graphical Model
• numbers plotted instead of table presentation
• allow the reader to quickly draw conclusions
• can also be equivalent to mathematical models once a correct
mathematical equation has been derived

Bohr Atomic Model

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Mathematical Models Mathematical Models

 In our example:
• single bacterial culture introduced into and growing in a fixed volume
with a fixed (limited) amount of nutrient

• Lag phase:
• constant value of the number of cells due probably to initial addition of the
bacteria to the environment and for some time, these still do not reproduce

• Log(exponential) phase:
• point where the bacteria started to multiply and reproduce
• sudden increase in its population

Graphical Model

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 Mathematical Models Mathematical Models

• Stationary phase:  Mathematical Model

• may be caused by the limitation of the space and the nutrients available in • always represented by mathematical equations
the host environment • as long as there is an equation governing a certain scenario, then we
• may continue for quite some time have a mathematical model
• are exact and correct
• Death phase:
• accuracy of the values produced by these equations rely on how the
• when the nutrients or resources of their environment start to run out, the
mathematical model was derived
population of the bacteria starts to decrease
• will be used in analyzing processes/plants
• living things die a natural death or by other means because of lack of
resources
• at this point in time, only the strong and the fittest are left out alive

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Mathematical Models Review of Differential Equations

 Differential Equations (DE)

• In 1903, Rutherford and Soddy proposed the law of radioactive change • equations that involve dependent variables and their derivatives with
which states that rate of decay of radioactive matter was proportional to respect to the independent variables
the amount present.
• Mathematically, we say
Simple harmonic motion: u(x)
2
rate of change of [A] = - k*[A] d u
 ku  0
dx 2

• where [A] and k are the concentration and the rate of decay of substance Wave equation in three dimensions: u(x,y,z,t)
A, respectively
• Thus,  2u  2u  2u  2u
   c2
[A](t) = [A](0)bt 0<b<1 x 2 y 2 z 2 t 2

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 Review of Differential Equations Review of Differential Equations

 Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE)  ODEs classifications:

• differential equations that involve only ONE independent variable 1. Order
2. Linearity
Example: 3. Homogeneity
2
d u ( x)
 ku  0 The order of a differential equation is just the highest differential
dx 2 term involved:

d2y dy
u(x) is the dependent variable a2  a1  a0  0 2nd order
dt 2 dt

x is the independent variable

dx d 3x
 x 3rd order
dt dt 3

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Review of Differential Equations Review of Differential Equations

• A linear equation must have constant coefficients, or coefficients

which depend on the independent variable. Linear Non-linear
• If y or its derivatives appear in the coefficient the equation is non-
linear. 2y y2 or sin( y )
dy
 y  0 dy dy
dt linear y
dx dt dt
 x2  0
dt non-linear
( 2  3 sin t) y (2  3 y 2 ) y
dy
 t2  0
dt linear dy  dy 
2

dy t  
y
dt
 t2  0
non-linear dt  dt 

Summary of Linearity

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 Review of Differential Equations Review of Differential Equations

• Put all the terms of the differential equation which involve the
dependent variable on the left hand side (LHS) of the equation. dy
 y 0
 1st Order
dx
 Linear
• Homogeneous: If there is nothing left on the right-hand side (RHS),
 Homogeneous
the equation is homogeneous. (unforced or free)
d2y
 cos( x) y 2  sin( x) 2nd Order
• Nonhomogeneous: If there are terms left on the RHS involving dx 2
Non-linear
constants or the independent variable, the equation is
Non-homogeneous
nonhomogeneous (forced)
d 3y 3rd Order
5  4y  cos( x )
dx 3
Linear
Non-homogeneous

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Review of Differential Equations Dynamic Systems

• A linear ordinary differential equation describing linear electric • plants where system variables (state variables) change with respect
circuits is of the form to time
• usually modeled with differential equations (or possibly, difference
d nx d n 1x dx equations)
an  an 1  ...  a1  a0  v(t )
dt n
dt n 1 dt • Example:
• Robotic Manipulator Model Dq q
  C q, q   Gq   
Where
an, an-1,…,a0 constants Where:
x(t) dependent variable (i or v) q = joint angles or the robotic manipulator
 = applied torque at the joints
t independent variable D = Moment of inertia matrix
C = Coriolis/ centrifugal matrix
v(t) voltage or current sources G = gravity matrix

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 Electrical Systems Mechanical Systems

• important state variables are the voltages and currents (v and i) • Translational variables :
• passive components such as resistance, capacitance and – position, x
dx
inductance are also taken into consideration – velocity, x 
– force, f
dt

• Mass: f  Mx x

M f

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Mechanical Systems Mechanical Systems

• Friction (viscous): f  Bx

x • Mass, spring and damper system
• Summing forces along the horizontal

f  Mx  kx  Bx

B
x

• Spring (linear): f  kx
x f
k
M

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 Mechanical Systems Mechanical Systems

• Rotational Variables :
– angle, 
– angular velocity, d/dt
– torque, T

• Inertia (rotational) :

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Mechanical Systems Mechanical Systems

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 DE Representation of Electrical Systems DE Representation of Electrical Systems

Find the differential equations that describe the mesh currents • First, write the mesh equations for the circuit.
i1 and i2 in the network shown.
Mesh 1:
8 1H 8i1  16
t
(i  i2 )dt  v(t )
 1
+
1
v(t) i1 F i2 10 Mesh 2:
- 16
di2 t
 10i2  16 (i2  i1 )dt  0
dt 

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DE Representation of Electrical Systems DE Representation of Electrical Systems

d
• Then, differentiate the mesh equations to eliminate the • Using operators, let D = . Substitution gives
dt
integrals.
(8D  16) i1  16i2  Dv(t ) (1)

di d  16i1  ( D 2  10 D  16)i2  0 (2)

8 1  16i1  16i2  v(t ) (a)
dt dt
• Next, multiply equation (1) by 16 and equation (2) by
(8D+16), then add the resulting equations. This will
d 2i2 di2 eliminate the current variable i1.
 16i1   10  16i2  0 (b)
dt 2 dt
16  (8D  16) i1  16i2  Dv(t ) 
8D  16  16i1  ( D 2  10 D  16)i2  0

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 DE Representation of Electrical Systems DE Representation of Electrical Systems

We get If we multiply equation (2) by 16 and equation (1) by

(D2+10D+16), then add the resulting equations, we will
(8D3  96D 2  288D) i2  16Dv(t ) eliminate the current variable i2.

which simplifies to We get:

( D 2  12 D  36) i2  2v(t ) (8D3  96D 2  288D) i1  D( D 2  10D  16)v(t )

The differential equation for the current i2 is which simplifies to

d 2i2 di2 ( D 2  12D  36) i1  18 ( D 2  10D  16)v(t )

 12  36 i2  2v(t )
dt 2 dt

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DE Representation of Electrical Systems DE Representation of Electrical Systems

• In the circuit shown, v=25 cos 7.5t V for t  0. Find the

The differential equation for the current i1 is differential equation for vX(t).

4
d 2i1 di1 d 2 v(t ) dv(t )
2
 12  36 i1  0.125  1.25  2v(t ) +
dt dt dt 2 dt
+ 6 vx +
v(t) - vC 1
iL F
- 1H - 4

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 DE Representation of Electrical Systems DE Representation of Electrical Systems

KVL for L: Differentiate equation (1) and re-write equation (2).

diL We get:
vC  6iL  (1)
dt
dvC di d 2iL
6 L  (3)
KCL for C: dt dt dt 2

dvC
25 cos 7.5t  vC 1 dvC 25 cos 7.5t  vC  4iL  (4)
 iL  (2) dt
4 4 dt

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DE Representation of Electrical Systems DE Representation of Electrical Systems

Substitute equations (1) and (3) into (4) Substitute into equation (5).
di di d 2i L
25 cos 7.5t  6iL  L  4iL  6 L 
dt dt dt 2 We get:
or 1 d 2vX 7 dv X 10
d 2i L di L 25 cos 7.5t    vX
25 cos 7.5t  7  10i L (5) 6 dt 2 6 dt 6
dt 2 dt
Thus,
From the figure, we get v X  6iL
d 2vX dv X
Differentiate twice 7  10v X  150 cos 7.5t
2 2 dt 2 dt
dv X diL d vX d iL
6 6
dt dt dt 2 dt 2

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 DE Representation of Mechanical Systems DE Representation of Mechanical Systems

• Find the mathematical model of the given mechanical system • The equation of motion of the mass mc, derived from the free
below, a precision slide. body diagram of the system as shown below, is given below.

Xin mc xp  bd  bs x p  k d x p  bd xin  k d xin

Probe
Xp
bd

Sliding
bd x p
Carriage Friction mc xp
Mc
bs kd x p
kd

bs x p

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DE Representation of Electromechanical
DE Representation of Mechanical Systems Systems

• DC Servomotor
 Notes:
– Small rotor inertia
• It is important to remember Newton’s 2nd Law of motion, i.e. F =
– High torque-to-inertia ratio
ma and Euler-Lagrange equations.
• Most mechanical systems are non-linear in nature, so linearization
must be done at a given operating point.
– Examples of non-linear systems are ball and beam, inverted
pendulum
• Not the main focus of this course, just an overview.

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 DE Representation of Electromechanical DE Representation of Electromechanical
Systems Systems

El ectri calEquati ons: Mechani calEquati ons:

1 ea  Ra ia  La
dia
 eb KVL
dt 3 Tm  k i ia motor torque
d
2  eb  k b back - EMF 4  Tm  TL J
d 2
B
d
sum of torques
dt
dt 2 dt
where
where
Ra  armature resi stance
Tm  motor torque
La  armature i nductance
TL  l oad torque
ia  armature current
k i  torque constant
k b  motor constant
J  i nerti alconstant
  shaft angul arposi ti on
B  fri cti onconstant

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DE Representation of Electromechanical DE Representation of Electromechanical
Systems Systems

Substitute 2 to 1 Substi tute 3  to 4 

di d d 2 d
ea  Ra ia  La a  k b k i ia  TL  J B
dt dt dt 2 dt
d 1  di   d 2 d 
  ea  Ra ia  La a  ia 
1 J B  TL 
dt kb  dt  ki  2
dt 
 dt 

5 ea  Ra ia  La Dia   

1
D  6  ia 
1
JD 2  BD  TL
kb ki

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 DE Representation of Electromechanical DE Representation of Electromechanical
Systems Systems

Substitute 6  to 5 
 

 ea  Ra  1 JD 2  BD  TL 

 

ea  D 3 JL a  D 2 JR a  BLa   DBR a   DLa  Ra 
1   ki  
D    D     TL  

kb 
  La D
1
 JD 2
  BD   T

L 

 k b  kb ki   kb ki 
  i
k 
 k b k i D  D 3 JL a  D 2 JR a  BLa   DBR a 
e  R

D  a   a JD 2  BD  TL    
kb  kb ki   kb ki 

 La

JD 3  BD 2  DTL 

 
ea  DLa  Ra
 TL 



 kb ki  kb  kb ki 
D 
e a  Ra

kb  kb ki
  L
 
JD 2  BD  a JD 3  BD 2    
k i ea
kb ki 
 DLa  Ra 
k b k i D  D 3 JL a  D 2  JR a  BLa   DBR a
 TL  
 kb ki 
 TL DLa  Ra

ea  JR a D 2  BRa D  JL a D 3  BLa D 2  k b k i D  D 3 JL a  D 2  JR a  BLa   DBR a
D   
k b  kb ki 
 DLa  Ra 
 TL  

 kb ki 

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DE Representation of Electromechanical
Systems Laplace Transforms

 Unilateral Laplace Transform

If TL is zero, then, the above equation reduces to the no-load
condition 
L f t   F s    f t e
 st
dt
k i ea 0
 
k b k i D  D 3 JL a  D 2  JR a  BLa   DBR a
d 3 d 2 d
JL a   JR a  BLa   k b k i BRa 
dt 3 dt 2 dt where : s    j
 k i ea

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 Laplace Transforms Laplace Transforms

Some important properties related to differential equations:  General procedures when using Laplace Transforms in circuit
applications:
1) Lkf t   kF s  – Transform the circuit from the time domain to the complex
2) L f1 t   f 2 t   F1 s   F2 s  frequency domain (s domain).
– Solve the circuit using any circuit analysis technique with which
 dn 
3) L  n f t   s n F s   s n 1 f 0    you are familiar.
 dt  – Take the inverse transform of the solution to obtain the time
 sf n2
0  f n 1
0 domain solution
t  F s 
4) L  f  d  

0  s
 

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Circuit Transformation – Resistor Circuit Transformation – Capacitor

dvt 
i t   C
dt

vt   Ri t      
I s   C sV s   v 0   sCV s   Cv 0 
v0 

V s   RI s  V s   I s  
1
sC s

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 Circuit Transformation – Inductor Initial Conditions = 0

di t 
vt   L
dt
    
V s   L sI s   i 0   sLI s   Li 0 

I s  
1
V s  
 
i 0
sL s

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Impedances Example 1

 Find VO(s) assuming zero initial conditions.

V s 
Z s  
I s 
Resi stor : Z s   R
Inductor : Z s   sL

Capacitor: Z s  
1
sC

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 Example 1 Example 1

Substituting
1 1 2
  3
 3
 s  5 s  3 1   I 2  I 2
s 3  s s

Multiplying throughby 3s, gives:

Using mesh analysis: 

3  s 3  8s 2  18s I 2 
1  3 3
 1   I 1  I 2 3
s  s s I2 
s 3  8s 2  18s
3  3
0   I1   s  5   I 2
Vo s   sI 2 
3
s  s
s 2  8s  18
I1 
3

1 2

s  5s  3 I 2

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Example 2 Example 2

 The equivalent frequency domain of the circuit is shown

 Find VO(s) assuming vO(0) = 5V.
below.

 Using mesh analysis, we get the following electrical equations:

10
 Vo
s 1 V V
 2  0.5  o  o
10 10 10
s
Vo s  2 
1 2Vo sVo 1
 2.5   
s 1 10 10 10

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 Example 2 Board Work 1

 Multiplying through by 10, we get: The network shown is initially unenergized. At t=0, the switch is
closed. Find the differential equation that describes the voltage
10 vC(t) for t  0. Let v(t)=10 cos 4t.
 Vo
s 1 V
 2  0. 5  o  o
V
10 10 10
s
 25  Vo s  2 
10
s 1
25s  35
Vo  2
s  3s  2

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Board Work 2 Board Work 3

The suspension system for one wheel of an old-fashioned pickup truck is

shown below. The mass of the vehicle is m1 and the mass of the wheel is m2. A high performance race car with an adjustable wing is shown
The suspension spring has a spring constant k1 and the tire has a spring below. Develop a block diagram describing the ability of the
constant k2. The damping constant of the shock absorber is b. Obtain the
differential equations that represent the vehicle response to bumps in the
airfoil to keep a constant road adhesion between the car’s tires
road. Solve for y1. and the race track surface.

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 Board Work 4 Board Work 5

The potential of employing two or more helicopters for transporting payloads that are
too heavy for a single helicopter is a well-addressed issue in the civil and military
The network shown is initially unenergized. At t=0, the switch is
rotorcraft design arenas. Overall requirements can be satisfied more efficiently with a closed. Find the differential equation that describes the voltage
smaller aircraft using multi-lift for infrequent peak demands. Hence the principal vC(t) for t  0. Let v(t)=10 cos 4t. Use Laplace Transform to
motivation for using multi-lift can be attributed to the promise of obtaining increased
productivity without having to manufacture larger and more expensive helicopters. A
determine vC(t) for t  0.
specific case of a multi-lift arrangement where two helicopters jointly transport
payloads has been name twin lift.

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