BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

FACULITY OF HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF GEEZ LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

MA Thesis

Assessment of Medieval Ethiopian Construction materials: The case of Some Selected Ge’ez
Texts.
BY: ZERU DEMEKE
ADVISOR: Dr. TEBEBU ANTENEH

February, 2023
Bahir Dar
 BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

FACULITY OF HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF GEEZ LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Assessment of Medieval Ethiopian Construction materials: The case of Some Selected Ge’ez
Texts.

BY: ZERU DEMEKE

SUMMITED TO: DEPARTMENT OF GEEZ LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Approved by
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Examiner’s Name Signature Date
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Examiner’s Name Signature Date
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Adviser Name Signature Date
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank the Almighty God for His boundless help on my work. In the course of my
graduate studies, in general, and during my research, in particular, I have been assisted, financially
and otherwise by a number of individuals and institutions. To all of them, I would like to express my
gratitude. Special sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Tebebu Anteneh, who immensely helped me
from the beginning of selecting the title to the final print of the thesis. I also thank my post graduate
instructors, the staff members of the Department of Gǝʼǝz language and literature.
I am ever-thankful to my family: my wife Melkam sera Assefa and my children Memenon , Afebia
and san for their patience, understanding, and selfless support. Without their encouragement and
understanding it would have been impossible for me to finish this work. This MA thesis project is
done under the supervision of Dr. Tebebu Anteneh as part of the thematic research project he
initiated and titled Medieval Ethiopian construction technologies and materials Quest through
Ethiopian and other Scholarship. I would like to thank also Bahir Dar University and all the university
staffs.
Table of Contents
 Transliteration
Encyclopaedia Aethiopica
Transcription/Transliteration System
Languages based on the Ethiopic script ("Fidel")
The basic correspondences used in the EAE system are presented in the following table:
CHAPTER ONE
 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Ethiopia has been called the citadel (strong fort) of Africa. It is a mountainous country,
various ethnic groups of peoples speaking many languages. It has an ancient culture and a
recorded history dating bock several thousand years (History of Ethiopian Architecture) and
every society, be it ancient or modern has its own medium of expression, in the form of either
a language or art handed down from generation to generation by oral and written form. From
this point of view, classical language of Ethiopia, Gǝʼǝz was the language of inscriptions
used for all literary purposes during the Aksumite period ( Weninger, 2005: 732). Language
is a form of verbal communication and architecture is a form of non-verbal communication.
As a form of non-verbal communication, an architect should understand well how to
communicate in this non-verbal language, so that the purpose and objectives of the building
can be achieved (Lawson, 2001). In connection with this, the architecture of Ethiopia varies
greatly from region to region over time.

Over the years, it has incorporated various architectural styles materials and construction

techniques. Material relics are often used in stories about the evolution of civilizations and
the construction of historically shared identity, mobilized to ‘invent traditions’. Ethiopia
follows this tradition in style. Its historical range reputedly includes the remains of the
earliest known ancestor of human kind, Dinkinesh or Lucy (the basis of its claim to call itself
the place of the ‘birth of humanity’), and ownership of the Ark of the Covenant, brought to
Aksum by Menelik, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon (the basis of claims of the
Ethiopian monarchy’s direct descent from God). Buildings and building materials play a
prominent role in describing this evolution, articulating a diachronic progression and unity of
the state. Four sites are particularly important in this account. At Yaha the dӓ’amat dynasty
most probably 800-400 BC, the known building of the above mentioned period in the region
is the ruined 8th BC multi-story tower at Yeha in Ethiopia, believed to have been the capital
of Dʿmt. Ashlar masonry was especially dominant during this period, owing to South
Arabian influence where the style was extremely common for monumental structures. At
Aksum, a set of funerary stelae mark the beginning of a highly organized state polity and
Debre damo church wich is constructed using alternating layer of wood and stone. At Roha
(now Lalibela), the capital of the Zagwe dynasty, a group of churches hewn out of rock and
erected as a ‘new Jerusalem’ cement a profound relationship between state and church. And
at Gondar, a series of castles monumentalize the medieval state. This material construction of
a ‘great tradition’ has enabled the idea of the state as a cultural monolith unfolding over time.
In this research, we make the building materials the object of attention, rather the state and
tradition of Ethiopia. (Tomkinson 2022: 3), so building materials in present use have a long
history and some of the structures in Ethiopia built thousands of years ago are regarded as
remarkable.

The history of construction overlaps that of structural engineering and many other fields. To
understand why buildings were constructed the way they were in prehistory, we also need to
rely on archaeology to record the form of the parts that survive and the tools used, and other
branches of history and architecture to investigate how the builders lived and recorded their
accomplishments, But in this study the researcher use to investigate construction materials
used, why buildings were build, by whom they were build and the tools used during the
operation by examining Gǝʼǝz Literatures which were wrote about the buildings. For
example Stone is a widely used in different monumental buildings in Ethiopian architecture
from ancient up to 19th century.

Exposed dressed stone was used for public builds as an elegant material. Arches, corners and
entrances were built of stone by carefully curving each piece and pointing the joints and
limestone Mortar, as we all might know, consisting primarily of lime and sand, has been used
as an integral part of masonry structures for thousands of years and its basic formulation
remained unchanged for centuries until the advent of Portland cement or its forerunners. In
this regard, ancient countries like Ethiopia have been the home of this technology with some
improved chemical additives. (White part of eggs). Relics from ancient civilization centers of
Ethiopia depict that gypsum and limestone mortar construction technology applied since the
earlier civilization periods of the country. Moreover, masonry structures built during the
Gondarine dynasty (16th-18th c) witness that limestone mortar technology went through a
major growth and transition, whereby, the production and administration process increasingly
absorbed techniques traditionally carried out by craftsmen, both from abroad and Ethiopia.
Various historical masonry structures (palaces, castles, bridges, church, etc) in the Gondarine
dynasty had been constructed with the help of this indigenous technology. The dynasty is the
zenith of limestone construction technology in the country.  For instance, the most well
known world heritage limestone structures in Ethiopia such as the Guzara Castle, the
Susenyos Palace, Denkez Palace, Fasil Castle, Fasil Bath, Debreberhan Sellassie, Kusquam
Complex, Melttulemariam church Gojjam etc constructed during this period. The unique
plastering quality of the then limestone mortar mix helps these structures stand for
centuries. (Gondar's Heritage Conservation Training Centre on 16th March 2019) in addition
to wood, lime, Stone and stone derivatives water is the basic construction material. The
amount of water added in abiding mix (water/binding material) has a great influence in
strength and durability of buildings.
• Stone/ Rocks/ in Geez texts
• Lime /mud or nora/
• Water
• Woods
• Paintings

1.2 Statement of the problem

Many scholars write their own understanding about some architectures of Ethiopia. Some of
them stated about durability issue. Others describe about the heritage management and
conservation including the present state of studies. Similarly some others state about
archaeological investigation. As far as my reference, the scholars generally tried to show the
influence of foreigners on those buildings of the present states of the architectures, physical
observation and archeological analyses without detail examination of the Geez documents
which was written in the period of construction But now under this research the researcher
will explore the types and utilization of building materials and construction knowledge of the
indigenous society of Ethiopia based on gǝ’ǝz documents.

Most of Ethiopian researches on civil engineering and other natural sciences fields used
reference and source documents on medieval buildings from foreign researchers rather than
indigenous sources (gǝ’ǝz literatures). The reason for this is that they consider and perceive
Gǝ’ǝz literatures as religious or ecclesiastical texts only. Hence, this study will attempt to
explore the construction techniques and types and method of implementation of construction
materials are recorded and documented on in Gǝ’ǝz texts.

Some ancient and medieval constructions and construction materials have lasted thousands of
years yet structures still stand today for example church in Debre Damo, ruins of Guzara
castel, Dӓnqӓz castel, Fasil Gəmb , Mӓrtulӓ Mariam church and bridges around Gondar.
Most of them are constructed during Ethiopian early medieval time by using lime as the
primary building material. The mortar that has remained for hundreds of years was
manufactured at significantly lower temperatures than modern Portland cement and has a
proven lifetime that is longer today’s design life for infrastructure. This is why we are
looking for inspiration from ancient mortars to design new building materials that are less
energy intensive and more durable than today’s alternatives, In order to design new building
materials Identify physical and chemical property of ancient biding materials is essential.
This is conducting only by physical observation and laboratory investigation of the existing
buildings, but knowing about the selection of sites, excavation methods, mixing processes of
mortar, identifying quarry site of binding materials, the designers, operation director,
construction techniques and tools used during construction which have great contribution in
durability of buildings are by analyzing and investigating gǝ’ǝz literatures which scribed at
the time of construction.

Studies conducted on medieval construction were based on data extracted from

archaeological findings and laboratory tests indicating as the construction technology in
Ethiopia’s medieval time originated from foreign nations. However, Geez documents that are
overlooked by foreign writers witness the fact that medieval construction originated in
Ethiopia. Hence, the purpose of this study is to explore these Geez written documents and
prove that the medieval construction technology in Ethiopia is indeed developed by the
knowledge of the then Ethiopians.

Besides the above, natural science as well as engineering researchers believe that Geez
documents are religious only in their nature and hence, rather than using them resort to using
writings of foreign authors. Hence, the purpose of this study is to indicate that Geez
documents are not only religious but also sources of construction technology.

Lastly, Ancient and medieval buildings that were built 500 years ago are still stand without
dismantlement. For instance, Debre Damo church, Guzara Palace, Susenyous Palace, Fasil
Palace, Bridges and Mertule Mariam Churches that were built in the medieval age have been
using limestone as glue in masonry construction. The reason as to why these buildings last
more than 500 years is the then limestone input which is produced with minimum heat is
much stronger than the present day cement. With this regard, to produce the limestone used
in ancient buildings, it is vital to explore how the limestone was produced, where it
originated, how it was transported, how it was mixed and processed. To answer these
questions as well as to produce high quality and resilient construction limestone, it is
important to study Geez documents rather than wasting time on laboratory investigations.

1.3. Research Questions

This study tries to answer the following basic research questions:
1.3.2 General research questions
 What kinds of construction materials were in use during the Ethiopian Medieval
period that are listed in Gə’əz texts?
 Is there any Gə’əz text which states about Ethiopian construction and building
materials?
 What are the basic Ge’ez literatures on which production of building materials,
construction Technology and Directives are stated or mentioned?
1.3.2. Specific Research questions
 Are the excerpts connected with construction technology, construction management
and construction materials?
 Do the sources show us the Ethiopian Ancient and medieval civilization on
architecture and construction materials production?
 What are possible measure taken to use in the future medieval construction materials
and construction techniques in order to solve current Ethiopian construction problems
related to time, cost and quality?

1.4 Objective of the Study

1.4.1 General Objective

.
Assessing on Medieval Ethiopian Construction Materials and method of production in Some
Selected Ge’ez Texts.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study are to:
• Identify the type of building materials used in medieval Ethiopian construction
technology based on. Gǝ’ǝz literatures
• Identify tools, equipment’s and other accessories used during construction which are
listed in Gǝ’ǝz texts.
• Discuss, analyse and interpret how medieval Ethiopian construction materials were
described and documented in Gǝ’ǝz texts
• Indicate the basic difference between modern construction materials and medieval
Ethiopian construction materials stated in Ge’ez literatures.
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study may give a clue for next researchers to study Gǝ’ǝz texts respective to construction
and related technologies.
In conducting this study, the researcher believes that the work may contribute an
understanding on medieval Ethiopian civilization in production of durable construction
materials building directives, technologies which are documented in Gǝ’ǝz texts. And it may
motivate researchers to give attention and preserve Gǝ’ǝz manuscripts by showing
manuscripts are not only religious texts. Finally may also a base for our day today activities
particularly for the technological innovations of new building materials.
.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The study delimits itself in assessing narratives about construction materials point up in the
Literatures which are produced in Ge’ez language. Those are Gädlä ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi
chronicles of Susenyos chronicle of king Lalibäla
The study is delimited to the aforementioned context due to source of data itself in assessing
Geʼez literatures in relation to construction techniques and materials point up in the Geʼez
Literatures which are written in Ge’ez. The researcher tries to consult as many Geʼez texts as
possible from the different genres of the literary tradition which are found published and
unpublished. Once the excerpts are collected from the manuscripts, they are set for
translation, analysis and commentary
 Chapter Two
Review of the Related Literature
2.1 Stone:
The evolution of building materials and construction techniques is a fascinating subject, so
the majeure building unit from the creation of earth up now is Stone and its derivatives. One
of the evidence is rock hewn church of Lalibäla

Lalibela :- is situated amongst breath taking landscape at an altitude of 2,630 metres above
sea level. Yet the city came to prominence because of its great cultural heritage, which in
1978 was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.King Lalibäla was the one who had
performed immortal activities in the annuals of Ethiopian history. King Lalibäla is one of the
11 emperors of Zagwe dynasty who was born from his father king Janséyyum and his mother
Keriwäyna on February 16, 1120 in Roha latter by his name called Lalibäla.It is believed that
after birth, Lalibäla was found surrounded by a swarm of bees. According to the tradition of
Agäw societies, the swarm of bees had a prophesy message to be a powerful man. He married
Mäsqäl Kébra and reigned Ethiopia for 40 years (1165- 1205). When Lalibäla was succeeded
by his brother Harbe, he changed his capital into his holy place latter called Roha.In relation
to the chronicle of Lalibäla.states about the rock in detail and using rock as a building
material without any other accessories. The Lalibäla. rock-hewn monasteries were an
Ethiopian feat of engineering and water technology. In the 13th century, King Lalibela built
them from the top down. They are the only structures in the world to have been constructed in

this way. Chronicle of Lalibela states that:( …ይቤሎ እግዚአብሔር ለላሊበላ በጽሐ ጊዜሁ ከመ

ይከተሠታ አብያተ ክርስቲያናት በእደ ዚአከ ዘአርአይኩከ ቀዳሚ….)

Translation
‘‘God Sayed, to Lalibäla the time is reached to exposed churches with your hand that I
showed before’ On the other side the chronicle describes about the appreciation of the
building:-
…ርእዩኬ ኦ ፍቁራንየ ዘከመዝ ብእሴ ዘበእዴሁ ተከሥታ እሎን ህንጻ ማኅፈድ ዘኢተገብረ ዘከማሆን በኀበ

ካልኣን በሓውርት። በአይ ልሳን ንክል ነጊረ ግብረቶን ለእሎን አብያተ ክርስቲያናት።
Translation:
Please see my lovers

… ወግብረተ ቅጽሮንሂ ኢንክል ነጊረ ኅድጉሰ ዘእንተ ውስጦን ዘርእየሂ ኢይጽግብ በነጽሮ ወበአንክሮኒ

ኢይክል ፈጽሞ። እስመ መንክር ተገብረ በላዕለ እደ ላሊበላ ዘኢይትከሀሎ ለሥጋዊ ከመ ይኈልቆሙ

ለከዋክብተ ሰማይ ይኆልቆሙ ለመንክራትኒ ዘተገብራ በእደ ላሊበላ። ወለእመሰ ቦ ዘይፈቅድ ከመ ይርአይ

ግብረ ሕንጻሆን ለአብያተ ክርስቲያናት ዘተገበረ በእደ ላሊበላ። ይምጻእ ወይርእይ በአዕይንቲሁ።
Teranslation.
We cannot tell about

One key aspect of the Ethiopian churches is that the interiors were carved with just as much
detail as the exteriors. The skill needed to accomplish this must be factored into the
discussion. Such rock-cut buildings are, for logical reasons, carved from the top down. This
also applies to the interior, requiring a great deal of coordination among the masons, who
start at the domes and then work their way downward to the floor, with a complete, ‘reverse’
plan already sketched out in their mind.
In making the churches, it is clear that the architects first had to establish the water pressure
level as this would mark the depth of the excavation around the church, and thus the scale and
proportion of the building. Care had to be taken to find a balance between the depth of the
floor of the churches and the height of the water in the wells. If the floor level was too low, it
would fill up with water and be unusable. The engineers had to find just the right depth –
deep enough so there was room for a church to be carved, but not too deep that access was
difficult. This remarkable aspect of the design process had to be repeated numerous times,
since almost all of the principal churches each have a water tank associated with them.
/LALIBELA AND LIBONOS, // MARK JARZOMBE
According to Sérgéw Hablä Íéllasse, the Churches of Lalibäla have three categories.
They are:
Group.1 (This group is located in the west)  Betä Mädòane ‘Aläm /house of Holy Savior of
the world/, Betä Maréyam /house of Mary/Betä Mäsqäl /house of the Holy cross/, Betä
Dänagél /house of virgins/,Betä Golégotha /house of Golégotha/ and Betä Hawaréyat/ house
of disciples/Qäranéyo/,this Church was closed for a long time, recently been renewed and
opened again to service.
Group.2 (This group is located in the east)  Betä Amanu’el /house of Emmanuel/,Betä
Märqorewos /house of Merqorewos/,Betä Gäbré’el /house of Gabriel/ and Betä Abba Libanos
/house of Abba Lebanon/
Group.3 (This group is located in the north)  Betä-Giyorgis /house of George/ This Church
is the last and the only single group because, it is found alone in the southern area and it was
the last work of king Lalibäla. This Church represents the Ark of Noah and it consisted of
several symbolic expressions.

2.1.1 Qǝne - About building constructions

Poetry ( Qǝne is derived from the Word of the Bible, which means praise (thanks). Or the raw
seed that produced the paragraph "The Craddly." The interpretation means "subjection." If it
means being subjected to poetry, which means being subjected to poetry, then what is this
strange essay that comes from each man is said to be poetic, because the creature is
manifesting his submission to the Creator, in the face of new gratitude. And the poetry that
reached the creatures is not far from being in subjection, because it is an essay that says that
the poet is more dignified than the poet's author.
(https://www.eathebook.org/kine_bet/index.htm
Qǝne is one of the major genres of Ga'az poetry. Qǝne appears in both written and oral • forms;
Alemayehu (1970.p.99) considers Qǝne as an art form, having a language (Ga az) as its medium of
expression, handed down from generation to generation by oral teaching; it is also the characteristic
of the people who created it. Another researcher Luigi F. (1984.p. 99) has also explained Qǝne as a
kind of poetry which is considered the boast of Ethiopian literature; which is too difficult (and
indeed, at times, impossible) to interpret even for Ethiopian scholars because of its deep and
complex nature. ~ne is r plete and rich with allusions to history, the Holy Scriptures, the lives of the
saints historical events, classical texts, nature, and popular wisdom 163. Consequently, like in the
other Ethiopic manuscripts and poetic genres of Ga'az literatures, the book of Enoch is quoted and
illustrated by Qǝne composers. The following Qaneyat (Ga'az poems) demonstrate how Ethiopic
Enoch is depicted in Ga'az poetry / Qǝne. They are presented according to their level of complexity
(from simple to complex); which means from the shortest Qǝne that consists of two lines, known as

ጉባኤ ቃና (Gubae Qana) up to the longest one, called እጣነ መር (እዝል) ('atana Mogar) which has
eleven lines. Hence, one should notice that for this study, the level of complexity of the poems
(Qaneyat) depends on their structure, particularly, numbers of the lines in each stanza (Qane).
In Ethiopian tradition school and churches intellectuals one of the method of expressing their
idea and knowledge is “Qǝne”, so in this study we try to review some “Qǝne” which were
performed or created before a long period of time about building construction activities and
materials, published or unpublished (orally transferred).
Qǝne performed during summer;.

ህንፃ ነጋሲ ክረምት ከመ ተወጥነ ተአምረ፤

እስመ ሰብዕ ኩሉ ይረግጽ ጽቡረ፤

ወማእበለ ባህር ጠቢብ አንኰርኵሮተ እብን ገብረ፤

“Starting of construction of king’s house summer becoming known:
Because all of men waking over the mud;
Wise mason /storm/ moving stones;’’
This Ga'az poem (Qǝne) is known as ዘአምላኬ (za'amlakiya) and found at the second rank having
three lines. In order to develop this Triplet (Qǝne), the composer took its theme from summer
season that have rain and mud indicates the starting of summer and men walk over the mud the
gold floods carrying stones taking
Building of the king is starting masons used stones and men preparing mud mortar. The composer
describes a building can construct by using materials stone and mud mortar
ሰላም፡ ለላሊበላ፡ ሐናጼ፡መቅደስ፡ በጥበብ፨

በእብን፡ ይቡስ፡ እንበለ፡መሬት፡ ርጡብ፨

በዘይትአመር፡ ዘሎቱ፡ ምስፍና፡ ወምግብ፨

አምሳለ፡መዐር፡ ተድላ፡ ነገሥት፡ ወሕዝብ፨

በዕለተ፡ ተወልደ፡ ተዓግተ፡ በንህብ፨

ቅኔ ምነድነው

አይ፡ ይእቲ፡ ዛቲ፡ ቤተ፡ መቅደስ፡ እንተ፡ ሣረራ፡ በዕብን፡ ገብረ፡ መስቀል፡ ንጉሥ፡

ላሊበላ፡ ለሕንፃከ፡ ነውረ፡ ኢያውፅኡ፡ ወኢወሀቡ፡ ሰሎሞን፡ ወዘሩባቤል፡ እለ፡ ፍትሐ፡ ጽድቅ፡ ዓቀቡ፡ ወእንዘ፡

ይብሉ፡ ብዙኃ፡ አስተዓፀቡ፡ አይቴ፡ ተረክበ፡ ዘየዓቢ፡ በጥበቡ።

‘’ሞት ሕንፃ ላሊበላ ኩለሔ እንግዳ’

2.2 woods / Timber

Wood has been a part, whole or in part, of the buildings built by the man from the Neolithic;
before the man is available with tools with sufficient capacity to court and to work wood (a
tool with sufficient capacity to court need not be anything more complicated than a stone axe,
for example) is very likely that you already use wood as a material for the construction of
their first shelter. (Xavier Borràs20/10/2010)
Old Testament describes wood as construction of buildings and other different equipment

God and our father Noah communicate each other like this; ወይቤሎ አግዚአብሔር ለኖኅ ወግበር

ለከ ታቦተ እንተ እፅ “God commanded Noah to build an Ark of Gofer (or Gopher) wood.”
(Genesis 6:14) interestingly, this word is used now here else in the scripture nor is it a
Hebrew word. Many people mistakenly attribute this type of wood to an animal by the same
name, but it is entirely unrelated. Also, many modern translations of the Bible translate the
word to mean cypress. While possible (cypress was once abundant in Armenia and Chaldea),
there is no solid evidence to indicate that cypress wood was used.
When we picture Noah’s ark, we often think of the nursery décor version – a tiny, round boat
bobbing along with giraffe heads poking out the top. God’s blueprints for the ark, laid out in
Genesis 6:14-16, describe something a bit different.
The Lord told Noah to build a 3-story wooden ark with rooms inside and to coat it with pitch.
The Hebrew word we translate as “ark” means a box or storage chest. Pitch is a black, sticky
waterproofing material that can be made from pine trees. The ark sounds more like a black
barge than a tan teacup.

The dimensions are staggering – 450 ft. long (1 ½ football fields), 75 ft. wide and 45ft high.
For comparison, the title of World’s Tallest Giraffe is currently held by Forest, who stands at
18 feet, 8 inches. This boat covered over ¾ of an acre.
God also told Noah to store on the ark portions of every kind of food, enough for his family
and two of each kind of animal. He made clear that the only way to survive the coming Flood
was to be on the ark. Noah got to work and followed God’s instructions to the letter (Genesis
6:17-22). The literature describes wood used as a construction material in ancient Noah’s
ark,
With more advancement and increasing knowledge, wood also became a viable building
option. As humans made better tools to cut wood and learnt more efficient woodworking
methods, wood became an incredibly useful building material. Timber was used by the
Ancient Greeks to build permanent and elaborate structures like temples and places of
worship. Ancient Chinese temples were also built out of wood. Nanchen Temple is the oldest
surviving wooden building in the world and is thought to have been constructed in 782 AD.
Historically, wood has also been used as a construction material for temporary military
buildings or barriers due to its abundant and immediately serviceable nature. Due to its
abundance, wood has long been a popular construction resource in North America and parts
of Europe. Timber is still frequently used in the frames of North American homes today. (Joe
| Aug 20, 2020 | Structural engineering).

2.3 mortars
By definition, a mortar is agglomerate composed of grain of sand joined together by a binder.
It has a plastic consistency and is traditionally used as a building material (Ngoma,
Characterisation and Consolidation of Historical Lime Mortars in Cultural Heritage Buildings
November 2009). Mitchell, July 2007 also states that a mortar is a material in a plastic state
which can be trowelled into place and sets insitu. It consists of;
 A binder (lime, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 
 An aggregate (sand or gravel)
 Water
2.3.1 History of Mortar
Mortars produced before the end of the 19th century, when the Portland cement first appeared
in building constructions are termed as historical or ancient mortars (Ngoma, Characterisation
and Consolidation of Historical Lime Mortars in Cultural Heritage Buildings November
2009). Mortars with different binder types have been used since ancient times for different
applications; masonry mortars between bricks or stones, mortars as wall finishing materials
internally (plaster) or externally (render), mortars as foundations for flooring, rubble mortars
for the infillings of walls, mortars as casings of water conduits or jointing compounds from
terracotta pipes, decoration mortars, etc. The compositional variation in historic mortars is
surprisingly large with great differences both geographically and during different time
periods. Mud, gypsum and lime had traditionally been the three most common binder types
during the construction history of mankind until about two centuries ago,when their use was
replaced gradually by different natural cement types and later by Portland cement, which is
nowadays the dominant binder type in the construction industry. Mud is probably the oldest
binder type in mortars (J.Elsen December, 2005). Old time mortars were used in masonry
construction not as glue, but as a seal or separator between the individual masonry units. The
purpose of this gasket (just like in an automobile engine) was to absorb small amounts of
movement yet keep the pieces together. It is important to note that, while the mortar and
masonry unit are not fused together, there is a bond between them and this bond has helped
masonry walls to resist expansion and contraction, wind shear, and seismic as well as gravity
loads (Bates 2014).
2.3.2 Composition of Historical Mortar
The vast majority of historical mortars were prepared from the lime based binder, and
silicate, carbonate or, dolomite sand. To improve workability, adhesion, strength and
durability some additives such as, finely ground brick, volcanic pozzolana, hay and, horse,
camel or goat hairs were added. Beyond main components of mortar (binder, aggregate and
additives) in the structure of historical mortars exist other materials as well, which are
characterized as inclusions, as they participate in small percentage. These materials are pieces
of shells, charcoal particles, lime lumps and chips of wood or straw. These materials are met
in structural mortars (which helps to crate bondage between the individual masonry unites) as
well as in renderings and they are observed in different historical period (Ngoma,
Characterisation and Consolidation of Historical Lime Mortars in Cultural Heritage Buildings
November 2009). With the purpose of modifying and/or improving some of the properties of
the mortars, traditionally they have been mixed (together with the basic components), with
some different products or additional constituents. These products have evolved along the
time. At the beginning the admixtures were composed of natural substances (blood, egg, fig
juice, pig grease, manure, etc.). The current admixtures are generally industrial by products,
like fly ashes or blast furnace slags , or other more elaborated products, like organic
polymers, acrylic resins, epoxy resins, etc (ÇİZER July, 2004 ).

According to Alick & Hughes (2002), their role in the behavior of historical mortars as well
as their origin is not always clear but Palomo et al. (2003); relate their presence with the
intention of modifying and/or improving some of the properties of the historical mortars.
Their systematic presence in different historical period indicates that their existence is neither
accidental nor meaningless.
2.3.3 Types of Mortar
The most common difference between mortar types is the nature of the binder. Some of them
are lime, clay, Gypsum and cement. Various combinations of binder types, production
methods and relative quantities affect the qualities and purpose of the mortar that is produced.
This flexibility can be used to create mortars for specific situations (Mitchell July 2007).
Mortar can be classified according to its particular function. Functional requirements of
mortar can be configured in two categories. Those intended to protect the masonries against
climatic or environmental actions (render and plaster), and those whose primary aim is to
contribute to the structural stability of the masonry (joint bedding and re pointing). Mortar
can also be classified according to the binder used; mortar made with lime based binder (lime
mortar) and mortar made with cement based binder (cement mortar) (Ngoma,
Characterisation and Consolidation of Historical Lime Mortars in Cultural Heritage Buildings
November 2009). The binder affects the physical and chemical properties of the mortar, its
strength, how quickly it hardens or sets, and its reaction with surrounding materials (Mitchell
July 2007).
2.3.4 Lime Mortar
The term lime refers both to calcium oxide (CaO) or quicklime, the product of the calcination
of calcium carbonate (calcite or aragonite: CaCO3), and to the compound obtained after the
hydration of the oxide, i.e. calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), the mineral portlandite, also
known as slaked lime or hydrated lime. This term also applies to the products of the
hydration of Ca and Mg oxides formed after the calcinations of magnesium limestone and, in
particular, dolomite (CaMg (CO3)2).
Calcitic lime is commonly known as fat lime, while dolomitic or magnesia limes are
commonly called magre limes (C. Rodríguez-Navarro 2002). It was discovered that when
limestone was burnt and then combined with water, it produce a plastic material that would
dry and then harden with age. The lime mortar used before the 20th century was simply an
aggregate and a binder. The binder was lime, obtained by burning limestone or sea shells.
The aggregate was sand or earth. As a binder in masonry construction, lime is generally
considered inferior to Portland cement based mortars, though lime stone (calcium carbonate)
is a raw material for both. (Bates 2014) Lime mortar was used to lay brick work, building
stone and to point roof tiles. The main ‘ingredients’ were lime and sand but additives such as
eggs, casein, keratin (from boiled hooves), tallow, blood, bees wax or bitumen are used to
increase water resistance. Crushed brick or tile was often added to mortar to improve setting
times, and other additions might be used for their aesthetic qualities (Band 09/04/2004). Lime
may be weaker, take longer time to set, set in a different way, and require a higher level of
skill or understanding to use properly, but it has distinct long term advantages. These include:
greater compatibility with soft materials, good workability, increased initial adhesion,
flexibility, greater porosity (breathability) and better weathering properties. The mortar lets
moisture out as well as in. Cement mortars lock the moisture in so that the only way it can
escape is through the brick or stone, deteriorating it in the process (Bates 2014). Lime mortar
is self-healing. Movement in masonry structures may result in large individual cracks where
hard cement mortars are used, but lime mortar will develop multiple fine cracks. The lime
mortar possesses a unique capability known as autogenously healing, the process whereby
free lime in the mortar combines with water and CO2 from the atmosphere and through
carbonization it is transformed into calcium carbonate which seals the minute fissures that
occur as the mortar flexes (Bates 2014).

2.3.5 History of Lime

The earliest archaeological evidence for lime burning is a kiln from Mesopotamia dating
ca.2450 BC. Archaeological evidences show that lime was used in the construction of some
of the floors and paving of the ruins excavated in Çatalhüyück (Turkey), dated between
10000 and 5000 BC. These archaeological findings, along with the remains of 4500 years old
lime kilns found in Khafaje, Mesopotamia, confirm that lime was a common building
material in the Levant during the Neolithic. Lime mortar has been also used for flooring
fishermen's huts excavated at Livinski Vir in Serbia - Montenegro dated at about 5600 BC.
(J.Elsen December, 2005) The Egyptians also used lime as a binder. Some coatings of lime in
different pyramids have been dated ca. 4000 BC (Boynton 1980). However this is challenged
by Lucas and Harris (1982) and Ghorab et al. (1986) who indicate that the Egyptians did not
use lime in construction (they used gypsum) until Roman times. Other ancient civilizations,
like India, China and the different cultures of pre Columbian America (e.g., Mayans and
Aztecs) systematically used lime as a building material (C. RodríguezNavarro 2002). The
Greeks used the so called "Santorini earth”, a tuff, as a pozzolanic additive mixed with lime
for the manufacture of hydraulic lime mortars as those found in Thera (Santorini, Greece) .
The Greeks also used a technique called "polishing" consisting in the application of coatings
made of lime and crushed limestone mixed with pozzolana . The Romans used lime in
construction since the last two centuries of the Republic. In addition to air lime, they
routinely used lime mixed with either natural (pozzolana.) or artificial (brick powder)
pozzolanic materials, thus obtaining the well-known composition of cementitious and the
cockapoos as described by Vitruvius (30 BC) (C. Rodríguez-Navarro 2002). Roman lime
kilns have also found in Britain but in the post Roman period there is very little evidence for
lime burning. Lime was used throughout the world by the ancient civilizations as a binding
agent for brick and stone. The concept was brought to Britain in the first century AD by the
Romans, who used the material to produce lime mortar.
Outside Britain, the Romans frequently mixed lime with volcanic ashes, such as pozzolana
from Pozzuoli in Italy, to convert a non-hydraulic lime into hydraulic cement suitable for use
in constructing aqueducts, baths and other buildings. However, in Britain, lime was usually
mixed with artificial pozzolanas, for example crushed burnt clay products such as pottery,
brick and tile. In the eighteenth century, a so called Roman cement was manufactured by the
burning of cement stone (argillaceous or clayey limestone), collected from the coast around
Sheppey and Essex (Lyons Third edition 2007). After the fall of the Roman Empire, natural
and artificial hydraulic limes, including Roman cement, together with traditional air lime
were the most common binders in construction since Byzantine time, though the Middle ages,
Renaissance and Baroque, until the discovery of Portland cement in the early 19th century by
Aspdin (C. Rodríguez-Navarro 2002). Lime mortars were used until the middle of the 20th
century. Portland cement was invented in 1824 but it was expensive and too strong for many
building applications; cement based mortars didn’t fully take over until after the Second
World War with changes in building methods and materials. Lime was, and still is retained as
a minor ingredient to improve workability (Band 09/04/2004). 2.4.3.1.2 Formation of
Limestone Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium and magnesium
carbonate. It is formed by the deposition either of the skeletons of small creatures and/or
plants (organic lime stones), or by chemical precipitation, or by deposition of fragments of
limestone rock, on the beds of seas and lakes. Limestones are contaminated to a greater or
lesser extent by the deposition of sand or clay which is the source of the impurities found in
them. Usually there is a difference in quality in a deposit from one layer to the next. The
purest carbonates and the most suitable from the production point of view tend to be the thick
bedded type. Carbonate deposits may be found in horizontal layers as deposited, or at an
angle from the horizontal due to earth movements. They will vary in density, hardness and
chemical purity (Spiropoulos 1985).
Since pure limestone is rarely found in nature, limestone always contains some impurities in
small or large quantities such as magnesium oxide (MgO), silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum
oxide (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe2O3), sulphur and alkalies. Therefore, lime stones are generally
classified according to the contents of the calcium carbonate and the impurities as high
calcium lime stones, magnesium lime stones and dolomitic lime stones (Spiropoulos 1985).
Limestone’s containing 90 % and more of calcium carbonate are called high calcium lime
stones, the ones containing 10 % and more of magnesium carbonates are magnesium lime
stones and those containing magnesium carbonate over 25 % are called dolomitic lime stones
(ÇİZER July, 2004). 2.4.3.1.3 Production of Lime The production of calcium oxide from
limestone is one of the oldest chemical transformations produced by man. Its use predates
recorded history. Most ancient languages have a word for calcium oxide. In Latin it is calx,
from which the name of the element calcium is taken. In old English, its name is lim, which
is the origin of the modern commercial name for calcium oxide, namely lime. The abundance
of limestone in the Earth's crust and the ease of its transformation to calcium oxide do not
alone explain why the lime is one of the oldest products of chemistry. Lime has many
properties that make it quite valuable (Shakhashiri 2014). Lime is manufactured by calcining
natural calcium carbonate, typically hard rock carboniferous lime stone (Lyons Third edition
2007 ). The first step of lime production required finding a suitable raw material. This
process involved, primarily, discovering calcium carbonate based stones (i.e. limestone or
marble) or seashells. Quarrying techniques had become well advanced during construction of
the great Egyptian pyramids and further advanced during the Roman building era. Ability to
determine the types of stone containing an adequate amount of calcium carbonate involved
trial and error, as well as ages of experimental attempts. Once workable quarries and
materials were located, workmen acquired skills for identifying and extracting suitable
calcium carbonate raw materials (Krumnacher February 5, 2001). The mineral is then
quarried, crushed, ground, washed and screened to the required size range. The limestone is
burnt at approximately 950°C in either horizontal rotary kilns or vertical shaft kilns which
drive off the carbon dioxide to produce quicklime or lump lime (calcium oxide). Quick limes
include calcium limes (CL) and dolomitic limes (DL), depending upon the composition of the
starting mineral (Lyons Third edition 2007). Limestone quarries are usually developed in a
number of benches or lifts. For primary blasting of the limestone, holes are made by drills
operated by compressed air. The excavated limestone is transferred for crushing and grinding.
There are several types of crushing and grinding machines to produce limestone of sizes
suitable for several designs of kilns (Kuenen 2009). During the kiln operations the limestone
reaches temperatures as high as 950 °C, and carbon dioxide is driven off limestone to leave
so called quicklime. The quicklime descends through the cooling zone and is discharged at
the base of the kiln. Obviously, various air pollutants are generated during combustion of
fuels in the kiln. (Kuenen 2009)
There are evidences Lime mortars were widely used in medieval period of Ethiopia. Some of
the evidences are Guzara castle and Susnyos castle around Gondar.
 Dubbed to be the pioneer of the Gondar area castles and thought to have built by Emperor
Sarsa Dengal in 1572, the castle is still an impressive sight, and, although in ruins, is a fine
example of the architectural style of the early Gondarine period, which developed from the
many influences from Central Europe, Turkey, and Portugal. Recognized as a UNESCO
World Heritage Site, Guzara Castle is located in the northeast of Lake Tana, on the road
between Bahir Dar and Gondar, around 25km north of the town of Addis Zemen. The Castle
offers spectacular views over the lake. Its strong walls have stood watching over Lake Tana
for at least four centuries https://visitamhara.travel/destination/guzara-castle

About Roads, space between buildings and compound.

Different respects Fetah Negest put every law of land use and building directives.

በእንተ ፍትሐ ምጣኔ ማዕከለ ሕንጻት ወአትክልት ወለመፈቀደ ብእሲ ከመ ይህንጽ ቅፅረ ይህራቅ እም
ቢጹ አሐተ ምሰጋረ እገር ወለመ ኮነ ቤት ሰብዓተ ምስጋረ እገር ወለእመ ኮነ ክርየት አው ግብ ይኩን
በአምጣነ እመቆሙ ወለእመሰ ኮነ አዘቅት….

ወለእመ ኮኑ፪ቱ አብያት ጽፉቃነ ለይኩን ማእከሊሆሙ ተራኅቆ መጠነ፲ወ፪ ምክያደ እገር፡፡
“About the distance between newly constructing buildings and compound

If someone wants to construct fence shad far from his neighbour one human walk distance fit
it is a House should be seven human waking distance if it well should far from it about its
depth
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Methodology
This study utilizes textual analysis and descriptive methods. Therefore, a close reading and re
reading of the selected manuscripts for the analysis is a major task in the investigation. Thus
the research is basically a library-based study where critical reading of materials available in
different Libraries, observing medieval period Ethiopian constructions interviewing the
concerned bodies about the buildings. Internet and web sites takes the lion’s share in the
organization of data for review of related literature and the analysis. Primary data which are
collected from different Manuscripts during field research will be in use. The secondary data
which are related to the constructions and materials will also be collected which will be used
during the analysis and commentary of the primary data. Then the translation, analysis and
commentary will be carried out with the help of the supporting information which comprises
relevant literature on ancient, medieval and modern construction and materials

3.2 Design of the Study

The methods that this paper has used to collect, transcribe and analyze data are described as
follows. The data are collected from mss. In this study, qualitative data gathering method was
employed.

3.3 Data Collection Tools

To answer the research questions of this study, Observe Manuscript, the researcher was
referring different sources which discuss about Ethiopian Architecture.
3.3.1 Document Analysis
3.3.2 Observation
3.3.3 Interview
3.4 Method of Data Analysis
The Data was processed using qualitative methods and analysis the data in appropriate way
 3.5 Source of Data
This section presents the description of the manuscripts it includes: description of the
structure and of the production techniques; datation and location of the codices; definition of
the writing typologies; identification of the authors and of the texts (Christian, 2009) which
are used as a source of primary research data which are translated, analysed and commented
in the study.
They are presented being divided into published and unpublished sources

3.5.1 Unpublished manuscripts

3.5.1.1 Life of our father Zä-Mika᾽el ᾽Arägawi
-Language: Geez
-Material: Parchment
-Size: 20 x 20 x 3.5 cm
-Folios: 4 (I-IV), 68 -
- Lines ፡16-18

- Columns ፡ 2
-Location: Monastery of Gunda Gunde

3.5.1.2 The Judgment of Kings (Fetha Nagast)

-Wooden boards covered with leather and plain cloth over-sleeve
-Forms part of: Robert Garrett Collection of Ethiopic Manuscripts
-Language: Geez
-Material: Parchment
-Size: 13.5 x 23.5
-Folios: 151
-Columns፡ 3

- Lines ፡30-32

- Columns ፡ 2
Location: MSS Garrett Ethiopic Manuscripts no. 10
3.5.2 Published manuscripts
3.5.2.1 Chronicle of sysenyose (history of King Sysneose)
3.5.2.2 Feslalygose
3.5.2.3 Chronicles of Lalibla
3.5.2.3 Qéne- Abut building constructions
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Construction is an ancient human activity that dates as far back as 400 BC. It started from
using constructed materials to produce shelters for regulating the effect of climates on
humans.(Hansen,juanaru21,2013)
This chapter presents the translation, analysis and commentary of excerpts discovered from
different Geez literature sources on construction materials Based on the objective of the study
In this study, the collected data from different sources are analysed thematically. The
materials used in the medieval period of Ethiopia, wood, stone limestone, and water.
Now a days in the modern technology the above mentioned materials are currently used
widely in different modifications

4.1 Wood as construction materials;

Wood is a versatile organic material, and the only renewable construction material. Wooden
structures have certain properties that make them durable and strong. With an adequate fire
retardant treatment, wood can be a reliable construction material with a long service life. In
modern technology woods used for along period of time with in artificial treatment, but in
Ethiopia there are wooden structure with stone masonry stayed for a long period of time and
still in service. For instance, there are set of evidences that support wood as construction
materials Gedle Abune Aregawi, states that:- when king G/mesqel start to build a church

“ወሶቢሃ አዘዘ ንጉስ ዕድወ ኃያላነ እለ ይገዝሙ እፅወ ወእለ ያስተጋብኡ አእባነ ወኃሠሠ እድወ ጠቢባነ

ወለብዊያነ እለ የአምሩ ሐኒጸ Gädlä ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi (ff.51va) Translation

‘’Within a time king G/ Meskel ordered adults who have an ability to cut woods and gather
stones and also he was searching mindful and knowledgeable adults who have a great skill in
buildings.” The text states one of the basic materials for construction to construct a church is
wood or timber. The citation shows Atse G/Mesekel was constructing Däbrä Damo church
with wood and stone the church in debre damo still in service is constructed by composition
of wood and stone without mortar.
The monastery located in the northern part of the country, Tigray State, was believed to have
been built during the reign of King Gebre Meskel in the 6th century AD. It is on a rising
plateau of trapezoidal shape, about 1,000 by 400 meters in dimension, and an elevation of
2,216 meters above sea level.
 Acordingly Gädlä Abunä Arägawie.- This historical monastery is founded by Abba
ZeMichael, the son of Constantinople king Issac and Queen Edna, in the 6th century. Abba
ZeMichael was one of the Nine Saints who came from Syria to Ethiopia to preach
Christianity. The other 8 saints call him Aregawi in Geez language, which means ‘The Elder’
because he was too wise in his childhood. To facilitate the construction the church, the king
also ordered to construct steps or stair case using wood.it describes in the Gadele Aregawi

like this:-ወካዕበ አዘዘ ከመ ይግበር መንኰራኲራተ ሠረገላት ከመ መዓርጋተ ጽርኅ በዕፅ ወእብን ወየአክል

ግደሙ ፯ በእመት በዘየአርጉ ቦቱ ሰብእ ወእንስሳ ጸዊሮሙ ዕፀወ ፤ ወማየ ወሐነጻ በክብር በብዙኅ ዕፀው

ዘመንክር ርእየቱ ዘያስተፌስሕ ወይሰልብ አልባበ ወተፈጸመ ሕንጸታ በ፪ አመት ”In addition the king
ordered to construct elevator or stair case with wood and stone that measures 7 human arms
by its width, on which animal and human beings transport ups and downs by caring stones,
wood and water, so he built the church with glory by using lot woods (Timbers) admirable
when we see, that makes human beings more happy and hearty passionate. And the
construction has been completed within two Years” The above stated texts indicates or an
evidence the use of wood as a basic construction material in the construction of Däbrä Damo
church .It also shows the completion time of the project. Gǝʼǝz texts recorded and transferred
from generation to generation wood used as construction materials before a long period of
time in Ethiopia with amazing architectural style and technology.
Fig 1 Wooden ceiling with carved animals at Abunä Arägawie church at Däbrä Damo
Wood is arguably the oldest construction material as it has been in use. It is naturally
available and cost-efficient, strong and durable, and flexible in all senses. It can be bent,
moulded, or cured into desirable shapes. Other than its durability, wood is an environmentally
sustainable material. We can use wood for commercial and residential buildings, and it works
well with other materials. It functionally works well with steel, marble, and aluminium.
Compared to other construction materials, wood is relatively light and easy to standardize in
size. It has high tensile strength and is good in soundproofing and insulation.
In the other side Gädlä ʼAbunä ᾽Arägawi states about the construction and demolition of stair
case (elevator) structure which was constructed from wood and stone. The activities are

stated in Gädlä ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi as: ወእነዘ ይወርድ ንጉስ እምደብር ይቤሎ ለአቡነ አረጋዊ እኅድግኑ

ዘንተ መዓገ ወሚመ እደምስስኑ ወአውስአ አቡነ አረጋዊ ወይቤሎ ደምስስ ኪያሁሰ ወኢትሕድግ ወገብረ

ሐብለ ህየንቲያሁ ለአርዌ ምደር ወዘየአርጉ ቦቱ ከመ ይኩን ተዝካረ ለትዉልደ ትዉልድ ወከመ የሴባሕ

በአፈ ኩሉ ዘርእየ ዘንተ ተአምረ፡፡ወእምድሕረ ወረደ ደምሰሰ ውእቱ መዓርገ ወገብረ ሐብለ በከመ አዘዞ

አቡነ ወበእነተዝ ተብሕለ ደብረ ዳኅመሞ፡፡ Gädlä ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi (ff.53ra)

Translation
"At the time of going down from the cliff, the king asked ʼAbunä ᾽Arägawi whether stay as
it is or dismantle the stair. But ʼAbunä ᾽Arägawi answered please destroy the stair case
/Elevator/ do not leave as it is, rather replace it by the rope use to climbing up the cliff and for
the memory of snake for the next generation in order to ….. Admire by all people who visit
this miracle. After the king draw down destroy the stair case and replace by the rope as the
order of ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi because of this the monastery called monastery of miracle “Debre
Dahmimo”.
The above expiration shows the technology which was practiced in Ethiopia more than
thousand years ago. -------
The manuscript also emphasizes the above expiration in the following way: - ʼAbuä
᾽Arägawi praised God… saying ‘Hale Luyah to God the Father, Hale Luyah to God the Son,
Hale Luyah to God the Holy Spirit. Due to this, the monastery was first known as ‘Debre
Haleluyah’. Gedle Abune Aregawi describes briefly how the name was later changed to
‘Debre Dame’. The name used to date. At the very beginning, people living around the
monastery built long chains of staircases from stone and wood up to the top so that they can
access the monastery on foot. One day when King Gebremeskel was there for a celebration
and discussed with ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi about the staircases, ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi requested the
removal of the staircases and use of ropes made of animal skin in order to memorize how
ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi was pulled up by the serpent. He literally requested in Geez in such words
“Wawse’A Abune Aregawi We Yibelo Dahmimo Luwetuse” (meaning ‘in order to remember
how ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi was taken up, let’s destroy the staircases’). The king immediately
destroyed the staircases and replaced them with fur ropes. From the words of ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi
‘Dahmimo’ (Destroy it) came the present-day Damo to be a name of the monastery, Debre
Dahmimo later developed into Debre Damo. (Gädlä Abunä Argäwi)
Fig 2 ʼAbuä ᾽Arägawi church
In the other Gǝʼǝz literature wood also recorded as a construction materials chronicle of

susenyose stats that:- …ወረሰዩ ቆመ አረፋቲሃ መጠነ ፭ እመት፡፡ ወግድማሂ ኮነ መጠነ ፴፫ በእመት

አው ዘይበዝኅ፡፡ ወላዕለ ውእቱ አረፋት አንበሩ ሰረገላተ ግዙፋነ እምዕፀወ ጽሕድ፡፡ …ወበላዕሌሆሙ ጸፍጻፉ

ረሰዮሙ ስፍሓነ አምሳለ ሰሌዳ ወጸሪቦሙ እምዕፅ ዘኢይነቅዝ፡፡ወከመኒ ኢይዘረው ውእቱ ጸፍጸፈ ቤት

አስተላጸቅዎ በበቅትራተ ኀፂን እስከ ተወሐደ፡፡(History of susenyose Pag:55).

Translation
‘‘They made the building 5 human arm high and the width of 33 human arms and
above. Over the columns they laid beams/ thick wooden logs /made of wood the
so called “Tid”, and over those beams they put non decayed wooden boards as a
slab. In order to not pull apart those wooden boards nailed with metallic fasteners
up to fastened each other. Wooden logs used as a beam and wooden boards and
timbers as reinforcement bars by fixing together to carry live loads and dead loads
by transferring to the foundation through columns/walls’’
The citation shows us timber or wood is a material that is used for a variety of
structural forms such as beams, columns, trusses, girders, in the medieval of
Ethiopia and now a day it is also used in building systems such as piles, deck
 members, and railway sleepers and in formwork for concrete. There are a number
of inherent characteristics that make timber an ideal construction material.
The chronicle emphasized types of woods used for the construction purpose that are not
easily decayed and rusted. The text also shows wood technology especially in selection of
types of wood as a construction materials by its strength, durability and exposure decay.

Wuadsie Mariam Sunday --- ታቦት በወርቅ ልቡጥ እምኵለሄ ዘግቡር እምዕፅ ዘኢይነቅዝ--- “the

ark alloyed with gold ---- which is made from wood will not be decayed …”

4.2 Stone /Rock/ as Main construction material  

Throughout scripture, rocks are commonly referred to as a symbol of God's reliability and
strength. The Bible advises that we build our houses and lives upon the stable rock that is
God's love, wisdom and salvation. Rocks are interlaced with the idea of refuge, a place to
escape the tumultuous hardships of the earth. The term or phrase “the rock’ is more than just
a word that describes an earthly element. It is typically about a Person and more often than
not, it describes Jesus Christ and you see this symbolism in the Old Testament as well as in
the New Testament when referring to either Jesus Christ or God in general. The word “rock”
is used 142 times in the Bible but it is more often a reference to God than any other instance.
Rock is a solid cumulative of minerals located in the earth’s lithosphere. They have been used
by mankind through history as a basic construction material. (Jack Wellman 14, 2015)
The psalmist speaks of Jesus as እብን ዘመነንዋ ነደቅት ወይእቲ ኮነት ውስተ ርዕሰ ማዕዘት “The
stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone” (Psalm 118:22) which Jesus also
quotes about Himself in Matthew 21:42. Peter testified before the rulers, elders, and scribes
that “This Jesus is the stone that was rejected by you, the builders, which has become the
cornerstone” In the bible Stone or rock also stated as an example of man created from it.

Isaiah states stone: ስምዑኒ ኩልክሙ እለ ትዴግንዎ ለጽድቅ ወእለ ትሐሥሥዎ ለእግዚአብሔር ርእይዋ

ለኰኵክሕ ጽንዕት እንተ ወቀርክሙ ወአዘቅተ እምቅተ እንተ ከረይክሙ ርእይዎ ለአብርሐም አቡክሙ

ወለሳራሂ እንተ ሐመመት በእንቲአክሙ እስመ አሐዱ ውዕቱ ወጸዋእክዎ ወባረክዎ ወአፍቀርክዎ

ወአብዘኅክዎ፡፡(ትንቢተ ኢሳኢያስ (ምዕ፡51፡1) Translation

‘Isaiah tells the people of Judah to look to the “rock from which you were hewn, and to the
cistern from which you were dug” (Isaiah 51:1). The next verse makes it clear that he is
talking about Abraham and Sarah. Abraham the father is the rock; mother Sarah is the cistern
or well from which they were pulled’’. The citation shows man created from rock since a
rock is the source of soil by weathering action. There are huge variations within each type of
rocks, depending on their engineering properties rocks have been used in various construction
works. Rocks are extremely important in terms of their stability and strength as a geological
material on which construction foundation are made. In all around the world ,stones and
rocks were the first building blocks use to make structures and even today they are the most
important source for building materials after wood.
Lalibäla

In mediaeval Ethiopia Lalibäla is famous for its extensive use of building stoner/rock/,so

chronicle of Lalibäla starting from page 55 states that:- ስምዑኬ ኦፍቁራንየ እንግርክሙ ዘከመ ኮነ

ግብረ ፀአቶን ለእላንቱ አብያተ ክርስቲያናት እምልበ ምደር በእደ ላሊበላ ልዑለ ዝክር ወዘከመ ገብረ እፎ

ግብረ ሕንፃሆን ኮነ እንበለ ዕፅ ወመሬት ወዘእንበለ አሕባለ ጠፈር ወመዋጽሕት … ወሶበ በጽሐ ጊዜሁ

ከመ ይተከሰታ ኵሎን አብያተ ክርስቲያናት ዓስርቱ ዘእምአሐቲ እብን …፡፡

“Please listen to me my lovers let me tell you the happening and hewn out of churches from
the heart of the earth by the hand of commemorative Lalibäla and done how the construction
of churches performed without woods and soil and without beam and column ---when the
time is reach to be open all ten churches from one stone’’ From the above citation we can

observe advanced technology especial skill in construction. The phrase it says: - …ዘከመ ኮነ

ግብረ ፀአቶን ለእላንቱ አብያተ ክርስቲያናት እምልበ ምደር… ‘’the happening and hewn out of
churches from the heart of the earth’’ This phrase needs commentary (andemeta) to know the
especial architecture of Ethiopia.

---አስተፋጥን ሐኒጾቶን ወናሁ አዘዝክወሙ ለመላዕክትየ ከመ ይርድኡከ ወላሊበላሰ አግበረ ሐጻዉንተ

ብዙኃ ዘዘዚአሆን ግብረቶን ቦለጸሪብኒ ወቦ ኃፂን ለወቂር ዘንተ ኵሎ ሐጸዉንተ ዘንተ ገብረ ወካልአንኒ

ብዙኀተ ሐፃዉንተ ገብረ በዘይትፌጸም ሕንጻ መቅደስ ዘእምአሐቲ ኵክሕ፡ ---

“Be fast for construction now I will order my eagles to help you, So Lalibla has constructed
many buildings that have one differ from the other by its construction style a mason has
metallic material for dressing stones. Those all building constructed and other many buildings
competed buildings churches constructed from a single rock.”
The citation address Churches or buildings can construct from a single stone/rock/ even
without other additional construction materials. Also it describes the tools used during
construction processes which is a metallic tool or machine the activities also used and
supported spiritual knowledge that is utopia so it is supported by differ writers among them
(Utopia and Ethiopia: The Chronicles of Lalibela as Critical Reflection BY MAYMERY MENA SEMAYE ).
Lalibela he name of a thirteenth-century century monarch (ca. 1185- 1225) as well as the
name of the place where he had large churches hewn out of the rock. According to Doresse,
the Lalibela churches, "hewn in one piece out of the living rock," exude "a perfection of
style." Doresse describes the process: The architectural skill required to work this massive
rock was of an incredibly high order. The effect obtainable by this technique would be
impossible to imitate except in reinforced concrete. First, the shape of the exterior was
outlined in the rock by means of a huge trench excavated all round, leaving the main block
standing entirely below ground level in the midst of a kind of a vast quarry. The sides of this
block were then carved in the form of perpendicular buttresses, sometimes varied to give the
effect of a colonnade or a wall with bays, perhaps showing a cornice or an imitation roof, flat
or gabled. Then the interior had to be hollowed out and suitably carved. There was no
particular necessity to make the inside correspond with the plan of the exterior; the naves,
once they were carved out as required, could be given a vaulted roof in any shape or form,
thus producing the effect of an intricate series of arches which would never have stayed up in
any normal construction. The artists and craftsmen . . . showed considerable ingenuity and
skill in the endless variety and blending of forms that characterize their buildings. Though
hewn out of the same rock, each of the churches has its own distinct style, expressing "the
sure touch of genius." The churches of Lalibela, writes Doresse, "seem to embody a new
spiritual concept which it is not easy to interpret." However, Doresse does not enucleate this
"new spiritual concept." Nevertheless, his comments suggest that Lalibela constitutes an
event that cannot be reduced to the conditions of its emergence. As I will argue below,
Lalibela is not simply a collection of rock-hewn churches. It expresses a Utopian impulse to
transform nature into culture, pointing to the possibility of an alternative Ethiopia, and thus
opening the door to critical reflection. (Maimire Mennasemay;26;10:2015)
 Fig 2 Bete Geyorgise rock hewn chuch (Lalibla)

In medieval Ethiopia stone used as construction materials around in 16th century how the
construction activities operated how and from were materials transported selection of types of

stones and masons. All these operations well recorder in Gǝʼǝz literatures, one of them is

History of Susenyose, so it states:- …ወአሜሃ እንዘ ይትረድኡ ኀይለ እግዚአብሔር እሉ ጠቢባነ

ግብጽ ወሮም፣ ወጠቢባነ ኢትዮጵያ ወጠኑ አስተሣንዮተ ምድራ ወአስተራትዖተ ጎጻጉጻጺሃ እስከ ረሰይዋ

ርትዕተ ወጽይሕተ ወርብዕት ይእቲ፡፡ ወአስተናደፉ ህየ መሠረታቲሃ ወከረዩ አዕሚቆሙ መጠነ ፭ እመት፤

ዝኒ በዘባነ ኰኵሕ ጽኑዕ አእሚሮሙ ምዕዳነ መጽሐፍ ዘይብል፡፡ ዘሰ ሐነጸ ቤቶ ዲበ ኰኵሕ እመ ነፍሑ

ነፋሳት ውሕዙ አፍላግ ወገፍዕዎ ለውእቱ ቤት፤ ኢይክል ይደቅ እስመ ተሣረረ ዲበ ኰኵሕ ወአኮ ላዕለ

ኆፃ፡፡/የሲስንዮሰ ታሪክ ምእ፷፰/

Translation
“At that time with the support of God those craft men making clear and suitable the
site by clearing and removing bushes and trees. After making the site clear and
suitable, they excavate the foundation of a building about 5 human arms deep up to
they found the bed of hard stable rock. Because they have knowledge about the book
it says “wise man who built his house on the rock. And the rain fell, the floods came,
 and the winds blew and beat on that house, but it did not fall, because it had been
founded on the rock rather than on the sand”. /Mat.7:24/
From this citation we can understand at that time Ethiopian feat of materials and
basic foundation engineering. And also it shows the foundation engineering of bible
in respect to spiritual teachings. In modern construction technology foundation of
buildings and other constructions rock bed and non-expansive soil type is the first
choice, because of it is stability and has high carrying capacity of different types of
designed loads.
…ወግብረ ሕንጻሃኒ ኮነ በኑራ ወበአእባን ፀዓድዒዳን እለ ይመስሎ በረደ ወይኤድም ሥኖሙ

እምእብነ ርኳም፡፡
The construction method of a building is with lime mortar and stones white seems
like a snow and more attractive than a stone the so called “Requam”
This text or manuscript point out stones used as a construction materials in different
way from Lalibela rock hewn church construction methods, selecting white and very
attractive stones dressed in good conditions

3.2 Lime as construction materials

Most historic and traditional masonry mortars were made with lime. Currently, lime has
become one of the principal materials used in the conservation and restoration of historic
buildings. Lime is probably the most versatile structural binder available and can be modified
to suit a range of diverse uses and exposures. Quality lime mortars do not contain elements
capable of forming harmful salts and are generally more compatible with masonry fabrics
than artificial cements. Mortar can be classified according to its particular function.
Functional requirements of mortar can be configured in two categories. Those intended to
protect the masonries against climatic or environmental actions (render and plaster), and
those whose primary aim is to contribute to the structural stability of the masonry (joint
bedding and re pointing). Mortar can also be classified according to the binder used; mortar
made with lime based binder (lime mortar) and mortar made with cement based binder
(cement mortar) (Ngoma, Characterisation and Consolidation of Historical Lime Mortars in
Cultural Heritage Buildings November 2009). The binder affects the physical and chemical
properties of the mortar, its strength, how quickly it hardens or sets, and its reaction with
surrounding materials (Mitchell July 2007).
Most of Gonderian constructions including bridges castles constructed with abiding material
called lime mortar these construction materials are recorded in G

Geez literatures shows as Ethiopia has been used lime mortar widely in the medieval period

of Ethiopia. Chronicle of susenyos states …ዳእሙ እሙንቱ ይትባደሩ ወይትቃደሙ ለጸዊረ አእባን

ወኑራ እንዘ ይትፈስሑ ወይትኀሠዩ ከመ ይትፌሣሕ መስተገብር በወርኃ ማእረር፡-

Translation
… ‘’Workers were competing and racing for the carrying of stones and lime mortar with
great happiness and moral as farmer enjoy with his successful farm during cultivation.’’
We can understand from this citation lime used as construction material and transported far
from the site and also it shows the activities, and motivation workers. Ssusnyose castle were
constructed by using locally produced lime. There are evidences Lime mortars were widely
used in medieval period of Ethiopia. Some of the evidences are Guzara castle and Susnyos
castle around Gondar.This manuscript teach us our societies were use lime mortar before
Portland cement is produced
Plan susenyose castele
Fig 3 Ruin of Sysinyos Castel, Deqez (Google Earth).

…ወግብረ ሕንጻሃኒ ኮነ በኑራ ወበአእባን ፀዓድዒዳን እለ ይመስሎ በረደ ወይኤድም ሥኖሙ

እምእብነ ርኳም፡፡ …ወከመኒ ኢይዘረው ውእቱ ጸፍጸፈ ቤት አስተላጸቅዎ በበቅትራተ ኀፂን እስከ

ተወሐደ፡፡ ወለውእቱ ጸፍጸፍ ቀብእዎ ወመረግዎ ኑራ እስከ ኮነ ምድረ ይሣርሩ ቦቱ ቤተ ዳግማየ፡፡

/የሲስንዮሰ ታሪክ ምእ፷፰/

Translation

“The super structure of a building is constructed with lime mortar and white
stones seems like a snow and more attractive than a stone the so called ‘Reqwam”.
In order to not pull apart those wooden boards nailed with metallic fasteners up to
fastened each other. Over those wooden boards paint and plastered with lime
mortar up to it becomes for the second floor to continue the next story.”
The text recorded how Engineers apply proper mix design to use lime ether as mortar to bind
stone masonries together and as concrete to construct first and second floor slab of acastel.
Multi-story buildings can also construct with lime stone and wood. From the description of
the text can understand material quality, colour, architectural beauty and strength by using
exemplary items. That means white like snow more striking than a stone the so called
“Requam’’
እምእብነ ርኳም “Requam’’
Quartz (Sio2) is the most abundant and widely distributed mineral found at Earth's surface. It is
present and plentiful in all parts of the world. It forms at all temperatures. It is abundant in igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. It is highly resistant to both mechanical and chemical
weathering. This durability makes it the dominant mineral of mountaintops and the primary
constituent of beach, river and desert sand. Quartz is ubiquitous, plentiful and durable. Minable
deposits are found throughout the world Uses Glass making, abrasive, foundry sand, hydraulic
fracturing proppant, gemstones (http://geology.com/ 2015). Transparent to translucent

…ወአዘዞ ካዕበ ኢያኀንጽ ዘንተ በአግሮተ ነዳያን ከመ ቀዳማውን ነገስታት ዝንቱሰ ንጉስ መሲሓዊ አዘዘ

ይኩኑ መስተገብራነ ቤት ዘውእቶሙ ሐዋርያተ ማይ ወሐጣቢያነ ዕፅ ወጸዋርያነ አእባን ወሐራጽያነ ኑራ፡፡

ዘንተ ወዘይመስሎ ዘይገብሩ ያስተጋብእ እደ ወአንስተ እለ ይነስኡ ዓስቦሙ አምጣነ ተቀንዩ በከመ ይቤ

ወንጌል ይደልዎ ዓስቡ ለዘ ይትቀነይ ወዝኩኒ ገብረ ክረስቶስ አስተጋብአ ሰብአ ዘይነስኡ አሰቦሙ ዘይበዝሑ

እም አሰርቱ ምእት ወበእሉ ፈጸመ ሕንጻ ቤት ወእሙንቱሂ ኮኑ ብዑላነ ዘነበሩ ቀዳሚ ፅኑሳነ፡፡/የሲስንዮሰ

ታሪክ ምእ፷፰/
“…And also ordered him not to force labourers to work without wages like previous kings,
but the king ordered those labours be builder of the building by fetching water, preparing
wood caring stones and mixing lime mortar. Those who can do the work collect man and
women who can payed as their work as Gospel says It is necessary to pay for a man for his
work. G/kristose Gather peoples who can take his wage more than one thousand by those
completed the building and peoples become rich who were poor before.”
The above source shows us the basic construction materials used in the process and method
of construction for the Royal palace walls were by stone masonry. The abundant type of
construction materials which were used during the construction of the Royal Palace was
mainly by Basaltic Rock and Pumice with a Local name of “Beha Dingay” and used
astatically very attractive stones.
The text mentioned experts in each item of work for example mix designers called

indigenous limestone mortar administrator related to mixing ratio, (ሐራጽያነ ኑራ). Those are
experts in designing mortar and concrete mix. That means proportioning the amount of lime,
sand and water which is basic operation for strength and durability of building constructions.
In connection with the above describe Gǝ’ǝz texts (Eskender desta 2015); study about
binding martials of Gondar royal places by taken and Extracted lime and examining in
Ethiopian Geological Survey Laboratory.So the type of binding material which was used
during the construction of the Royal palace was also identified as lime (CaO). Or by its local
name Nora. And also the method of construction was by stone masonry .It is clear that lime
and gypsum have always been functionally important materials in building, and in the light of
recent archaeological investigation, it appears that these materials are equally important
historically. And they are important not only in building history but in the general history of
mankind.
The oldest uses of lime exploit its ability to react with carbon dioxide to regenerate calcium
carbonate. When lime is mixed with water and sand, the result is mortar, which is used in
construction to secure bricks, blocks, and stones together. At room temperature, the reaction
of lime with carbon dioxide is very slow. It is accelerated by mixing lime with water. When
lime is mixed with water, it forms calcium hydroxide, called slaked lime. From the total
mineralogical composition of the binding material, which is extracted from the original wall
of the Royal palace; Calcium oxide (CaO) covers 18.70 % of the total mineralogical
composition.

Chemical composition of mortar samples from the main palace wall (%wt.)

Oxide formula Shorthand notation Cement

Original binding
 material (lime)
based
CaO C 64.5 18.7
SiO2 S 17.945 35.46
Al2O3 A 4.4 7.98
Fe2O3 F 3.5 11.02
MgO M 3.7 5.48
K2O + Na2O k+N 1.2 2.65
Others ___ 0.2664 2.22
H2o H   5.12
By Eskinder Desta Shumuye and Gashaw Assefa Bezabih, year. Durability Issue for the
Royal Palace in Gondar (Ethiopia)
When lime is mixed with water, it forms calcium hydroxide, called slaked lime:
CaO + H 2 O → Ca (OH)2 (1)
The reaction of calcium hydroxide with carbon dioxide is faster, forming mortar mixture that
gains strength more quickly.
Ca (OH)2 + CO 2 → CaCO 3 + H 2 O (2)

Lime is a calcium product that is composed of calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

It is the civil engineering material that is used for binding two or more mineral materials.
Cement is the binding material that is composed of calcium, silicon, aluminium, iron and
many other materials.It is mostly used as a binding material throughout the world because of
its qualities like high compressive strength, setting time, etc.
Cement is mostly used in the preparation of cement mortar, cement concrete and cement
ghola (a mixture of cement + water).Developed in 1824, cement mortar, or Portland cement,
is a combination of calcined hard limestone and clay that is heated a second time. When
compared to lime, Portland cement had the ability to attain much quicker setting times.
Though its long terms strength is lower than natural elements, cement mortar has a quick
initial strength that made it ideal for use during the Industrial Revolution. Because of its high
strength and quick set time, lime mortars were almost completely phased out by the mid-
20th-century.
When lime is produced it releases carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, while lime mortar
absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere over the course of its life. For this reason,
environmentalists consider lime mortar to be “carbon neutral.” Cement production, in
contrast, contributes substantially to global warming, as it releases a significant amount of
carbon dioxide during production.

Difference between Lime and Cement  

The difference between lime and cement is:
S.N. Lime Cement

1 It is less susceptible to tcracking. It is more susceptible to tcracking.

2 It is less brittle. It is more brittle.

3 It is white or greyish in colour. It is greenish-grey in colour.

4 It slakes when wetted with water. It does not slake when wetted with water.

It sets slowly when mixed with

5 It sets rapidly when mixed with water.
water.

6 It delays the construction. No delay in construction as compared to lime.

7 It possesses less strength. It possesses high strength.

8 It allows vapour to pass through. It does not allow vapour to escape.

It helps to reduce moisture and

It can absorb water causing moisture to
9 improve the environment of the
accumulate especially in the basement.
home.

Its production does not cause Its production greatly leads to global
10
global warming like cement. warming.

It has less embodied energy than

11 It has embodied energy.
cement.
 It is possible to manufacture lime It is impossible to manufacture cement on a
12
on a small scale. small scale.

Its binding strength is less

13 It has strong binding properties than lime.
compared to cement.

Lime hardens slowly when mixed The cement hardens quickly when mixed in a
14
in producing mortar. mortar.

It cannot be used for important and It can be used for important and heavy
15
heavy engineering structures. engineering structures.

16 It is cheaper. It is expensive.
In general  
In terms of cost and environment; lime is best. It doesn’t lead to the
production of harmful gases and contributes to controlling global warming.
It is also possible to produce lime in small quantities. Hence, it is also
economical to produce.
Now a days in the modern construction technology engineers design different in strength
concrete structures for different purposes

4.4 Water as construction material

Water is one of the most important elements in construction but people still ignore quality
aspect of this element. The water is required for preparation of mortar, mixing of cement
concrete and for curing work etc during construction proses. Chronicles of susenyose states: -

… ዘውእቶሙ ሐዋርያተ ማይ ወሐጣቢያነ ዕፅ ወጸዋርያነ አእባን ወሐራጽያነ ኑራ፡

“Those who fetched water, carpenters, stone dressers and lime mortar mixers …”
Water used as construction materials basically for mixing and preparing mortars. The amount
of water added in abiding mix (water/binding material) has a great influence in strength and
durability of buildings.

Water has the greatest share in human life and all living things. According to Thomas Nelson
and Sons, Versions.1901 Ju.3:3-7) Bible English, New and Old Testament, Vol. 4:1094) “
Jesus Christ at about the age of 30, John the Baptist went into the country around the Jordan
River preaching penance to prepare for the imminent coming of the Messiah.”
His baptism with water indicates that Christians use water to wash their body likewise
baptism is for their soul. This will pave way for Christians to become the children of God

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Conclusion
This paper is intended to examine selected Gǝ’ǝz texts In Ethiopia, we have many
manuscripts in church, monasteries, government archive, and Libraries. They are many in
number, and by their content. We can concluded in this paper the selected manuscripts
explained about Architecture, construction materials and their production methods. From this
finding the researcher conclude, Ethiopian Gǝ’ǝz manuscripts directly or indirectly
mentioned technological matters in addition to spiritual aspects.
Most of Medieval Ethopian buildings and heritage studies focused and use the data either
visual inspection of buildings or archaeological investigations and laboratory tests without
considering Gǝ’ǝz manuscripts which were scribed at the time of construction, from the
research I concluded that to study medieval Ethiopian buildings, examining building related
Gǝ’ǝz texts is very essential. Because the documents are more or less recorded parallel to the
construction activity of buildings, so using those document as research data more reliable
than others. Specially to produce previous binding materials (lime mortar) for today. This
thesis examined the textual analysis of the excerpts from the manuscripts of selected Gǝ’ǝz
literatures. I concluded that: - Ethiopian medieval buildings have site diary recorded in Gǝ’ǝz
language which answered the question who designed and directed the operation, who were
the masons?
  The study also indicates that medieval Ethiopian constructions Engineers and
builders perform the activities with planed schedule that means they put duration to
complete a specific building.

 Manuscripts confirm the buildings are constructed by indigenous knowledge.

 In terms of cost and environment; medieval building materials (lime) is best. It

doesn’t lead to the production of harmful gases and contributes to controlling global
warming.

 Modern or currently used construction materials are the derivatives medieval

construction materials.

 Finally, the study direct us to produce durable and less energy intensive construction
materials in small scale especially lime or cement by the method or technique used
in the medieval period of Ethiopia.

One of the most apparent differences between the old buildings and the current ones is the
use of materials

It may also a base for our day today activities particularly for the technological innovations of
new building materials.

5.2. Recommendations
Many Gǝ’ǝz manuscripts states much about the architecture and constructions but they are
still unstudied. Because of inaccessibility and lack skill in Gǝ’ǝz language what the
researcher recommends is:

 A great number of Ethiopic Mss, including royal chronicles are preserved in the
monasteries and churches as well as great library of foreign countries. These Mss
must be digitized and catalogued to protect from natural and artificial disasters as
well as to facilitate for researchers and put domestic library to access the research.

 Gǝ’ǝz language schools must be supported and spread with a better teaching quality
as much as possible.
 Gǝ’ǝz manuscripts must be studied and translated in into other Ethiopian languages
to attract domestic researchers as well as to understand historical civilization of
Ethiopia especially in ancient and medieval Ethiopian buildings still ambiguous to
confirm how they were constructed.

 Engineers must be critically focuses and examine how the over lasting cheap
construction materials produced and used in medieval period of Ethiopia, because
study may leads minor investors and local societies to produce specifically less
energy intensive binding materials(lime mortar/nora) by using widely available local
materials all over our country as large factory produced cement is becoming
unaffordable.
Reference;
 Esteves,Pereira . (1892). Chironica de Susenyos. Rei de Ethiopia. Harvard College
Library
 Taddese Tamrat. (1986). Church and state in Ethiopia 1270-1527(unpublished thesis
submitted for the degree of Ph.D.). University of London, London.

 Eskinder Desta Shumuye and Gashaw Assefa Bezabih. (2019). Durability Issue for

the Emperor Fasiladas Royal Palace in Gondar (Ethiopia).

 Germa Gelaye (2016) Abay through Written Literature of Ethiopia (addis Abeba)
 Kedir Endris. (2018). The Palace Of Guzara And Its Environs: Its Heritage
Management And Conservation (unpublished M.A Thesis). Addis Ababa University,
Addis Ababa.
 Maimire Mennasemay (2015) Utopia and Ethiopia: The Chronicles of Lalibela as Critical
Reflection, Michigan State University Press.

 የንጉስ ሲስንዮስ ዜና መዋዕል (History of King Sysnyose ) ምእራፍ ፰፰

 ገድለ ኣቡነ ኣረጋዊን (Life of our father Zä-Mika᾽el ᾽Arägawi) Gunda gundie digital
manuscripts f53v –f60r
 መጽሐፈ አክሲማሮስ (Mäşǝhafä Āksimaros) EMML-Call.No-8875

 ገደለ ላሊበላ (Anonyme. Vie de Lalibala, roi d'Ethiopie : texte éthiopien.... 1892.)