Unit-1 Introduction To Computer

Computer:
Computer is an electronic device which takes input (data) processes it and then produces an
output (data). The output can be stored in memory.
Computing devices:
Abacus:
It was the first device used in Asia for computing 5000 years ago. Computation was done by
sliding beads arranged on a rack.
Leibniz
It was a digital mechanical calculator invented by the German mathematician Gottfried
Wilhelm Von Leibniz around 1672 and completed in 1694. Leibniz‘s mechanical multiplier
worked by a system of dials and gears.
Difference Engine:
In 1822 an English Professor of Mathematics, Charles Babbage proposed a machine to
perform differential equations called Difference Engine.
Analytical Engine:
10 years after making Difference Engine, Babbage begins to work on first general purpose
computer called Analytical Engine.
Tabulating Machine:
The tabulating machine was an electromechanical machine designed to easily compute
information stored on punched cards. Invented by Herman Hollerith, the machine was
developed to help process data for the 1890 U.S. Census.
Calculator:
Vannevar Bush developed a Calculator for solving differential equations in 1931. The
machine could solve complex differentials.
All-Electronic Computer:
In 1940, John V. Atanasoff, a professor at Lowa State College and his graduate student,
Clifford Berry, invented All All-Electronic Computer that applied Boolean algebra to
computer circuitry.
Z3:
In 1941 German Engineer Kennard Zuse had developed a computer called Z3 to design
airplanes and missiles.

Mark I / Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator:

In 1944, Howard H. Aiken, a Harvard Engineer invented All-Electronic Calculator called
Mark I , which used electromagnetic signals to move mechanical parts to solve basic
arithmetic and more complex equation.
ENIAC:
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) were developed by John Prosper
Eckert and John W.Mauchy. ENIAC was general purpose computer and 1000 times faster
than Mark I.
EDVAC:
In 1945, Von Neumann designed Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
(EDVAC), which had memory to hold both a stored program and data.

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UNIVAC-I:
In 1951, Remington Rand, built the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), which
became the first commercial computer.
Modern Computing Devices:
The invention of transistor in 1948 is considered as a revolution because in digital computer
like ENIAC it quickly replaced the vacuum tubes.
The invention of IC (Integrated Circuit) started in the year 1958. In an IC millions of
transistors can be created and interconnected. The development of IC speeds up the process
of manufacturing the computer and also reducing the size and its cost. The early super
computers were based on transistors.
In 1971, Intel introduced Intel 4004, the first commercially available single chip
microprocessor. This was considered as the first single chip microprocessor in computer
history. This CPU was designed for calculators.
In 1981. IBM and Apple introduced computers for the home users, as a result desktop
computers were introduced and computers became more powerful and could be linked
together to form networks which ultimately led to the development of internet.
In 1981, the first IBM PCs were introduced into homes, schools and offices. These computers
looked much like the ones we are using. They had a Monitor, a mouse and a keyboard. The
World Wide Web, which was started in 1989, links up computers worldwide to provide
communication via e-mail. In 1993, the Intel had launched a very fast processor namely
Pentium chip that contained 3100000 transistors.
With the continued advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in
popularity in the 2000s. The same development encouraged the growth of laptop computers
and other portable computers allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into
cellular phones.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:
Based on size, performance and application areas, the computers are generally classified into
Microcomputers, Mainframe, Super and Mobile computers.

MICROCOMPUTERS:
A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a microprocessor as
its central processing unit (CPU). It includes a microprocessor, memory, and minimal
input/output (I/O) circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit board.
A microcomputer is a computer with a central processing unit (CPU) as a microprocessor.
Designed for individual use, a microcomputer is smaller than a mainframe or a
minicomputer.
The term microcomputer is not as commonly used as it was during the 1970s-1980s. We now
refer to microcomputers as, simply, computers, or personal computers (PC).
Types of Microcomputers:

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A desktop computer: is a personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on
or near a desk or table due to its size and power requirements. The most common
configuration has a case that houses the power supply, motherboard (a printed circuit
board with a microprocessor as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, bus, and other
electronic components), disk storage (usually one or more hard disk drives, optical disc
drives, and in early models a floppy disk drive); a keyboard and mouse for input; and
a computer monitor, speakers, and, often, a printer for output. The case may be
oriented horizontally or vertically and placed either underneath, beside, or on top of a desk.
A notebook computer: is a battery- or AC-powered personal computer generally smaller
than a briefcase that can easily be transported and conveniently used in temporary spaces
such as on airplanes, in libraries, temporary offices, and at meetings.
A laptop computer: is a battery- or AC-powered personal computer generally smaller than a
briefcase that can easily be transported and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as on
airplanes, in libraries, temporary offices, and at meetings. A laptop typically weighs less than
5 pounds and is 3 inches or less in thickness. Among the best-known makers of laptop
computers are IBM, Apple, Compaq, Dell, and Toshiba.
A handheld computer: is a computer that can conveniently be stored in a pocket (of
sufficient size) and used while you're holding it. Today's handheld computers, which are also
called personal digital assistants (PDAs), can be divided into those that accept handwriting as
input and those with small keyboards.

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS:
Mainframe computers are computers used primarily by large organizations for critical applications;
bulk data processing, such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning;
and
Transaction processing. They are larger and have more processing power than some other classes of
computers: minicomputers, servers, workstations, and personal computers. Mainframe computers are
reliable often used as servers. Several manufacturers produced mainframe computers from the late
1950s through the 1970s.

SUPERCOMPUTER:
A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a general-
purpose computer. Performance of a supercomputer is measured in floating-point operations
per second (FLOPS) instead of Billion instructions per second (BIPS). As of 2017, there are
supercomputers which can perform up to nearly a hundred quadrillion FLOPS. As of
November 2017, all of the world's fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based operating
systems.
Supercomputers play an important role in the fields including quantum mechanics, weather
forecasting, climate research, oil and gas exploration, airplane and spacecraft aerodynamics,
and
Nuclear fusion.
The fastest supercomputer is TOP500 in the United States, with a score of 122.3 PFLOPS.
Super computer used in:
1970s Weather forecasting, aerodynamic research (Cray-1)
2010s Molecular Dynamics Simulation (Tianhe-1A)

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MOBILE COMPUTERS:
Mobile computers allow processing and transaction of data via a computer or wireless
enabled device without having to be connected to wires. Mobile computers are devices which
are used for mobile computing. These devices include Laptops, smart phones, Tablets and
Personal Digital Assistants.
These are capable of sending and receiving signals. They operate in full-duplex mode i.e.
they can send and receive signals at the same time. They are wireless devices.
Hardware:
They physical parts of computer that can be touched and replaced. They can damage physical
means they can break and burn. E.g. Keyboard, mouse and hard disk etc.

Hardware Software
Physical parts of the computer are A set of instructions given to the computer
called hardware. is called software.
You can touch, see and feel hardware. You cannot touch and feel software.

Hardware is constructed using physical Software is developed by writing

materials or components. instructions in programming language.
Computer is hardware, which operates The operations of computer are controlled
under the control of software. through software.
If hardware is damaged, it is replaced with If software is damaged or corrupted, its
new one. backup copy can be reinstalled.
Hardware is not affected by computer Software is affected by computer viruses.
viruses.
Hardware cannot be transferred from one Software can be transferred from one place
place to another electronically through to another electronically through network.
network.
User cannot make new duplicate copies of User can make many new duplicate copies
the hardware. of the software.

Software:
Software is defined as ―a collection of instructions that enable the user to interact with a
computer, its hardware, or perform tasks. Without software, most computers would be
useless. It is nonphysical component of computer system. For example, without your
Internet browser software, you could not surf the Internet or read this page and without an
operating system, the browser could not run on your computer.‖

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Types of Software:
There are two types of software:
System software and applications software.
System software:
Is the software used to manage and control the hardware components and which allow
interaction between the hardware and the other types of software?
Types of System Software:
Operating system: an essential collection of computer programs that manages resources and
provides common services for other software. Supervisory programs, boot
loaders, shells and window systems are core parts of operating systems. In practice, an
operating system comes bundled with additional software (including application software) so
that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has an operating system.

Device driver: a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that
is attached to a computer. Each device needs at least one corresponding device driver; thus a
computer needs more than one device driver.

Utility software: is software such as anti-virus software, firewalls, disk defragmenters and so
on which helps to maintain and protect the computer. Much utility software is provided
within the operating system and can be directly used from the user interface. Windows
Defender is the malware and infected files detecting and repairing tool. System tools include
system restore to recover from stored restore point.
Language Translators: Software used to translate the source code (program written in
computer language like C++) into machine code.
There are three types of language processors:
Compilers:
These are translator programs used to translate code written in high level language into
machine code. It reads the whole code finds the errors and indicates them and suggests the
remedy. One all the errors are removed it translates the code into machine code and creates
file of it and then executes it. Compilers are complex soft wares than the interpreters.
Interpreters:

These are the translation software‘s used to find errors in line by line fashion, if there is no
error in the line translates it and executes it, then it reads the second line finds errors if correct
translates it and then executes it. If there is an error in the line, it suggests the remedy and
after the correction it starts from the start. So it is slow because it wastes a lot of time. It is
simple to create than compilers. It does not create any file like compilers.
Assemblers:
Assembler is the translation software of Assembly language. It converts the assembly
language statements into machine language.
Application Software:
(Also known as 'apps') are designed to allow the user of the system complete a specific task
or set of tasks. They include programs such as web browsers, office software, games and so
on. They aren't concerned with the management or maintenance of the system itself.

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Types of Application Software:

1. General Purpose Application software
2. Special Purpose Application software
General Purpose Application software:

Productivity software:
a. Word Processing software:
Like MS-Word, Word perfect, Word Star and in page etc. These software packages
are used for producing and saving well laid out documents such as letters, books,
memos and reports.
b. Desktop publishing software:
Such as PageMaker, Ventura, Frame maker and page plus etc. Among other things
these are used to produce Magazines, newsletters and advertisements.
c. Spread Sheet Packages:
Like MS-Excel, Lotus-123, Super Calc and so on. These packages are mostly used for
working with numbers, producing accounts and tabulated numerical information of all
types.
d. Database Packages:
Like MS-Access, Paradox, Dbase III Plus and FoxPro etc. These are used for the
storage and retrieval of information. Databases are used in thousands of different
applications from Airline Booking System to Mail Order and Invoicing system.
e. Multimedia Packages:
They allow you to play audio, video and open graphics. Like Paint, Paint Brush and
Corel Draw are used to produce artwork, 3-Dimentional images and special textual
effects.

Business Software:
Any software that helps you to increase or measure productivity is called business software.
Business software includes Marketing software, payroll system, communication software and
accounting software etc.

Entertainment Software:
Entertainment software allows a computer system to be used as an entertainment tool. Some
examples of entertainment software are Media Player, video games etc.

Educational Software:
Educational software allows a computer system to be used as a teaching and learning tool.
Some examples of educational software are:
Computer Based Training (CBT): This application software is used for the purpose of
training.
Example: A training software for pilots how to fly an airplane and also for doctors to train
them.

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Encyclopedia: Encyclopedia software contains dictionary that provides information about

thousands of topics. Main objective of encyclopedia is to preserve present knowledge for
future generation. E.g. Encarta and Britannica are popular encyclopedias.
Computer aided learning (CAL): The term computer Aided Learning provides interactive
instruction in a specific area. Teachers can use audio video software that aids to prepare
lesson plans. We use of PowerPoint to prepare presentation of lecture.
SOFTWARE TERMINOLOGIES:
Licensed: software is proprietary software distributed under a licensing agreement to
authorized users. It involves private modification, copying and republishing restrictions. In
other words, the source code is not shared with the public for anyone to look at or change.
Businesses are often defensive of their product and eager to preserve control of their brand
and the user experience delivered to their customers, and licensing agreements allow them to
do this.
Open source software: is distributed under a licensing agreement which permits the
software‘s code to be shared, viewed and modified by other parties. This means that
absolutely anyone who knows how can use and modify open source software, completely free
of charge.
Shareware: is a type of proprietary software which is initially provided free of charge to
users, who are allowed and encouraged to make and share copies of the
program. Shareware is often offered as a download from a website or as a compact disc
included with a magazine.
Freeware: is software that is available for use at no monetary cost. In other words, while
freeware may be used without payment it is most often proprietary software
and modification, re-distribution without the author's permission is not allowed. Examples of
freeware include Skype and Adobe Acrobat Reader.
Firmware: is software that is embedded in a piece of hardware. You can think of firmware
simply as "software for hardware." However, firmware is not an interchangeable term for
software. Devices that you might think of as strictly hardware such as optical drives, a
network card, a router, a camera, or a scanner all have software that is programmed into a
special memory contained in the hardware itself.

COMPUTER:
Computer is an electronic device that takes data as an input, processes it and then produces
data as an output. Computer output is fast and accurate than humans.
Computer has four main components:
Input unit.
Processing unit.
Memory unit.
Output unit.
Input:
The signal or data (pictures, video, text and sound) given to the computer for processing is
called input.
Input Devices / Input unit:
It consists of those devices which helps users to input the data or signals into the computer in
digital form (digitization).
Keyboard, mouse, joy stick, scanner, camera and microphone etc. are input devices.
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KEYBOARD: This is most commonly used device which acts as input device. Its structure
is like typewriter. It contains number of buttons called keys.
Function keys: F1, F2, F12. Every key is used to perform specific function, often used in
combination of other keys.
Numeric keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 9. used to write numbers.
Alphabetic keys: a, b, c, z used to write letters.
Special keys:!,@,#,$ and so on.
Arrow keys: used to move cursor up, down, left and right.
Control, shift, alt are used to control different operations, often used in combination with
other keys.
Pointing device: is an input interface that allows a user to input data to
a computer. CAD systems and graphical user interfaces (GUI) allow the user to control and
input data to the computer using mouse or similar device. Movements of the pointing device
are echoed on the screen by movements of the pointer (or cursor) and other visual changes.
Common uses are point and click and drop. Commonly used pointing device is the mouse.
MOUSE
This is a pointing and drawing device. Which contains a ball in its base and is connected to
the system unit through serial port? When the mouse is moved on any surface, the pointer on
the screen is also moved. It contains a potentiometer coupled with the roller. This
potentiometer senses the motion of mouse & converts it into digital value. A mouse may
contain two or three buttons. Now a day's optical mouse is very popular.
TRACKBALL:
A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball housed in a socket containing sensors to
detect rotation of the ball about two axes, similar to an upside-down mouse: as the user rolls
the ball with a thumb, fingers, or palm the pointer on the screen will also move. Tracker balls
are commonly used on CAD workstations for ease of use, where there may be no desk space
on which to use a mouse. Some are able to clip onto the side of the keyboard and have
buttons with the same functionality as mouse buttons. There are also wireless trackballs
which offer a wider range of ergonomic positions to the user.
JOYSTICK:
It is an input device, having a handily that rotates over its axis in 3600 to control the object. It
has few buttons to give input. It may be used to control the camera or used in gaming.
TOUCH SCREEN:
A touch screen is a monitor screen that allows users to interact with a computer system by
touching an area of the display screen. The screen is covered with a clear plastic layer that
has a matrix of cells. A user touches a graphic button that displays option on the screen.
Touch screens are easy to use.
TOUCHPAD:
A touchpad or track pad is a flat surface that can detect finger contact. It is a stationary
pointing device, commonly used on laptop computers. At least one physical button normally
comes with the touchpad, but the user can also generate a mouse click by tapping on the pad.
Advanced features include pressure sensitivity and special gestures such as scrolling by
moving one's finger along an edge.

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DIGITAL CAMERA:
As the name specifies, these camera stores the data digitally, which then can be stored in the
computer & can be stored for a long time. These are very popular because of less expensive
photographs & Speed.
LIGHT PEN:
It is a pointing device which contains a photocell mounted at its tip. It senses the light from
the screen when it becomes closer to the screen, & generates a pulse. So for identifying a
particular location on the screen these light pens are very useful. But this is not in very much
use these days.
MIC's or MICROPHONES:
A microphone also called a mic is a voice input device. It uses special sensor that converts
sound into an electrical signal. Microphones are used in many applications such as
telephones, tape recorders and hearing aids.
SCANNER:
The scanner is an input device like the photocopier machine which makes the electronic copy
of the picture or document which can be further edited.
Hand 3D scanner:

Handheld 3D scanners are used in industrial design, reverse engineering, inspection and
analysis, digital manufacturing and medical applications. "To compensate for the uneven
motion of the human hand, most 3D scanning systems rely on the placement of reference
markers, typically adhesive reflective tabs that the scanner uses to align elements and mark
positions in space.
Flatbed:
This type of scanner is sometimes called a reflective scanner because it works by shining
white light onto the object to be scanned and reading the intensity and color of light that is
reflected from it, usually a line at a time. They are designed for scanning prints or other flat,
opaque materials but some have available transparency adapters, which for a number of
reasons, in most cases, are not very well suited to scanning film.
Optical scanner:
Computer input device that uses a light beam to scan codes, text, or graphic images directly
into a computer or computer system. Bar-code scanners are used widely at point-of-sale
terminals in retail stores. A handheld scanner or bar-code pen is moved across the code,
which immediately processes the data in the bar code.
MAGNETIC CARDS/DEVICES BASED SYSTEMS:
Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR):
This device is used to recognize the characters encoded using special magnetized ink that
contains Ferric Oxide. Such characters are mostly written along the bottom of bank's cheques
and are used to identify the bank number and the customer account number. Similarly the
amount of money is also encoded on the cheque by the bank operator for processing. These
devices can process 1000 cheques per minute. Certain utility companies like gas, electricity
and credit card companies may also use this method of data capture to input and process large
volumes of data.

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Magnetic Strip Card:

A magnetic stripe card is a type of card capable of storing data by modifying the magnetism
of tiny iron-based magnetic particles on a band of magnetic material on the card.
The magnetic stripe, sometimes called swipe card is read by swiping past a magnetic reading
head. Storage capacity on a standard banking credit card is 2 Kbytes.
Smart Cards:
A smart card is a plastic card similar to a credit card but instead of magnetic strip, it uses a
microchip and memory. It can save up to three pages of data. It can be used to make
purchases, transfer the money in and out of bank accounts and even make transactions over
the telephone. An amount of money is stored on the microchip that can be spent like cash.
OUTPUT DEVICES:
These devices are used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by the
computer to the user. The results may be in the form of hard copy (on paper) or soft copy (on
speaker) is called output devices.
1. Monitor:
A monitor is also called video display terminal (VDT). The users can view the visual display
of the processed data on the monitor. Computer monitors come in a variety of screen sizes
and not to forget, visual resolutions. All monitors have a video card, which processes the data
into images, to be eventually displayed.
Types of Monitors:
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): and flat panel displays are the two types of monitors. CRTs are
cheaper, and have good viewing angle. They are also bulkier and consume more power. It is
used to get the data in the form of soft copy. Their functioning is exactly similar to the
television. It contains a CRT which emits the electrons to trace a regular pattern of horizontal
lines on the screen.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):
These screens are used in laptops & notebook sized PCs. A special type of liquid is
sandwiched between two plates. The top plate is clear & bottom plate is reflective. The
molecules in these liquids are normally aligned & the computer signals are used to align these
molecules.
2. Printer:
Printer is an external hardware device, which takes processed data from the computer to
generate a hard copy of the same. After the monitors, printers are the most used peripherals of
computers and they are commonly used to print text data, images, etc. Printers can be
classified into different types in several ways.
First, the printers can be divided into three categories by the way they print.
Serial Printers: Also called a character printer. Print a single character at a time. They are
usually inexpensive and slow.
Line Printers: Print a line at a time. They are expensive and very fast. Line printers use a
band, a chain, etc.
Page Printers: Also called a laser printer. Print a page at a time. They usually use a laser to
produce page images. Quality is best. This is a little bit expensive, but the price of the
personal laser printer is decreasing.
Second, printers can be classified into two forms according to the use of a hammer.
Impact Printers: Hammer hits ribbons, papers or print head. Dot-matrix and daisy-wheel
printers are the example.
Non-impact Printers: They do not have the hammer and do not hit. An example is an ink-jet
and laser printer.
Another classification can be made by the way they form characters.

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Bit-Mapped Printers: Images are formed from groups of dots and can be placed anywhere
on the page. They have many printing options and good printing quality. They use PostScript
as a standard language for instructing a microcomputer.
Character-based Printers: Printer print characters into the lines and columns of a page.
These printers use predefined set of characters and are restricted in position of characters.
Microcomputers use four kinds of printers. They are chain printers, dot-matrix printers, ink-
jet printers, and laser printers.
Dot-Matrix Printer:
Dot-matrix printers are printers that write characters and form graphic images using one or
two columns of tiny dots on a print head. The dot hammer moving serially across the paper
strikes an inked-ribbon and creates images on paper.
Dot matrix printers are popular printers used with microcomputers, because the printers are
highly reliable and inexpensive. They are used for tasks where a high-quality image is not
essential. Many users, however, move from dot printers to laser printers, because the price of
laser printers is falling down. Several kinds of dot matrix printers are available with print
heads that have 7, 9, 18, or 24 pins.
Drum printer:
In a typical drum printer design, a fixed font character set is engraved onto the periphery of a
number of print wheels, the number matching the number of columns (letters in a line) the
printer could print. The wheels, joined to form a large drum (cylinder), spin at high speed and
paper and an inked ribbon is stepped (moved) past the print position.
As the desired character for each column passes the print position, a hammer strikes the paper
from the rear and presses the paper against the ribbon and the drum, causing the desired
character to be recorded on the continuous paper.
Full set of hammers (and delivering, for example 600 lines-per-minute of output) and a half
set of hammers (delivering 300 LPM).
Chain Printer:
A chain printer uses a printing mechanism that uses character typefaces linked together in a
chain. The chain spins horizontally around a set of hammers aligned with each position.
When the required character is in front of the selected print position, hammer in that position
hits the paper into the ribbon against the character in the chain.
This printer is not commonly found around microcomputers, because it is a very expensive,
high-speed machine designed originally for mainframes and minicomputers. Chain printers
are very reliable and can speed up to 3000 lines per minute.
Ink-Jet Printer:
Ink-jet is a printer mechanism that sprays one or more color of ink at high speed onto the
paper and produces high-quality printing. This printer also produces color printing as well as
high-quality image. That is, ink-jet printers can be used for variety of color printing at a
relatively low cost. Ink-jet printing has two methods: Continuous stream method and drop-
on- demand method.

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LASER Printer:
The laser printer produces high-resolution letters and graphics quality images.Coloured
LASER printer is also available in the market; a less expensive, desktop gray scale laser
printer is widely used. Then the images on the drum are treated with a magnetically charged
toner and then are transferred onto a paper. A heat source is usually applied to make the
images adhere. In 1984, Hewlett-Packard introduced the first desktop laser printer, called the
LaserJet.
3. Plotters:
Plotters are large printer type devices. Instead of using ink cartridges, plotters use pens to
draw the output on to paper. With different coloured pens, plotters can produce colour output.
Plotters are capable of producing very accurate drawings and plans. They are most often used
in computer aided design (CAD).
Drum plotter:
A type of pen plotter that wraps the paper around a drum with a pin feed attachment. The
drum turns to produce one direction of the plot, and the pens move to provide the other. The
plotter was the first output device to print graphics and large engineering drawings. Using
different colored pens, it could draw in color long before color inkjet printers became
available. Contrast with flatbed plotter.
Flatbed plotter:
a graphics plotter that contains a flat surface that the paper is placed on. The size of this
surface (bed) determines the maximum size of the drawing. Contrast with drum plotter.
Speakers:
Speakers receive the sound in the form of electric current from the sound card & convert it to
sound format. These are used for listening music, chatting, seminars for presentations etc.
Soft copy output:
A soft copy (sometimes spelled "softcopy") is an electronic copy of some type of data, such
as a file viewed on a computer's display or transmitted as an e-mail attachment. Such
material, when printed, is referred to as a hard copy .
Hard copy output:
A hard copy (or "hardcopy") is a printed copy of information from a computer. Sometimes
referred to as a printout, a hard copy is so-called because it exists as a physical object. The
same information, viewed on a computer display or sent as an e-mail attachment, is
sometimes referred to as a soft copy

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 Unit-2 Computer Memory

Bit:
Bit is the smallest unit of memory. It can store only 1 or 0. ‗1‘ means ‗On‘ and ‗0‘ means
‗Off‘.
Byte:
Eight bits combines to form Byte of memory. To save single character we need 1 Byte. E.g.
to save the word ALI, 3 Bytes are used.
Memory Word:
A fixed group of bits that are handled together by the system are called memory word. The
number of bits in a word may be 16, 32 or 64 bits. A computer with bigger word size can
process more bits at a time hence improves speed of the system.
Memory:
It is used to store data and instructions temporarily (Primary Memory e.g. RAM, Registers
etc.) or permanently (Secondary Memory e.g. Hard Disk, USB Flash Drive etc.).
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE:
Computer architecture means the combination of different hardware parts within the
computer system. In other words, we can say that computer architecture is the way to
organize the four main components and connect them to obtain a complete computer system
in working condition. Four main components are given below:
1. input/output peripherals
2. processing unit
3. primary memory
4. secondary memory

SYSTEM UNIT:
It is one of the major parts of computer system. It consists of Mother Board, CPU,
Memory, Disk Drives, Power supply units, Cards etc.
PROCESSING UNIT:
This is also called the central processing unit (CPU) or simply processor. This is the
administrative section of the computer which supervises the operation of other computer
units. The CPU is connected with all I/O devices, storage units and to all other ports of
computer system. CPU is also called the heart and brain of computer system.
It is the fact that without brain human body is useless. Similarly computer machine is
nothing without CPU.
The CPU supports the actual processing of the data i.e. it captures the data from the
input unit, processes it internally and finally prepares the output (information) for output
devices.
CPU performs all processing and controls the I/O activities. The CPU is further
collection of three main subunits. I.e. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and
the Memory unit.
a. ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT:
It is the manipulating part of the CPU. As the name indicates, it is also called the
calculation box. It is capable to perform Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, square root and exponentials as well as logical operations including
less than (<), greater than (>) and equal to (=). A special type of processor called Coprocessor

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performs the different scientific computations and complex mathematical functions. Speed of
the processor is measured in Mega Hertz (Mz) or Giga Hertz (GH).
Few registers are associated with this unit which holds the data temporarily and
passes it on for processing whenever required.
The two registers feed the two binary numbers on which ALU will operate. These
numbers are referred to as operands and the ALU operates on them in accordance with the
control inputs coming from the control unit.
For Example
If two numbers are to be added say 5 and 9. So one operand (i.e. 5) is stored in the data buffer
register (B) and the other operand (i.e. 9) is stored in the Accumulator Register (A). The
control inputs determine what the ALU will do with these operands. The result of the
operation (which is 14) is transferred to the Accumulator.
The logical operations make it possible for the computer to make decisions on the result of
comparing one item with another one.
ALU performs these operations at a very high speed i.e. even in milliseconds.
Control UNIT:
It is functional component of the computer. It is nerve Centre of entire computing system. It
coordinates and controls the entire computer system just as the brain directs the human body.
It supervises all the activities of various components of the computer system.
Besides it schedules the I/O operations. It itself does nothing but however, directs other parts
to do so.
Control unit is just like the traffic policeman in computer system, who signals the vehicles for
maintaining the entire traffic system or in simple words; it controls the flow of data inside the
computer.
PRIMARY MEMORY OR MAIN MEMORY:
It is also called simple memory. It is faster than secondary memory. Its cost per storage is
higher than secondary memory as it is a circuit. It retains the information so that the
information is available for processing, when it is needed. It also serves as storage for the
results of operation performed by the ALU. The main memory operation is controlled by the
control unit, which signals either a READ or WRITE operation and provides the appropriate
memory address. Data that is to be written into Main memory can come from ALU or the
input unit, again under the control of control unit. Data that is read from memory can be sent
to ALU or the output unit.
The path through which data is send to Memory or data is received from memory is called a
Bus.
There are two types of Main memory.
1. RAM:
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. A better name for it might be READ/WRITE
memory because information can either be read from or written to the RAM.
This is the memory whose information can be erased or changed. RAM is temporary
memory, so the major disadvantage of RAM is that anything stored inside it are washed out
when the computer is switched off, so it is also called volatile memory (means that
information is lost on shutting down the computer system)

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There are two types of RAM.

A.STATIC RAM:
Static RAM is a type of RAM that holds its data without external refresh, for as long as
power is supplied to the circuit. This is contrasted to dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must be
refreshed many times per second in order to hold its data contents. Binary values 1 and 0 are
stored in flip flops (logic circuits). It will hold data as long as power is there.

B.DYNAMIC RAM:
Dynamic RAM is the most common type of memory in use today. Inside a dynamic RAM
chip, each memory cell holds one bit of information and is made up of two parts:
a transistor and a capacitor. DRAM is made of cells that stores data as charge on capacitors.
The absence of charge is 0 and presence is represented as 1. It requires charging periodically.
Types of DRAM are SDRAM and DDR SDRAM.
SDRAM (synchronous DRAM):
SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) is a generic name for various kinds of dynamic random
access memory (DRAM) that are synchronized with the clock speed that the microprocessor
is optimized for. This tends to increase the number of instructions that the processor can
perform in a given time.
DDR SDRAM (double data rate SDRAM):

DR SDRAM (double data rate SDRAM) is synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM) that can
theoretically improve memory clock speed to double. It reads or writes two consecutive
words per clock cycle.
Types of DDR SDRAM:
DDR1 RAM (Double Data Rate),DDR1 RAM and DDR3 RAM ranging in speed from 100
MHz to 2000 MHz SDRAM comes in sizes of 512 MB to 4 GB.
DDR2 RAM reads or writes 4 words of data per clock cycle whereas, DDR3 RAM reads or
writes 8 words of data per clock cycle.
ROM:
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. As the name depicts information can only be read from
ROM and not written to it. It is permanent memory which stores the built-in information from
the computer manufacturers used to load the operating system files from hard disk into RAM
called booting of computer and these instructions are non-volatile.
Types of ROM:
PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.
PROM:
Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is read-only memory (ROM ) that can be
modified once by a user. PROM is a way of allowing a user to modify a microcode program
using a special machine called a PROM programmer. This machine supplies an electrical
current to specific cells in the ROM that successfully blows a fuse in them. The process is
known as burning the PROM.

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EPROM:
EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is programmable read-only memory
(programmable ROM) that can be erased and re-used. Erasure is caused by shining an intense
ultraviolet light through a window that is designed into the memory chip.
EEPROM:
EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) is user-modifiable read-
only memory (ROM) that can be erased and reprogrammed. EEPROM chip has to be erased
and reprogrammed as a whole, not selectively. It also has a limited life - that is, it can be
reprogrammed 10000 times. A special form of EEPROM is flash memory.
SECONDARY MEMORY:
That type of memory which is permanent. It is also called auxiliary memory. It is non-volatile
memory. The stored data can be read any time if it is stored on secondary storage. It is slow
technology than primary memory. These are removable devices means we can carry them to
move data from one to another computer. Storage capacity of this device is large.
MAGNETIC TAPES:
These are also secondary storage devices. That stores data in sequential way. The data can be
retrieved only in sequence. If the file to be read is 20th file. Files from 1 to 19 will also be
read once to reach 20th. Tape is made up of magnetic material which is enclosed in plastic
jacket. Its reading is slower than Hard disk and CD due to sequential nature of storage. There
are no addresses on tapes.
MAGNETIC DISKS:
FLOPPIES:
Another kind of secondary storage device. It is smaller in size and capacity than hard disk. Its
capacity may be 1.44 MB. Floppies are magnetic coated (Ferric Oxide) circular plastic tapes
enclosed in plastic jacket. New floppy is formatted before use to create sectors and tracks to
make it able to store data. In floppies data was saved in different addresses. They also had a
write protect button to forbid writing, when it was enabled.
ZIP DISKS:
A Zip disk was an advanced version of the floppy disk. The disk needed a special drive called
the Zip drive in order to be used. Zip disks were available in 100-MB and 250-MB capacities
and were used to store, share and back up large amounts of data, which was not possible with
ordinary floppy disks.
HARD DISK:
It is secondary storage device. It is combination of circuit and thick metallic plates. They are
permanently sealed in metallic jacket to protect from dust and moisture. Each plate is
polished with magnetic material (Ferric Oxide). Each plate has one Read and one Write head.
They are faster media than floppies. They are costly due to large space. I.e. 500 GB or 1TB.
They are rarely removed to take data to another computer. Data of hard disk is accessible
directly as all data has addresses on hard disk. To use hard disk it is formatted and many
partitions can be created e.g. C, D, E and F etc., to use disk space efficiently. HDDs are
connected to systems by standard interface cables such as PATA (Parallel ATA), SATA
(Serial ATA), USB or SAS (Serial Attached SCSI) cables.
HDD has two electric motors; a spindle motor that spins the disks and an actuator (motor)
that positions the read/write head.HDDs spin at either 5,400 rpm or 7,200 rpm.

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New Hard disk is formatted before use, to create sectors (slices) and tracks (circular rings) on
it. Sectors have blocks in which data is stored. A few of the most popular hard drive
manufacturers include Seagate, Western and Digital.
OPTICAL DISK:
COMPACT DISK (CD):
It is also a secondary storage device. This is used to read data stored on it with the help of
CD-ROM Driver. To write on CD-ROM we use CD-Writer. It is also called optical disk
because LASER beam is used to read data. Disk is made up of plastic, having diameter of
4.75 inches and capacity of 700 or more. There are two types of CD-ROMs:
a. CD-R it can be written once, it is cheap.
b. CD-RW it is costly and can be rewritten.
DVD (digital versatile disc):
DVD is a digital optical disc storage format developed in 1995, which can store 4 to 16 GB
data like software and other computer files as well as videos. DVD Drive is used to read this
disk. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than compact discs . DVD-ROMcan only be read
and not written or erased. Blank recordable DVD discs (DVD-R) can be recorded once using
a DVD Writer and then function as a DVD-ROM. Rewritable DVDs (DVD-RW) can be
recorded and erased many times.
Blue-ray
Blue-ray or Blue-ray Disc (BD) is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was designed
to supersede the DVD format, and is capable of storing several hours of video in high-
definition (HDTV 720p and 1080p) and ultra high-definition resolution (2160p). The main
application of Blue-ray is as a medium for video material such as feature films The name
"Blue-ray" refers to the blue laser (actually a violet laser) used to read the disc, which allows
information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red
laser used for DVDs.
The plastic disc is 120 millimeters (4.7 in) in diameter and 1.2 millimeters (0.047 in) thick,
the same size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional or pre-BD-XL Blue-ray discs contain
25 GB per layer, with dual-layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-length
video discs. Triple-layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple-layer discs (128 GB) are available
for BD-XL re-writer drives.

Flash memory:
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transferring data
between a personal computer (PC) and digital devices. It has the ability to be electronically
reprogrammed and erased. It is often found in USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital cameras
and solid-state drives.
Flash memory is a type of electronically erasable programmable read only memory
(EEPROM), but may also be a standalone memory storage device such as a USB drives.
EEPROM is a type of data memory device using an electronic device to erase or write digital
data. Flash memory is a distinct type of EEPROM, which is programmed and erased in large
blocks.

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Memory card device:

A memory card, flash card or memory cartridge is an electronic flash memory data storage
device used for storing digital information. These are commonly used in portable electronic
devices, such as digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, tablets, PDAs.
They are small, re-recordable and able to retain data without power. They come in various sizes and
with different storage capacity.

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Volatile Memory:
Volatile memory is computer storage that only maintains its data while the device is powered.
Most RAM (random access memory) used for primary storage in personal computers
is volatile memory. Volatile memory contrasts with non-volatile memory, which does not
lose content when power is lost.
Non-Volatile Memory:
Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when
not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory (see ROM), flash
memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy discs and
magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and
punched cards.
Cache Memory:
A Cache (Pronounced as ―cash‖) is a small and very fast temporary storage memory. It is
designed to speed up the transfer of data and instructions. It is located inside or close to the
CPU chip. It is faster than RAM and the data/instructions that are most recently or most
frequently used by CPU are stored in cache.

Types/Levels of Cache Memory:

A computer can have several different levels of cache memory. The level numbers refers to
distance from CPU where Level 1 is the closest. All levels of cache memory are faster than
RAM. The cache closest to CPU is always faster but generally costs more and stores less data
then other level of cache.
Level 1 (L1) Cache:
It is also called primary or internal cache. It is built directly into the processor chip. It has
small capacity from 8 Km to 128 Kb.
Level 2 (L2) Cache:
It is slower than L1 cache. Its storage capacity is more, I-e. From 64 Kb to 16 MB. The
current processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor chip that is a type of L2
cache. The common size of this cache is from 512 kb to 8 Mb.
Level 3 (L3) Cache:
This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard. It exists on the computer that
uses L2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower than L1 and L2 cache. The personal computer
often has up to 8 MB of L3 cache.
Register
Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being
used immediately by the CPU. These registers are the top of the memory hierarchy, and are
the fastest way for the system to manipulate data. In a very simple microprocessor, it consists
of a single memory location, usually called an accumulator. Registers are built from fast
multi-ported memory cell. There are various types of Registers those are used for various
purposes. Some Mostly used Registers are Accumulator (AC), Data Register (DR), Address
Register (AR), Program Counter (PC), Memory Data Register (MDR), Index Register (IR),
and Memory Buffer Register (MBR).

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CPU Registers can be divided into two main types:

1. General Purpose Registers 2.Special Purpose Registers
General Purpose Registers:
General purpose registers are used to store data as well as addresses. They are combined data
and address registers. These registers are used for arithmetic and data movement. Typically
these registers are 8-32 bit registers.
Following are the commonly used general purpose registers.
1. Accumulator (AX)
2. Data Register (DX)
3. Base Register (BX)
4. Counter Register (CX)
1. Accumulator (AX):
The accumulator register is located inside the ALU; it is used during arithmetic & logical
operations of ALU. The control unit stores data values fetched from main memory in the
accumulator for arithmetic or logical operation. This register holds the initial data to be
operated upon, the intermediate results, and the final result of operation. The final result is
transferred to main memory through MBR.
2. Data Register (DX):
A register used in microcomputers to temporarily store data being transmitted to or from a
peripheral device.
3. Base Register (BX):
BX is the "base'' register; it is the only general-purpose register which may be used for
indirect addressing. For example, the instruction MOV [BX], AX causes the contents of AX
to be stored in the memory location whose address is given in BX.
4. Counter Register (CX):
CX is the "count'' register. The looping instructions (LOOP, LOOPE, and LOOPNE), the
shift and rotate instructions (RCL, RCR, ROL, ROR, SHL, SHR, and SAR), and the string
instructions (with the prefixes REP, REPE, and REPNE) all use the count register to
determine how many times they will repeat.
Special purpose registers:
These registers hold the state of a program. They are used by control unit to control the
operation of CPU and by the operating system programs to control the execution of the
programs.
Instruction Register (IR): Once an instruction is fetched from main memory, it is stored in
the Instruction Register. The control unit takes instruction from this register, decodes and
executes it by sending signals to the appropriate component of computer to carry out the task.
Memory Address Register (MAR): This register holds the address of memory where CPU
wants to read or write data. When CPU wants to store some data in the memory or reads the
data from the memory, it places the address of the required memory location in the MAR.
Memory Buffer Register (MBR): This register holds the contents of data or instruction read
from, or written in memory. The contents of instruction placed in this register are transferred
to the Instruction Register, while the contents of data are transferred to the accumulator or I/O
register. In other words you can say that this register is used to store data/instruction coming
from the memory or going to the memory.

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Program Counter (PC): Program Counter register is also known as Instruction Pointer
Register. This register is used to store the address of the next instruction to be fetched for
execution. When the instruction is fetched, the value of IP is incremented. Thus this register
always points or holds the address of next instruction to be fetched.
System Bus:
The path through which data is send to the memory or received from memory is called a bus.
A set of parallel lines used to send addresses or data to several components within the CPU is
called a bus.
Buses may be unidirectional or bi-directional. Unidirectional buses send data in one direction
like system bus. Whereas, the bi-directional buses sends data in both the directions (E.g. Data
bus and Address bus).
A bus that connects the major components (processor, memory and I/O) of the computer
system is called system bus.

ADDRESS:
The binary words are stored in ROM as a long number list. A number that identifies the
location of each stored word in the list is called its address.
TYPES OF BUSES
Data Bus:
The data bus transfer data between the microprocessor and the memory and I/O attached to
the system. Data bus consists of 8,16,32,64 parallel lines. Data bus lines are bi-directional
lines. This means that the CPU can read data from memory or from ports on these lines or it
can send data out to memory or to the other port on these lines. These lines also indicate the
speed of computer. A computer containing a 32-bit data bus lines determine the word length
for computer.
8-bit data bus=one byte word length
16-bit data bus=2 byte word length
Address Bus:
The address bus provides a memory address of the system memory and also the I/O addresses
to the system I/O devices.
The address bus have 8, 16, 32 parallel lines. These lines are used to designate the source and
destination of data that is to be carried by the data bus.
If CPU has N address lines then it can address 2N locations. E.g. a CPU with 8 bit bus can
represent 28 i.e.256 unique addresses. A 16 bit bus can address 65536 unique addresses.
3. Control Bus:
These are unidirectional lines. The control bus provides control signals that cause the
memory and I/O devices to perform read (RD) or a write (WR) operation.
Control bus consists of 8 or 16 parallel lines. The CPU sends out signals on the control bus to
enable the outputs of addressed memory devices or port devices.
Typical signals are:
I. Memory Read signal ii. Memory Write signal
Iii. I/O Read signal IV. I/O Write signal
These signals control the overall operation of microprocessor. E.g. to read a byte of data from
a memory location. The CPU sends out the memory address of the desired byte on the
address bus and then sends out a memory Read signal to the control bus.

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4.1 Computer Casing:

A computer case, also known as a computer chassis, tower, system unit, or cabinet, is the
enclosure that contains most of the components of a personal computer. Cases are usually
constructed from steel, aluminum and plastic.

4.1.1 CPU and System Unit:

A system unit is the part of a computer that houses the primary devices that perform
operations and produce results for complex calculations. It includes the motherboard, CPU,
RAM and other components, as well as the case in which these devices are housed.

What is the computer casing used for:

The computer cases are a visible part of our computers which are also called PC towers and
Computer towers. It is used to serve as a protective structure for the rest of the internal
components like motherboard, RAM, Hard drive, cooling fans, and other expansion cards
from the external influences.

4.1.2 Types of Computer Casing

Desktop Case:

Considered the most classical version of computer cases, these are primarily designed for
personal/business computers that are placed on top of a desk. The basic objective of these
cases is to conserve the available desk space as the monitor is placed on top of the computer.
Interestingly, it is beneficial for the users when a computer is placed in this position because
it enables the computer screen to be present at an angle that is most convenient for viewing.

Tower Cases:

These cases are used in the manufacture of computers that can be kept on the floor or on top
of a computer desk. Depending on the specific number of internal drive bays present inside
and the height of the tower

Power Supply:

A power supply is an electronic circuit that converts the voltage of an alternating current
(AC) into a direct current (DC) voltage. It is basically consisting of the following
elements: transformer, rectifier, filter and regulator circuits

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Motherboard:

The motherboard is the backbone that ties the computer's components together at one spot
and allows them to talk to each other. Without it, none of the computer pieces, such as the
CPU, GPU, or hard drive, could interact. Total motherboard functionality is necessary for a
computer to work well.

BIOS:

Is the program a computer's microprocessor uses to start the computer system after it is
powered on? It also manages data flow between the computer's operating system (OS) and
attached devices, such as the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse and printer.

Ports:

In computer hardware, a port serves as an interface between the computer and other
computers or peripheral devices. In computer terms, a port generally refers to the part of a
computing device available for connection to peripherals such as input and output devices.

Expansion Slots:

An expansion slot is a socket on the motherboard that is used to insert an expansion card (or
circuit board), which provides additional features to a computer such as video, sound,
advanced graphics, Ethernet or memory.

AGP:

Accelerated graphics port, is an advanced port designed for video cards and 3D accelerators.
Developed by Intel and introduced in August 1997, AGP introduces a dedicated point-to-
point channel that allows the graphics controller direct access to the system memory. Below
is an illustration of what the AGP slot may look like on your motherboard.

PCI:

A PCI slot is a built-in slot on a device that allows for the attachment of various hardware
components such as network cards, modems, sound cards, disk controllers and other
peripherals.

It was often a component of traditional do-it-yourself (DIY) desktop computer design.

PCI Express Slot:

PCIe (peripheral component interconnect express) is an interface standard for connecting

high-speed components. Every desktop PC motherboard has a number of PCIe slots you can
use to add GPUs (aka video cards aka graphics cards), RAID cards, Wi-Fi cards or SSD
(solid-state drive) add-on cards.

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There are 5 common types of PCIe slots and cards: x1, x2, x4, x8 and x16. The numbers
represent the number of lanes on the card or slot. Just like the lanes on a road, these lanes are
paths for data to travel on.

Ribbon Cable:

Ribbon cables are usually used as interconnects for internal peripherals in computers, such as
hard drives, CD drives, and floppy drives. On some older computer systems they were also
used for external connections.

Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE):

IDE is an interface standard introduced in the year 1986. It is for connection of storages
devices such as Hard Disk Drives (HDD), Solid State Drives (SSD) and CD/DVD drives to
the computer. In IDE data transfer speed ranges from 100 MB/s to 133 MB/s. It is a parallel
connector. It gives a slower performance and does not support of hot plugging. It is an older
concept.

SerialAdvancedTechnologyAttachment(SATA):
SATA is a computer bus interface or standard hardware interface introduced in the year
2003. It connects hard drives, Solid State Drives (SSD) and CD/DVD drives to the
computer. In SATA data transfer speed ranges from 150 MB/s for SATA I and 300 MB/s
for SATA II. It is a serial connector. It gives a faster performance with support of hot
plugging. It is a newer concept. SATA cables are better than IDE.

FD Cable:

A floppy cable is a ribbon cable found in PC's that allow one or more floppy disk drives to
connect to a computer. The floppy channel, FDD header, or floppy connection is where the
floppy drive connects to the computer motherboard.

Memory Slots:

A memory slot, memory socket, or RAM slot allows RAM (computer memory) to be inserted
into the computer. Most motherboards have two to four memory slots, which determine the
type of RAM used with the computer. ... It is not uncommon for computers to have all
memory slots occupied.

Disk Controller:

The disk controller is the controller circuit which enables the CPU to communicate with
a hard disk, floppy disk or other kind of disk drive. It also provides an interface between the
disk drive and the bus connecting it to the rest of the system.

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Cooling System:

Computer cooling systems are passive or active systems that are designed to regulate and
dissipate the heat generated by a computer so as to maintain optimal performance and protect
the computer from damage that will occur from overheating.

Computer Bus:

A bus is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are used to send control signals and data
between the processor and other components. ... Address bus - carries memory addresses
from the processor to other components such as primary storage and input/output devices.
The address bus is unidirectional.

Data Bus:

A data bus is a system within a computer or device, consisting of a connector or set of wires,
that provides transportation for data. Different kinds of data buses have evolved along with
personal computers and other pieces of hardware.

Address Bus:

Connects the CPU and Ram.

Control Bus:

Control bus is used to send control signals to different components of the computer system.

4.2.1 Types of Ports

Serial ports:

Is a serial communication interface through which information transfers in or out

sequentially one bit at a time. This is in contrast to a parallel port, which communicates
multiple bits simultaneously in parallel.

Parallel Ports:

A parallel port is a type of interface found on early computers for connecting peripherals. The
name refers to the way the data is sent; parallel ports send multiple bits of data at once, as
opposed to serial communication, in which bits are sent one at a time.

PS/2 Port:

The PS/2 port is a 6-pin mini-DIN connector used for connecting keyboards and mice to a PC
compatible computer system. Its name comes from the IBM Personal System/2 series of
personal computers, with which it was introduced in 1987.

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USB Port:
A USB port is a standard cable connection interface for personal computers and consumer
electronics devices. USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an industry standard for short-
distance digital data communications. USB ports allow USB devices to be connected to each
other with and transfer digital data over USB cables.
Fire wire Ports:
FireWire, which is also called IEEE 1394, is a connecting device used primarily for adding
peripherals to a computer. FireWire is often used for connecting external hard drives and
digital camcorders that benefit from a high transfer rate.
Sound card:
The sound card can accept an analog sound (as from a microphone or audio tape) and convert
it to digital data that can be stored in an audio file, or it can accept digitized audio signals (as
from an audio file) and convert them to analog signals that can be played on the computer's
speakers.
Video Card:
Video card, also called graphics card, integrated circuit that generates the video signal sent to
a computer display. It contains a graphics processing unit (GPU), which is a processor
dedicated to creating images; a digital-to-analog converter; and memory chips that store
display data.
Modem Card:
A modem card is an internal type of modem that is plugged into the PCI slot of a PC
motherboard. A modem is a communications device that allows a computer to send and
receive data through telephone or cable lines.
Network interface Card(NIC):
The definition of a network card is a part of a computer that connects to a local area network
(LAN) or the Internet wirelessly or through an Ethernet cable. An example of a network card
is the hardware that was once an external device that is now commonly part of the
motherboard of a new computer.
Memory Chips:
A memory chip is an integrated circuit made out of millions of capacitors and transistors that
can store data or can be used to process code. Memory chips can hold memory either
temporarily through random access memory (RAM), or permanently through read only
memory (ROM). Read only memory contains permanently stored data that a processor can
read but cannot modify. Memory chips come in different sizes and shapes. Some can be
connected directly while some need special drives. Memory chips are essential components
in computer and electronic devices in which memory storage plays a key role.
Single in line Memory Module(SIMM):
Single inline memory module (SIMM) is a type of RAM (random access memory) that was
popular in the early 1980s to late 1990s. SIMMs have 32-bit data paths and were standardized
under the JEDEC JESD-21C standard. Non-IBM PC computers, UNIX workstations and the
Mac IIfx used the non-standard SIMMS.

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Dual in line Memory Module(DIMM):

A dual inline memory module (DIMM) is a small-scale circuit board that holds memory chips
on the motherboard. DIMM incorporates a series of memory called dynamic random access
memory (DRAM), which provides primary storage, the main memory that continually reads
and executes stored instructions or data directly to the CPU.
DIMM is an attempt to improve on the earlier single inline memory module (SIMM), which
used matched pairs. DIMM uses only one circuit board, thus increasing memory speed and
storage. DIMM also has a much smaller circuit board and easier insertion compared to
SIMM.
Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory(SDRAM):
SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) is a generic name for various kinds of dynamic random
access memory (DRAM) that are synchronized with the clock speed that the microprocessor
is optimized for. This tends to increase the number of instructions that the processor can
perform in a given time.
DDR SDRAM:
Double data rate synchronous dynamic random access memory (DDR SDRAM) is a type of
random-access memory module that allows for higher transfer rates and faster performance
compared to earlier RAM modules. DDR SDRAM transfers memory on both the rising edge
and falling edge of a clock cycle, doubling the transfer rate. This is where the name ―double
data rate‖ comes from.

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5.1 Computer Network:

A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided by
network nodes. The computers use common communication protocols over digital
interconnections to communicate with each other.
5.1.1Basic Data communication components:
The different components of Data communication are shown in the following figure.

1. Message:
The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender:
The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver:
The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium:
The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol:
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but
not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who
speaks only Japanese.
5.1.2 Modes of communication:
Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission
mode.

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1.SimplexMode:
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can
use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input the
monitor can only give the output.

2.Half-DuplexMode:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex
mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in
both directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delaythe same time. Channel Capacity=2*
Bandwidth*propagation Delay

3.Full-DuplexMode:
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending
and the other for receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at

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SynchronousTransmission:
In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of blocks or frames. This transmission is
the full duplex type. Between sender and receiver the synchronization is compulsory. In
Synchronous transmission, there is no gap present between data. It is more efficient and
more reliable than asynchronous transmission to transfer the large amount of data.

Asynchronous Transmission:
In Asynchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of byte or character. This transmission
is the half duplex type transmission. In this transmission start bits and stop bits are added
with
data.
It
does
not
requir
e
synch
roniza
tion.

5.1.3 Communication Media:

Communication media refer to the ways, means or channels of transmitting message from
sender to the receiver. Communication media indicate the use of verbal or non-verbal
language in the process of communication. Without language, none can communicate.
Whenever communication takes place, media are used there.
Guided communication media:
Guided media are the physical links in which signal are confined along a narrow path.
These are also called bounded media. There are three common types of bounded media.

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Twisted pair cable:

A twisted pair cable is a type of cable made by putting two separate insulated wires together
in a twisted pattern and running them parallel to each other. This type of cable is widely used
in different kinds of data and voice infrastructures.

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable(UTP):

UTP stands for Unshielded Twisted Pair cable. UTP cable is a 100 ohm copper cable that
consists of 2 to 1800 unshielded twisted pairs surrounded by an outer jacket. They have no
metallic shield. This makes the cable small in diameter but unprotected against electrical
interference. The twist helps to improve its immunity to electrical noise and EMI.

(You can get Cat 5e and Cat 6 UTP Patch Cable from us)

For horizontal cables, the number of pairs is typically 4 pair as shown below

Coaxial Cable (coax):

Coax, short for coaxial, is a type of cable used to transmit data, the internet, video and voice
communications. A coax cable is made up of an aluminum and copper shield with an outer
plastic jacket (see below) with the dielectric insulator helping to minimize signal loss.

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Optical Fiber Cable:

A fiber optic cable is a network cable that contains strands of glass fibers inside an
insulated casing. They're designed for long-distance, high-performance data networking,
and telecommunications. Compared to wired cables, fiber optic cables provide higher
bandwidth and transmit data over longer distances. Fiber optic cables support much of the
world's internet, cable television, and telephone systems.

Unguided Communication Media:

An unguided media type transmission is used to transmit electromagnetic waves without
using any of the physical transmission media. Thus it is also called wireless transmission.
Unguided media type includes air as the media where electromagnetic energy can be flown
easily without any intrusion or hindrance.
Radio waves:
 Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum longer than infrared radiation. ...
 Radio waves are generated artificially by transmitters and received by radio receivers, using
antennas.
 It has frequency between 10 KHz to 1 GHz. Our AM and FM radio stations, cordless phones
and televisions are example of multi-tasking.
Micro waves:
Microwave transmission is the transmission of information by electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths in the microwave range (1 m - 1 mm) of the electromagnetic spectrum. ... 10,
which used microwave relays to multiplex eight telephone channels over long distances.

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Infrared:
Infrared is used in wireless technology devices or systems that convey data through infrared
radiation. Infrared technology allows computing devices to communicate via short range
wireless signals. With infrared transmission, computers can transfer files and other digital
data bidirectional.

5.1.4 Communication Devices:

Computers. The most familiar example of a communication device is the common telephone
modem (from modulator/demodulator). Modems modulate, or transform, a computer's digital
message into an analog signal for transmission over standard telephone networks, and they
demodulate the analog signal back into a digital.
Switch:
Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link layer of the OSI model.
They connect devices in a network and use packet switching to send, receive or forward data
packets or data frames over the network. A switch has many ports, to which computers are
plugged in.

Router:
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. Data sent through the internet,
such as a web page or email, is in the form of data packets.

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Gateway:
A gateway is a node (router) in a computer network, a key stopping point for data on its way
to or from other networks. ... In a workplace, the gateway is the computer that routes traffic
from a workstation to the outside network that is serving up the Web pages.
Gateways are basically protocol converters, facilitating compatibility between two protocols
and operating on any layer of the open systems interconnection (OSI) model.
5.1.5 Network Architecture:
Network architecture is the design of a computer network. It is a framework for the
specification of a network's physical components and their functional organization and
configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as communication protocols
used.

Server:
A computer network in which one centralized, powerful computer (called the server) is a hub
to which many less powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients) are
connected. The clients run programs and access data that are stored on the server. Compare
peer-to-peer network.
Client:
Client-server networks are computer networks that use a dedicated computer (server) to store
data, manage/provide resources and control user access. The server acts as a central point on
the network upon which the other computers connect to. A computer that connects to the
server is called a client.

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Client-Server Network: advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages Disadvantages

A specialist network operating system is

All files are stored in a central location
needed

Network peripherals are controlled

The server is expensive to purchase
centrally

Backups and network security is Specialist staff such as a network

controlled centrally manager is needed

Users can access shared data which is If any part of the network fails a lot of
centrally controlled disruption can occur

Peer to peer network Architecture:

A peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture consists of a decentralized network of peers - nodes that are
both clients and servers. P2P networks distribute the workload between peers, and all peers
contribute and consume resources within the network without the need for a centralized
server.
Advantages:
P2P networks have many advantages. For example, there is no central server to maintain
and to pay for (disregarding tracking servers), so this type of networks can be more
economical. That also means there is no need for a network operating system, thus lowering
cost even further. Another advantage would be there is no single point of failure, unless in
the very unlikely case that the network is very small. P2P networks are very resilient to the
change in peers; if one peer leaves, there is minimal impact on the overall network. If a large
group of peers join the network at once, the network can handle the increased load easily.
Due to its decentralized nature, P2P networks can survive attacks fairly well since there is no
centralized server.
Dis Advantages:
P2P networks introduce many security concerns. If one peer is infected with a virus and
uploads a chuck of the file that contains the virus, it can quickly spread to other peers. Also,
if there are many peers in the network, it can be difficult to ensure they have the proper
permissions to access the network if a peer is sharing a confidential file. P2P networks often
contain a large number of users who utilize resources shared by other nodes, but who do not
share anything themselves. These types of free riders are called the leechers. Although being
hard to shut down is counted as an advantage, it can also be a disadvantage if it is used to
facilitate illegal and immoral activities. Furthermore, the widespread use of mobile devices
has made many companies to switch to other architectures. With many people using mobile
devices that are not always on, it can be difficult for users to contribute to the network
without draining battery life and using up mobile data. In client-server architecture, clients
don‘t need to contribute any of their resources.

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5.1.6 Network Types:

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

LAN(Local Area Network):

 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and Ethernet cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN (Personal Area Network):

 Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
 Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known
as Personal Area Network.
 Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
 Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
 Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.

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There are two types of Personal Area Network:

 Wired Personal Area Network

 Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples of Personal Area Network:

 Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a
network connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the
information.
 Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also
known as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such
as printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
 Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

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MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

 A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-
3, ADSL, etc.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).

Uses of Metropolitan Area Network:

 MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
 It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
 It can be used in a college within a city.
 It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fiber optic cable or satellite links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

Examples of Wide Area Network:

 Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
 Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
 Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices.
This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom
company.

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Advantages of Wide Area Network

 Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.
Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with
them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can
connect with another branch.
 Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
 Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.

VPN (Virtual Private Network):

A VPN connection establishes a secure connection between you and the internet. Via the
VPN, all your data traffic is routed through an encrypted virtual tunnel. This disguises your
IP address when you use the internet, making its location invisible to everyone. A VPN
connection is also secure against external attacks.

5.1.7 Star Topology:

Star topology is a network topology in which each network component is physically
connected to a central node such as a router, hub or switch. ... When the central node receives
a packet from a connecting node, it can pass the packet on to other nodes in the network. A
star topology is also known as a star network.

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Advantages:
 It is very reliable – if one cable or device fails then all the others will still work
 It is high-performing as no data collisions can occur
 Less expensive because each device only needs one I/O port and wishes to be connected
with hub with one link.
 Easier to put in
 Robust in nature
Dis Advantages:
 Requires more cable than a linear bus.
 If the connecting network device (network switch) fails, nodes attached are disabled and
can‘t participate in network communication.
 More expensive than linear bus topology due to the value of the connecting devices
(network switches)
 If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.

Ring Topology:
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other
nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node – a ring. Data
travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet.

Advantages of Ring Topology:

 In this data flows in one direction which reduces the chance of packet collisions.
 In this topology additional workstations can be added after without impacting
performance of the network.
 Equal access to the resources.
 There is no need of server to control the connectivity among the nodes in the topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology:
 Due to the Unit-directional Ring, a data packet (token) must have to pass through all the
nodes.
 If one workstation shuts down, it affects whole network or if a node goes down entire
network goes down.
 It is slower in performance as compared to the bus topology
 It is Expensive.

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Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a specific kind of network topology in which all of the various devices in the
network are connected to a single cable or line. In general, the term refers to how various
devices are set up in a network.
A bus network is a network topology in which nodes are directly connected to a common
half-duplex link called a bus.

Advantages of Bus Topology:

 It is the easiest network topology for connecting peripherals or computers in a linear
fashion.
 It works very efficient well when there is a small network.
 Length of cable required is less than a star topology.
 It is easy to connect or remove devices in this network without affecting any other
device.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Identification of problem becomes difficult if whole network goes down.
 Troubleshooting of individual device issues is very hard.
 Need of terminators are required at both ends of main cable.

Mesh Topology:
A mesh topology is a network setup where each computer and network device is
interconnected with one another. This topology setup allows for most transmissions to be
distributed even if one of the connections goes down. It is a topology commonly used for
wireless networks.

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Advantages of Mesh Topology:

 Failure during a single device won‘t break the network.
 There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point links for every
computer.
 Fault identification is straightforward.
 This topology provides multiple paths to succeed in the destination and tons of
redundancy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
 It‘s costly as compared to the opposite network topologies i.e. star, bus, point to point
topology.
 Installation is extremely difficult in the mesh.
 Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will need to remain active all the time and
share the load.
 Complex process.

5.2 Data Communication Standards:

Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for exchange of
information among devices. It is important to follow Standards which are created by various
Standard Organization like IEEE,ISO,and ANSI etc. Types of Standards: ... De Facto
Standard.
5.2.1 Purpose of communication standards:
Standards and protocols provide the essential rules that enable hardware and software to work
together in order to allow devices to communicate over a computer network. The major
network protocol suite used for this purpose is Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP).
5.2.2 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model:
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
describe the functions of a networking system. The OSI model characterizes computing
functions into a universal set of rules and requirements in order to support interoperability
between different products and software.
Physical Layer:
The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model. This layer controls the way
unstructured, raw, bit -stream data is sent and received over a physical medium. This layer is
composed of the electrical, optical, and physical components of the network.
Data Link Layer:
The data link layer is the protocol layer in a program that handles the moving of data into and
out of a physical link in a network. ... Data bits are encoded, decoded and organized in the
data link layer, before they are transported as frames between two adjacent nodes on the same
LAN or WAN.
Network Layer:
Network layer is layer 3. The network layer is responsible for packet forwarding including
routing through intermediate routers.
Transport Layer:
The transport layer is a 4th layer from the top. The main role of the transport layer is to
provide the communication services directly to the application processes running on different
hosts. The transport layer provides a logical communication between application processes
running on different hosts.

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Session Layer:
The Session Layer is the 5th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. This
layer allows users on different machines to establish active communications sessions between
them. It is responsible for establishing, maintaining, synchronizing, terminating sessions
between end-user applications.
Presentation Layer:
Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. This
layer is also known as Translation layer, as this layer serves as a data translator for the
network. ... The main responsibility of this layer is to provide or define the data format and
encryption.
Application Layer:
Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. This
layer is also known as Translation layer, as this layer serves as a data translator for the
network. ... The main responsibility of this layer is to provide or define the data format and
encryption.
5.3 TCP/IP:
TCP/IP, in full Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, standard Internet
communications protocols that allow digital computers to communicate over long distances.
TCP/IP was developed in the 1970s and adopted as the protocol standard for ARPANET
(The predecessor to the Internet) in 1983.
Application Layer:
The final layer of the TCP/IP model is known as the Application Layer. The
Application Layer is responsible for managing, setting up, coordinating, and
terminating conversations between the applications at each end of the
communication. It also makes sure that the data from the sending host is
received in a format that is acceptable to the receiving host while supporting
software application and end-user processes. In other words, the Application
Layer interacts with the software application to determine whether network
services will be required. For example, HTTP is an application that actually runs
at the application layer while Internet Explorer.
Transport Layer:
The third layer of the TCP/IP model is known as the Transport layer. The
Transport Layer interacts with the application data and prepares it to be
transmitted across a network. This layer ensures reliable connectivity, error
recovery, and flow control from end-to-end through the sequencing of data
packets during transmission using either TCP or the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) over IP.
Internet Layer:
The Internet layer is responsible for logical transmission of data packets over the internet. It
can be compared to the network layer of the OSI model. It transmits data packets to the link
layer. It routes each of the data packets independently from the source to the destination,
using the optimal route.

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Network Access Layer:

The Network Access Layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP protocol hierarchy. The
protocols in this layer provide the means for the system to deliver data to the other devices on
a directly attached network. It defines how to use the network to transmit an IP datagram.

What is a port?
A port is a virtual point where network connections start and end. Ports are software-based
and managed by a computer's operating system. Each port is associated with a specific
process or service. Ports allow computers to easily differentiate between different kinds of
traffic: emails go to a different port than Webpages, for instance, even though both reach a
computer over the same Internet connection.

What is a port number?

Ports are standardized across all network-connected devices, with each port assigned a
number. Most ports are reserved for certain protocols — for example, all Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) messages go to port 80. While IP addresses enable messages to go to and
from specific devices, port numbers allow targeting of specific services or applications within
those devices.
What are the different port numbers?
There are 65,535 possible port numbers, although not all are in common use. Some of the
most commonly used ports, along with their associated networking protocol, are:
 Ports 20 and 21: File Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP is for transferring files
between a client and a server.
 Port 22: Secure Shell (SSH). SSH is one of many tunneling protocols that create
secure network connections.
 Port 25: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). SMTP is used for email.
 Port 53: Domain Name System (DNS). DNS is an essential process for the
modern Internet; it matches human-readable domain names to machine-readable
IP addresses, enabling users to load websites and applications without memorizing
a long list of IP addresses.
 Port 80: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). HTTP is the protocol that makes
the World Wide Web possible.
 Port 123: Network Time Protocol (NTP). NTP allows computer clocks to sync
with each other, a process that is essential for encryption.
 Port 179: Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). BGP is essential for establishing
efficient routes between the large networks that make up the Internet (these large
networks are called autonomous systems). Autonomous systems use BGP to
broadcast which IP addresses they control.
 Port 443: HTTP Secure (HTTPS). HTTPS is the secure and encrypted version of
HTTP. All HTTPS web traffic goes to port 443. Network services that use HTTPS
for encryption, such as DNS over HTTPS, also connect at this port.
 Port 500: Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol
(ISAKMP), which is part of the process of setting up secure IP sec connections.
 Port 3389: Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP). RDP enables users to remotely
connect to their desktop computers from another device.

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The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) maintains the full list of port numbers and
protocols assigned to them.
Well known Port Number:
Well-known ports are numbered 0 through 1023, and include 25 for SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol), 80 for HTTP (Hyper Text Transport Protocol), and 107 for Remote
TELNET Service. See also dynamic port, port, private port, and registered port.
Register Port Number:
Registered ports are in the range 1024 to 49151. Dynamic ports are in the range 49152 to
65535. As mentioned, most new port assignments are in the range from 1024 to 49151.
Registered port numbers are non–well-known ports that are used by vendors for their own
server applications
Dynamic Port Number:
Dynamic ports—Ports in the range 49152 to 65535 are not assigned, controlled, or
registered. They are used for temporary or private ports. They are also known as private or
non-reserved ports. Clients should choose ephemeral port numbers from this range, but many
systems do not.
5.3.2 Similarities between the TCP/IP model and the OSI model:

 Both are logical models.

 Both define standards for networking.
 Both provide a framework for creating and implementing networking standards and devices.
 Both divide the network communication process into layers.

Here are some important differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model:

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research
Organization) Project Agency Network).
OSI model provides a clear distinction between TCP/IP doesn‘t have any clear distinguishing points
interfaces, services, and protocols. between services, interfaces, and protocols.
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing
TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.
OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.

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5.3.3 Packet Switching:

Packet switching is defined as the connectionless network where the messages are divided
and grouped together and this is known as a packet. Each packet is routed from the source to
the destination as individual packets. The actual data in these packets are carried by the
payload. When the packet arrives at the destination, it is the responsibility of the destination
to put these packets in the right order. Let us know in detail about the advantages and
disadvantages of packet switching.
Circuit Switching:
Circuit switching is defined as the method of switching which is used for establishing a
dedicated communication path between the sender and the receiver. The link which is
established between the sender and the receiver is in the physical form. Analog telephone
network is a well-known example of circuit switching. Bandwidth is fixed in this type of
switching. Let us know in detail about the advantages and disadvantages of circuit switching.

Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Each packet containing the information that

A circuit needs to be established to make sure
needs to be processed goes through the
that data transmission takes place.
dynamic route.

A uniform path is followed throughout the There is no uniform path that is followed end to
session. end through the session.

It is most ideal for voice communication, It is used mainly for data transmission as the
while also keeping the delay uniform. delay is not uniform.

Without a connection, it cannot exist, as the A connection is not necessary, as it can exist
connection needs to be present on a physical without one too. It needs to be present on a
layer. network layer.

Data to be transmitted is processed at the Data is processed and transmitted at the source
source itself. as well as at each switching station.

5.3.4 IP Addressing:
An IP addressing is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a local
network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules governing the format of
data sent via the internet or local network.
In essence, IP addresses are the identifier that allows information to be sent between devices
on a network: they contain location information and make devices accessible for
communication. The internet needs a way to differentiate between different computers,
routers, and websites. IP addresses provide a way of doing so and form an essential part of
how the internet works.

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Static IP Addressing:
A static IP address is simply an address that doesn't change. Once your device is assigned a
static IP address, that number typically stays the same until the device is decommissioned or
your network architecture changes.
Dynamic IP Addressing:
Use advanced settings for your network to configure dynamic DNS. When your IP address
changes, the DNS entry for your server is automatically updated with its new IP address, so
outside users can use the same domain name. You can choose the Dynamic DNS
provider and don't have to install additional software on your computer.

Class A:
Class A addresses are for networks with large number of total hosts. Class A allows for 126
networks by using the first octet for the network ID. The first bit in this octet, is always zero.
The remaining seven bits in this octet complete the network ID.
Class B:
An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet set to 10, i.e. Class B IP
Addresses range from 128.0. X.x to 191.255. x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.
Class C:
Class C network numbers use 24 bits for the network number and 8 bits for host numbers.
Class C network numbers are appropriate for networks with few hosts--the maximum being
254. A class C network number occupies the first three bytes of an IP address. Only the
fourth byte is assigned at the discretion of the network owners.
Class D:
Class D IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are used for multicasting. Multicasting
allows a single host to send a single stream of data to thousands of hosts across the Internet at
the same time. It is often used for audio and video streaming, such as IP-based cable TV
networks. Another example is the delivery of real-time stock market data from one source to
many brokerage companies.

 Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

 First octet value range from 224 to 239

Class E:

Class E IP addresses are not allocated to hosts and are not available for general use. These are
reserved for research purposes.
 Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
 First octet value range from 240 to 255
 Number of Networks: N/A
 Number of Hosts per Network: Research/Reserved/Experimental.

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Subnet Masks:
A subnet mask is a 32-bit number created by setting host bits to all 0s and setting network
bits to all 1s. In this way, the subnet mask separates the IP address into the network and host
addresses. The phrase ―mask‖ is applied because the subnet mask essentially uses its own
32-bit number to mask the IP address.

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.1 Wireless Communication Introduction:

Wireless communication (or just wireless, when the context allows) is the transfer of
information between two or more points that do not use an electrical conductor as a medium
by which to perform the transfer. The most common wireless technologies use radio waves.
6.1.1 Wireless Network:
A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data connections between
network nodes. ... Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks, wireless local
area networks (WLANs), wireless sensor networks, satellite communication networks, and
terrestrial microwave networks.

6.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of wireless network:

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Radio Signals:
A radio wave is a type of electromagnetic signal designed to carry information through the air
over relatively long distances. Sometimes radio waves are referred to as radio frequency (RF)
signals. In addition, radio waves are the primary means for carrying data over a wireless
network.
Radio Transceiver(Transmitter and Receiver):
A transceiver is an electronic device which is a combination of a radio transmitter and a
receiver, hence the name. It can both transmit and receive radio waves using an antenna, for
communication purposes. Radio transceivers are widely used in wireless devices.
Wireless Access Point:
A wireless access point (WAP) is a hardware device or configured node on a local area
network (LAN) that allows wireless capable devices and wired networks to connect through a
wireless standard, including Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. WAPs feature radio transmitters and
antennae, which facilitate connectivity between devices and the Internet or a network. A
WAP is also known as a hotspot.
Line of Sight Communication:
Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation that can transmit and receive data only where
transmit and receive stations are in view of each other without any sort of an obstacle
between them. FM radio, microwave and satellite transmission are examples of line-of-sight
communication.
Short Distance Wireless Communication:
Short-region wireless technology refers to the technology that can communicate wirelessly
within a smaller diameter region, within a minimum level of one millimeter. The common
short-region wireless communication modes are UWB, Wi-Fi, ZigBee and Bluetooth.
Long Distance Wireless Communication:
Telephone, telegraph, photo telegraph, and television signals are transmitted simultaneously
over long distances over air, cable, and radio communications lines in which hundreds or
thousands of independent communications channels are formed by multiplexing
communications lines.
6.2.1 Wi-Fi:
A WiFi network is simply an internet connection that‘s shared with multiple devices in a
home or business via a wireless router. The router is connected directly to your internet
modem and acts as a hub to broadcast the internet signal to all your Wi-Fi enabled devices.
This gives you flexibility to stay connected to the internet as long as you‘re within your
network coverage area.

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6.2.2 WI MAX:
WiMAX technology is a wireless broadband communications technology based around the
IEE 802.16 standard providing high speed data over a wide area.

WiMAX, the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a telecommunications

technology aimed at providing wireless data over long distances in a variety of ways, from
point-to-point links to full mobile cellular type access.
Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for exchanging data
between fixed and mobile devices over short distances using UHF radio waves in the ISM
bands, from 2.402 GHz to 2.48 GHz, and building personal area networks.

6.3.1 Cellular Communication:

Cellular communication is a form of communication technology that enables the use of
mobile phones. A mobile phone is a bidirectional radio that enables simultaneous
transmission and reception. Cellular communication is based on the geographic division of
the communication coverage area into cells, and within cells.

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Characteristics of Cellular Networks:

The basic feature of the cellular system is frequency reuse, which exploits path loss to reuse
the same frequency spectrum at spatially separated locations. Specifically, the coverage area
of a cellular system is divided into nonoverlapping cells where some set of channels is
assigned to each cell.
6.3.2 Global Positioning System(GPS):
GPS, or the Global Positioning System, is a global navigation satellite system that provides
location, velocity and time synchronization. GPS is everywhere. You can find GPS systems
in your car, your Smartphone and your watch. GPS helps you get where you are going, from
point A to point B.
GPS Segments:
1) Space Segment: The GPS space segment consists of a constellation of satellites
transmitting radio signals to users. The United States is committed to maintaining the
availability of at least 24 operational GPS satellites, 95% of the time.
2) Control Segment: The GPS control segment consists of a global network of ground
facilities that track the GPS satellites, monitor their transmissions, perform analyses,
and send commands and data to the constellation.
3) User Segment: The user segment includes the equipment of the military personnel
and civilians who receive GPS signals. Military GPS user equipment has been
integrated into fighters, bombers, tankers, helicopters, ships, submarines, tanks, jeeps,
and soldiers' equipment.
Geostationary Earth Orbit(GEO):
geostationary orbit, a circular orbit 35,785 km (22,236 miles) above Earth's Equator in which
a satellite's orbital period is equal to Earth's rotation period of 23 hours and 56 minutes. A
spacecraft in this orbit appears to an observer on Earth to be stationary in the sky.
Medium Earth Orbit(MEO):
A medium Earth orbit (MEO) is an Earth-centered orbit with an altitude above a low Earth
orbit (LEO) and below a high Earth orbit (HEO) – between 2,000 km (1,243 mi) and 35,786
km (22,236 mi) above sea level). The region of space in between the low Earth orbit and the
geostationary orbit is called the Medium Earth Orbit (MEO). This orbit is at a distance of
2000 to 35786 kms from the earth's surface. This orbit is ideal for navigation and
communication satellites.
Low Earth Orbit(LEO):
A low Earth orbit is an Earth-centered orbit near the planet, often specified as having a period
of 128 minutes or less and an eccentricity less than 0.25. Most of the artificial objects in outer
space are in LEO, with an altitude never more than about one-third of the radius of Earth.
6.4 Mobile Device Communication:
Collective term used to describe various types of devices including, but not limited
to: cellular and satellite phones, smart phones, personal digital assistants (PDA's), tablets,
pagers, and other similar devices that facilitate voice and data communications.

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Public Switched Telephone Network:

What is PSTN communication?
A Public Switched Telephone Network, or PSTN for short, refers to a telecommunications
network which allows subscribers at different sites to communicate by voice. The term plain
old telephone service (POTS) is also frequently used. The features of a PSTN are:
Subscribers can be connected by entering telephone numbers.
Mobile Telephone Switching Office(MTSO):
The Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) is the mobile equivalent of a PSTN Central
Office. The MTSO contains the switching equipment or Mobile Switching Center (MSC) for
routing mobile phone calls. It also contains the equipment for controlling the cell sites that
are connected to the MSC.
Cell Site:
A cell site, cell tower, or cellular base station is a cellular-enabled mobile device site where
antennas and electronic communications equipment are placed—typically on a radio mast,
tower, or other raised structure to create a cell (or adjacent cells) in a cellular network.
Mobile Subscriber Units (MSUs):
The mobile subscriber unit consists of a control unit and a transceiver that transmits and
receives radio transmissions to and from a cell site. ... The portable (typical transmit power is
0.6 watts) the transportable (typical transmit power is 1.6 watts)
Base Station Subsystem:
The base station subsystem (BSS) is the section of a traditional cellular telephone
network which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and
the network switching subsystem. .
Network and Switching Subsystem(NSS):
Network switching subsystem (NSS) (or GSM core network) is the component of a GSM
system that carries out call out and mobility management functions for mobile phones
roaming on the network of base stations. This allows mobile phones to have access to
services such as WAP, MMS and the Internet.
Operation Subsystem:
The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls the
system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized,
regional, and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM
network.
6.4.2Features of Mobile Communication System:
1. High capacity load balancing:
The load balance should be integrated into every wired or wireless infrastructure. High load
balancing ensures that the device dynamically switches users from one point of touch to
another when one connection point is overwhelmed due to the available power.
2. Network management system:
Wireless networks are now a day even more complicated, with hundreds or even thousands of
access points, firewalls, switches, monitored power, and other pieces. The cellular networks
have a more intelligent means of centrally controlling the whole network.
3. Scalability:
New wireless gadgets are constantly rising in popularity every day. Without needing to
overhaul or create a brand new network, the networks will start tiny, if necessary, but
increase coverage and capacities.

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Limitations of Mobile Communication System:

1. Insufficient bandwidth: Mobile Internet access is generally slower than direct cable
connections higher speed wireless LANs are inexpensive but have very limited range
(Tanenbaum)
2. Security standards: When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks,
requiring careful use of VPN.
Inadequate Bandwidth:
Low bandwidth is caused by the Mbps rate that your current broadband has, or your
bandwidth could be slowed down because too many people are connected to the network and,
in some cases, to your device. More lanes, or bandwidth, on the highway can solve the
problem.
Security issues:
Security threats have increased these past months. Open networks, public Wi-Fi, remote
connections, the Internet of Things (IoT), proximity payments, cloud computing… The list of
Security threats is long and cyber criminality is real.
Interference:
In telecommunications, an interference is that which modifies a signal in a disruptive manner,
as it travels along a communication channel between its source and receiver. The term is
often used to refer to the addition of unwanted signals to a useful signal.
Health hazards:
More car accidents are related to drivers who were talking through Mobile device. There are
allegations that cell phone signal may cause health problems.
Human interface with device:
Screen and keyboard tend to small, which may make them harder to use. Alternate input
methods such as speech or handwriting recognition require training.
Web Protocol Stack:
A web service protocol stack is a protocol stack (a stack of computer networking protocols)
that is used to define, locate, implement, and make Web services interact with each other.
Transport Protocol:
A communications protocol responsible for establishing a connection and ensuring that all
data has arrived safely. It is defined in layer 4 of the OSI model. Often, the term transport
protocol also implies transport services, which includes the lower-level data link protocol that
moves packets from one node to another. See TCP/IP OSI and transport services.
Messaging protocols:
In the same way, messaging protocols are the rules, formats, and functions for messages sent
between machines. Essentially, everyone has agreed on the types of information to include
with data packets (i.e. like an address) and the way of formatting that information so
everyone can read it.
Description Protocol:
Description Protocol is a format for describing multimedia communication sessions for the
purposes of announcement and invitation. Its predominant use is in support of streaming
media applications, such as voice over IP and video conferencing.

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Wireless Markup Language(WML):

Wireless markup language (WML) is a markup language for wireless devices that adhere to
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) and have limited processing capability. Just like
HTML is a markup language that renders content for desktop browsers, WML renders
content for wireless devices that do not have appropriate processing capabilities. It does this
by defining the protocol stack and WWW based Internet access for wireless devices. WAP
also has sites written in WML like HTML-based sites.
Wireless Application Protocol:
Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for micro-browsers and it enables
the access of internet in the mobile devices. It uses the mark-up language WML (Wireless
Markup Language and not HTML), WML is defined as XML 1.0 application. It enables
creating web applications for mobile devices. In 1998, WAP Forum was founded by
Ericson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet whose aim was to standardize the various
wireless technologies via protocols.
WAP protocol was resulted by the joint efforts of the various members of WAP Forum. In
2002, WAP forum was merged with various other forums of the industry resulting in the
formation of Open Mobile Alliance (OMA).

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7.1 Introduction:
A database is an organized collection of data, generally stored and accessed electronically
from a computer system. It supports the storage and manipulation of data. In other words,
databases are used by an organization as a method of storing, managing and retrieving
information.
7.1.1Data:
Data is a collection of raw, unorganized facts and details like text, observations, figures,
symbols and description of things etc. In other words, data does not carry any specific
purpose and has no significance by itself. Moreover, data is measured in terms of bits and
bytes – which are basic units of information in the context of computer storage and
processing.
Information:
Information is the processed, organized and structured data. It provides context for data and
enables decision making. For example, a single customer‘s sale at a restaurant is data – this
becomes information when the business is able to identify the most popular or least popular
dish.
Difference between Data and Information
Data Information

Data is unorganized and unrefined facts Information comprises processed, organized

data presented in a meaningful context

Data is an individual unit that contains raw materials Information is a group of data that collectively
which do not carry any specific meaning. carries a logical meaning.

Data doesn‘t depend on information. Information depends on data.

It is measured in bits and bytes. Information is measured in meaningful units

like time, quantity, etc.

Raw data alone is insufficient for decision making Information is sufficient for decision making

An example of data is a student‘s test score The average score of a class is the information
derived from the given data.

7.1.2 File Management System:

File management software systems, sometimes called file tracking software or file
managers, manage data files. Its capabilities are limited, though it is designed to manage
individual or group files, such as office documents, records and similar information. ... This
then allows for easier search and discovery of files.
Limitations of File Management System:
1. Redundancy
Redundancy is a kind of duplication that occurs if the same type of information exists in
different locations. In this event, there is a possibility of memory wastage to take place
resulting in higher storage costs.

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2. Inconsistency
Due to the effect of data redundancy this often leads to data inconsistency. Which means that
the same copies of data located in different places contain different values. For preventing
this, there should be paper listing among different files.
3. Accessibility
Accessing data in file management system is not an easy process. It is not convenient as it
should be. Whenever a user needs to access an information using different approaches, they
must execute a special program.
4. Integrity
The data that is present on a file management system can get integrated. Meaning it is not
correct and consistent. Most often this is caused in the presence of consistency constraints.
Constraints are imposed by the programmers using programming codes. If the integrity
continues, it can make the process of adding new constraints to be difficult.
5. Atomicity
Atomicity refers to the data that is incomplete. This often happens if the data is either
completely entered or not entered at all. For an example, your system could fail in the middle
of a transaction leading to data atomicity. Unlike in database management system, it is
difficult to ensure atomicity in file management system.
6. Data duplication
Since data is stored in more than one location, there is a possibility of data duplication to take
place. If file management system undergoes data duplication it will cause problems in the
storage space. These duplications are difficult to correct due to the fact that they are
independent to each other. Hence, it requires manual correction which can take time and
effort.
7. Data isolation
If the data is stored in different locations, this could essentially mean that they are isolated in
file management system. Under this circumstances, the formats of each file can vary
significantly. As a result, extracting data from files can be difficult as it requires complex
programming.
7.1.3 Database:
A database is information that is set up for easy access, management and updating. Computer
databases typically store aggregations of data records or files that contain information, such
as sales transactions, customer data, financials and product information.
Databases are used for storing, maintaining and accessing any sort of data. They collect
information on people, places or things. That information is gathered in one place so that it
can be observed and analyzed. Databases can be thought of as an organized collection of
information.
7.1.4 Database Management System(DBMS):
Database Management Systems (DBMS) are software systems used to store, retrieve, and run
queries on data. A DBMS serves as an interface between an end-user and a database,
allowing users to create, read, update, and delete data in the database.
Database management systems are set up on specific data handling concepts, as the practice
of administrating a database evolves. The earliest databases only handled individual single
pieces of specially formatted data. Today‘s more evolved systems can handle different kinds
of less formatted data and tie them together in more elaborate ways.

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7.1.5 Advantages of DBMS over the file Management System:

1. No redundant data: Redundancy removed by data normalization. No data duplication

saves storage and improves access time.
2. Data Consistency and Integrity: As we discussed earlier the root cause of data
inconsistency is data redundancy, since data normalization takes care of the data
redundancy, data inconsistency also been taken care of as part of it
3. Data Security: It is easier to apply access constraints in database systems so that only
authorized user is able to access the data. Each user has a different set of access thus
data is secured from the issues such as identity theft, data leaks and misuse of data.
4. Privacy: Limited access means privacy of data.
5. Easy access to data – Database systems manages data in such a way so that the data is
easily accessible with fast response times.
6. Easy recovery: Since database systems keeps the backup of data, it is easier to do a
full recovery of data in case of a failure.
7. Flexible: Database systems are more flexible than file processing systems.

7.1.6 Role of the Database Administrator(DBA):

Database administrators (DBAs) use specialized software to store and organize data. The role
may include capacity planning, installation, configuration, database design, migration,
performance monitoring, security, troubleshooting, as well as backup and data recovery.
7.1.7 Database Models:
A database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database.
It fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored, organized and manipulated.
The most popular example of a database model is the relational model, which uses a table-
based format.
Hierarchal Database Model:
A hierarchical database model is a data model in which the data are organized into a tree-like
structure. The hierarchical database model mandates that each child record has only one
parent, whereas each parent record can have one or more child records.

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Network Database Model:

The network model is a database model conceived as a flexible way of representing objects
and their relationships. Its distinguishing feature is that the schema, viewed as a graph in
which object types are nodes and relationship types are arcs, is not restricted to being a
hierarchy or lattice.

Relational Database Model:

The relational model (RM) for database management is an approach to managing data using a
structure and language consistent with first-order predicate logic, first described in 1969 by
English computer scientist Edgar F. Codd, where all data is represented in terms of tuples,
grouped into relations.

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Object Oriented Database Model:

An object database is a database management system in which information is represented in
the form of objects as used in object-oriented programming. Object databases are different
from relational databases which are table-oriented. Object–relational databases are a hybrid
of both approaches.
Object Relational Database Model:
An object–relational database, or object–relational database management system, is a
database management system similar to a relational database, but with an object-oriented
database model objects, classes and inheritance are directly supported in database schemas
and in the query language.
7.1.8 Structured Query Language(SQL):
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standardized programming language that's used to
manage relational databases and perform various operations on the data in them. ... SQL
became the de facto standard programming language for relational databases after they
emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s

Data definition Language(DDL):

Data Definition Language (DDL) is a standard for commands that define the different
structures in a database. DDL statements create, modify, and remove database objects such as
tables, indexes, and users. Common DDL statements are CREATE, ALTER, and DROP.
Data Manipulation Languages:
A data manipulation language (DML) is a computer programming language used for adding
(inserting), deleting, and modifying (updating) data in a database. ... A popular data
manipulation language is that of Structured Query Language (SQL), which is used to retrieve
and manipulate data in a relational database.
Data Control Language:
A data control language is a syntax similar to a computer programming language used to
control access to data stored in a database. In particular, it is a component of Structured
Query Language. Data Control Language is one of the logical group in SQL Commands.
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7.2 Basic database Terminology:

Field/Attributes/Column: The terms field and attribute have similar meanings. A row is a
collection of column values. Every row in a table has the same shape (in other words, every
row is composed of the same set of columns). If you are trying to model a real-world
application, a row represents a real-world object.
Record/Tuple/Row: A row, or record, is also known as a tuple. The columns in a table is a
field and is also referred to as an attribute. You can also think of it this way: an attribute is
used to define the record and a record contains a set of attributes.
Table/Relation: Database relationships are associations between tables that are created using
join statements to retrieve data. Both tables can have only one record on each side of the
relationship. ... Each primary key value relates to none or only one record in the related table.
View: A view is (usually) defined in terms of one or more tables. When you create a view,
you are not storing more data, you are instead creating a different way of looking at existing
data. A view is a useful way to give a name to a complex query that you may have to use
repeatedly.
Data Type:
 Integer – is a whole number that can have a positive, negative or zero value. ...
 Character – refers to any number, letter, space or symbol that can be entered in a computer. ...
 String – is used to represent text. ...
 Floating Point Number – is a number that contains decimals.
Key: The database key is an attribute or a group of attribute that can uniquely identify each
record in a table. The keys are an important feature of a relational table. In relational database
model, the logical structure of the database is represented by the number of interrelated
tables.

7.3 Planning a Database:

1. Determine the purpose of your database.
2. Find and organize the information required.
3. Divide the information into tables.
4. Turn information items into columns.
5. Specify primary keys.

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6. Set up the table relationships.

7. Refine your design.
8. Apply the normalization rules.
7.3.1 Steps for designing a Database:

The database development life cycle has a number of stages that are followed when
developing database systems.
The steps in the development life cycle do not necessarily have to be followed religiously in a
sequential manner.
On small database systems, the process of database design is usually very simple and does
not involve a lot of steps.
In order to fully appreciate the above diagram, let‘s look at the individual components listed
in each step for overview of design process in DBMS.
Requirements analysis:
 Planning – This stages of database design concepts are concerned with planning of
entire Database Development Life Cycle. It takes into consideration the Information
Systems strategy of the organization.
 System definition – This stage defines the scope and boundaries of the proposed
database system.
Database designing:

 Logical model – This stage is concerned with developing a database model based on
requirements. The entire design is on paper without any physical implementations or
specific DBMS considerations.
 Physical model – This stage implements the logical model of the database taking into
account the DBMS and physical implementation factors.

Implementation:

 Data conversion and loading – this stage of relational databases design is concerned
with importing and converting data from the old system into the new database.
 Testing – this stage is concerned with the identification of errors in the newly
implemented system. It checks the database against requirement specifications.

Two Types of Database Techniques:

1. Normalization
2. ER Modeling

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7.4 Data Modeling:

Data modeling is the process of creating a simple diagram of a complex software system,
using text and symbols to represent the way data will flow. The diagram can be used to
ensure efficient use of data as a blueprint for the construction of new software or for
reengineering a legacy application.
Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD):
Entity Relationship Diagram, also known as ERD, ER Diagram or ER model, is a type of
structural diagram for use in database design. An ERD contains different symbols and
connectors that visualize two important information. The major entities within the system
scope, and the inter-relationships among these entities.

7.4.1 Entity:
A single unique object in the real world that is being mastered. Examples of an entity are a
single person, single product, or single organization.
Entity Instance:
Entities are the basic objects of ERDs. These are the tables of your database. ... A specific
example of an entity is called an instance. Each instance becomes a record or a row in a table.
Attribute:
A characteristic or trait of an entity type that describes the entity, for example, the Person
entity type has the Date of Birth attribute.
Relationship:
A relationship type represents the association between entity types. For example, ‗Enrolled
in' is a relationship type that exists between entity type Student and Course. In ER diagram,
relationship type is represented by a diamond and connecting the entities with lines.
Degree of a Relationship:
Degree of relationship is the number of entity sets that are participated (associated) in that
relationship. That is, the number of entity sets that are connected through the relationship in
question is called the degree of relationship.
i. Unary relationship: A unary relationship, also called recursive, is one in which a
relationship exists between occurrences of the same entity set. In this relationship, the
primary and foreign keys are the same, but they represent two entities with different
roles.
ii. Binary relationship: A binary relationship is when two entities participate and is the
most common relationship degree. For Example: A unary relationship is when both
participants in the relationship are the same entity. For Example: Subjects may be
prerequisites for other subjects.

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iii. One to one: A one-to-one relationship is a link between the information in two tables,
where each record in each table only appears once. For example, there might be a
one-to-one relationship between employees and the cars they drive.

iv. One to many: a one-to-many relationship occurs when a parent record in one table
can potentially reference several child records in another table. The opposite of a one-
to-many relationship is a many-to-many relationship, in which a child record can link
back to several parent records.

Key:
A key is an attribute in ER diagrams whose values are distinct for each individual entity in an
entity set. For example for a student entity set Roll Number or Registration Number can be a
key because these are unique for each student entity.
i. Candidate Key: is a set of attributes that uniquely identify tuples in a table.
Candidate Key is a super key with no repeated attributes.
ii. Primary key: a column or group of columns in a table that uniquely identify every
row in that table.
iii. Foreign Key: is a column that creates a relationship between two tables. The purpose
of foreign keys is to maintain data integrity and allow navigation between two
different instances of an entity.
iv. Composite primary key: is a combination of two or more columns that uniquely
identify rows in a table. The combination of columns guarantees uniqueness, though
individual uniqueness is not guaranteed.
v. Super key: A super key is a group of single or multiple keys which identifies rows in
a table.
vi. Alternate key: is a column or group of columns in a table that uniquely identify
every row in that table.

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Secondary key: Secondary Key is the key that has not been selected to be the primary key.
Therefore, a candidate key not selected as a primary key is called secondary key. Candidate
key is an attribute or set of attributes that you can consider as a Primary key.
Cardinality: cardinality refers to the relationship between a row of one table and a row of
another table. The only two options for cardinality are one or many.
Example: Think of a credit card company that has two tables: a table for the person who gets
the card and a table for the card itself. A row from the cardholder table would have a
relationship with a row in the card table because the cardholder holds the card.

Modality: Modality, it turns out, is another word for what we database people call
cardinality, or ―the number of unique things in a set‖. ... In other words, one row in a table
can be related to rows of data in another table. It doesn't have to be, but it can be, depending
on what real-world relationships you are trying to model.
7.5 Relational Schema: A relational schema is a blueprint used in database design to
represent the data to be entered into the database and describe how that data is structured in
tables (called relations in relational schemas). The schema describes how those tables relate
to each other.
Normalization:
i. Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.
ii. Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of relations.
It is also used to eliminate the undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and
Deletion Anomalies.
iii. Normalization divides the larger table into the smaller table and links them using
relationship.
iv. The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

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1.First Normal Form (1NF)

For a table to be in the First Normal Form, it should follow the following 4 rules:
1. It should only have single (atomic) valued attributes/columns.
2. Values stored in a column should be of the same domain
3. All the columns in a table should have unique names.
4. And the order in which data is stored, does not matter.

2. Second Normal Form(2NF)

To be in second normal form, a relation must be in first normal form and relation must not
contain any partial dependency. A relation is in 2NF if it has No Partial
Dependency: i.e., no non-prime attribute (attributes which are not part of any candidate
key) is dependent on any proper subset of any candidate key of the table.
Partial Dependency: If the proper subset of candidate key determines non-prime attribute,
it is called partial dependency.

3. Third Normal Form(3NF)

A relation is in third normal form, if there is no transitive dependency for non-prime
attributes as well as it is in second normal form.
A relation is in 3NF if at least one of the following condition holds in every non-trivial
function dependency X –> Y
1. X is a super key.
2. Y is a prime attribute (each element of Y is part of some candidate key)

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