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Communicative English
 CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Basic Language Skills: Grammar and Usage – Part I 05

Chapter 2 Basic Language Skills: Grammar and Usage – Part II 23

Chapter 3 Comprehension of an Unseen Passage 32

Chapter 4 Phonology and Stress Marking – Part I 42

Chapter 5 Phonology and Stress Marking – Part II 54

 1
BASIC LANGUAGE SKILLS :
GRAMMAR AND USAGE
PART - I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Sentence: Its Parts and Kinds
1.3 Parts of Speech
1.3.1 Nouns: Kinds, Number and Gender
1.3.2 Pronouns: Persons and Types of Pronouns
1.3.3 Adjectives: Its types
1.3.4 Verbs: Transitive and intransitive verbs,
participle, gerund and Auxiliary verb
1.3.5 Adverbs: Its Types
1.3.6 Prepositions
1.3.7 Conjunctions: Its types1.6 Transformation of
Simple compound and complex sentences
1.3.8 Interjections
1.4 Articles
1.5 Phrase and Clause
1.5.1 Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key to the Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
• This unit will help you to understand the sentence as
the structural and functional unit of the language
• You will be able to identify various parts of the
speech; choose their correct form and use them effectively.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Grammar is vital for the efficient use of language in academic as
well as social environment you already know that our speech is
made up of sentences. A sentence is the basic unit of the written
and spoken language. In this unit we will learn about various
structural and functional parts of the sentence, their types ,subtypes
and their usage.

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1.2 SENTENCE: ITS PARTS AND KINDS
When groups of words are arranged together as a coherent unit to
make complete sense, it is called a sentence.
A sentence has two parts—i) subject ii) predicate
i) Subject: In every sentence there is a doer or the
person or the thing about which the sentence speaks.
This part is called subject of the sentence
ii) Predicate: The remaining part of the sentence that
tells something about the subject is called the predicate
of the sentence.
For Example: The teacher entered in the class.
This sentence speaks about the teacher and what the teacher did.
Here,’ the teacher’ is the subject and ’entered in the class’ is
predicate.
Kinds of sentences
There are four kinds of sentences.
Read the following sentences carefully.
i) The captain stood on the deck.
ii) Where are you going?
iii) Come here.
iv) How sweet the night is!
First sentence makes a statement. A sentence that makes a
statement or assertion is called Declarative or Assertive
Sentence.
Second sentence asks a question. A sentence that asks a
question is called Interrogative sentence.
Third sentence gives a command or order. A sentence that
expresses a command is called an imperative sentence.
Fourth sentence expresses happiness. A sentence that
expresses strong emotion is called an exclamatory sentence.
[I] CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
A) Identify the subject and predicate in the following
sentences.
i) He is an avid reader.
ii) John was the best performer of the show.
iii) Health is wealth.
iv) Take the book and sit down.
B) Identify the type of sentence by choosing the
correct alternative.
i) What a waste of time!(Assertive, Imperative,
Exclamatory)
ii) Where are you going? (Interrogative, Exclamatory,
Imperative)

6
 iii) The Earth revolves around the sun.(Interrogative ,
Assertive , imperative )
iv) Be quiet. (Imperative, Exclamatory, assertive)
1.3 PARTS OF SPEECH
A sentence is further divided into various parts(words) according to
the functions they do in the sentence. They are called parts
of speech .They are eight in number :
i) Noun ii) Pronoun iii) Adjective iv) Verb
v) Adverb vi) Preposition vii) Conjunction viii) Interjection
1.3.1 Noun: Kinds, Number and Gender
A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, or a
thing. It includes the name of an object that we can perceive
through our senses (sight, smell, touch, hearing, taste) as well as
an object about which we can think but cannot perceive through the
senses. There are various kinds of nouns.
i) Proper nouns :
They are the names of particular persons, places, animals ,
objects , etc.A proper name is always written with a capital letter in
the beginning.
For Example : Himalaya is the tallest mountain in India.
Here Himalaya and India are the names of one specific mountain
and one specific country respectively and cannot be applied to any
another mountain and country ; and hence they are proper names.
ii) Common nouns :
Nouns other than proper nouns are called common nouns.
For Example In the above given sentence, mountain is a general
category indicating the geographical structure and hence it is a
common noun.
Common nouns can be Abstract nouns or Concrete nouns.
a) Abstract nouns :
Abstract nouns denote the ideas, qualities, and emotions
about which we can think but which cannot be perceived by
using our senses.
For Example: courage, kindness, beauty, honesty etc.
b) Concrete nouns :
Concrete nouns denote the animate or inanimate objects
that can be perceived through our senses.
For Example book, road , cup , telephone water , noise etc.
iii) Collective nouns :
They stand for a group of persons, animals, birds etc and
various other objects which are taken together as a unit.
For Example: army , fleet , police , herd , swarm, flock and so on.

7
iv) Countable and Uncountable nouns :
Countable nouns are the names of the objects that can be
counted. Countable nouns have both singular and plural form.
For Example dog, person, note , table
Uncountable nouns are the names of materials, substances,
concepts, qualities and such things which are not individual
objects and cannot be divided into separate elements and
hence cannot be counted.
For Example : milk, sugar , cake , kindness , love , water , smoke ,
electricity
Uncountable nouns are always treated as singular form and they
use singular verb.
NOUNS : NUMBER: SINGULAR AND PLURAL
A noun that denotes single number is called singular
For Example : boy, crow, bag ,
A noun that denotes many numbers is called plural.
For Example : boys, crows, bags
General Rules to form plurals.
v) The plural form of most of the nouns can be obtained by
adding ‘s’ to the singular form.
For Example : Boy, Tree, River, Cap
Boys, Trees, Rivers, Caps
vi) In nouns ending in s, sh, ch, x, and z, the plural form is
obtained by adding ‘es’ to the singular form.
vii) For Example :
Class, Bush, Watch, Box, Quiz, Fuzz
Classes, Bushes, Watches, Boxes, Quizzes, Fuzzes
Note : In case of nouns ending in ‘z’ , if the noun has double z at
the end in the singular form then ‘es’ is directly added to the
singular form to form the plural ; but if the singular form has single
‘z’ at the end then ’z’ is added to the singular form before adding
‘es’ to form the plural
i) Nouns ending in ‘y’ and preceded by consonant , form the
plurals by changing ‘y’ to ‘I’ and adding ’es’to the
singular form.
For Example : Lady Duty Story Berr
Ladies Duties Stories Berries
ii) In nouns ending in ‘o’, plurals are formed by adding ‘es’ or
‘s’ to the singular form.
For Example : Mango Buffalo Piano
Ratio
Mangoes Buffaloes pianos Ratios

8
 iii) Nouns ending in ‘f’ or ‘fe’ form there plural by changing ‘f’
or ‘fe’ to ‘v’ and adding ‘es’ to the singular form.
For Example : Mango Buffalo Piano Ratio
For Example : Leaf Self Life Life
Leaves Selves lives Lives
There are exceptions to this rule. Some instances are given below.
For Example : Roof Chief Dwarfs
Roofs Chiefs Dwarfs
iv) In few nouns plurals are formed by changing inside vowel of
the singular form.
For Example : Man Tooth Mouse Foot
Men Teeth Mice Feet
Note : The plural forms of compound nouns given below
Mother-in-law Step-son Passer-by Commander-in-chief
Mothers-in-law Step-sons Passers-by Commanders-in-chief
Noun : Gender
Gender means sex distinction. In English, there are two genders –
Masculine and Feminine. The absence of gender implies Neuter
gender.
A Noun that expresses maleness is called masculine gender.
A Noun that expresses femaleness is called feminine gender.
A Noun that can be used to express maleness as well as
femaleness is called a common noun.
A Noun that is used to denote a genderless thing is called a
neuter noun.
General rules of changing gender

v) Some nouns have specially assigned words for feminine

gender.
For Example : Boy
Father Son Boar
Cock Bull
Girl Mother
Daughter Sow Hen
Cow
vi) In some nouns the feminine form is obtained by adding ‘ess’
to the masculine form.
For Example : Host Lion Priest Baron
Hostess Lioness Priestess Baroness
vii) In some nouns the inner vowel is dropped and ’ess’ is
added to the masculine form to get feminine form.
For Example : Actor Master Waite Emperor
Actress Mistress Waitress Empress

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viii) Though the suffix ‘ess’ is commonly used to change the
gender there are some irregular suffixes used to form the feminine
form.
For Example : Czar Hero Signor
Czarina Heroine Signora
ix) Sometimes a word is placed before or after the masculine
noun to form the feminine form.
For Example :
Bull- calf He-goat Grand-father Milk –man
Cow-calf She-goat Grand-mother Milk-maid
1.3.2 Pronoun : Persons and Types of Pronouns
Pronoun is a word used in the place of a noun.
For Example: Neeta woke up late. Neeta slept late at night.
Neeta woke up late because she slept late at night.
Here ‘she’ is used instead of Neeta, so it is a pronoun..Since nouns
follow number and gender, pronouns too follow them. ‘He’ is
masculine pronoun, ‘she’ is feminine and ‘it’ is neuter one ‘.I’,’
He’,’She’,’It’ are singular pronouns while ‘we’, ‘our’, ‘us’, ‘they’ are
plural pronouns.
Persons
When we talk to others we refer to ourselves as ‘I’ or ‘we’; the
person to whom we are talking as ‘you and the person or thing
about we are talking as ‘he’, ’she ’or ‘it’. This is called, persons.
Thus the relationship between the addresser ,the addressee
and the subject of the address is called persons. There are
three persons in English language. See the table below.
Persons Singular Plural
1st I we
2nd you you
rd
3 he they
She they
It they
Gender of the pronouns
First Person Pronouns : Masculine or Feminine
Second Person Pronouns : Masculine or Feminine
Third Person Pronouns : He –Masculine
She-Feminine
It-Neuter
They- Any gender can be applied as per the specification.

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Types of pronouns :
i) Personal pronouns :
The pronouns that denote various persons are called personal
pronouns. Generally ‘it’ substitutes a noun representing inanimate
object, so it is called impersonal pronoun.
Read the following sentences carefully to understanding the use of
impersonal pronouns
It was at school that the two friends met.
It was raining heavily.
Note that ‘it’ does not work as a substitute for any noun.
ii) Reflexive and emphatic pronouns :
When ‘self’ is added to personal pronouns, compound personal
pronouns are formed. For Example myself, himself
Depending upon the use of the compound personal pronouns, there
are two types.
Read the following sentences carefully.
i) He killed himself in despair.
ii) At last we found ourselves sitting in the
stadium.
Here you will notice that, the compound personal pronouns are the
objects of the respective verbs and they refer to the respective
subjects .Here, ‘himself’ refers to ‘he’ and ‘ourselves’ refer to ‘we’.
Thus they help to reflect the action back to the subject. Hence they
are called Reflexive Pronouns.
Emphatic Pronouns :
I myself saw the girl yesterday.
You yourself have to do it.
Here you will notice that compound personal pronouns (words in
bold) are used to emphasize the action; and hence they are
called Emphatic pronouns.
iii) Demonstrative Pronouns :
The pronouns that are used to refer to and point out the
objects are called Demonstrative Pronouns.
For Example :
i) That is his house.
ii) These are my options for the extracurricular
activities.
iii) Both the dresses are of reasonable price but
this one
is cheaper than that.
Here ‘that’, ‘these’ and’ both’ point out the objects that are the
subjects of the respective sentences.

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iv) Indefinite Pronouns :
Read the following sentences carefully.
a) One should exercise regularly to stay healthy.
b) None of her arguments were true.
c) They believed him to be a generous man.
d) Someone should come forward.
In all the above given sentences,’ one’, ’none’, ’they’,
’someone’ refer to person or persons in general but they do
not stand for a particular person or persons. Hence they
are called Indefinite pronouns. Thus the pronouns that refer to a
person, persons or things in general are called Indefinite
pronouns.
Note : In the sentence number (d) above, you will notice that
‘someone’ is a compound word and it is called compound
indefinite pronoun. Other such pronouns are ‘anyone’,
’anybody’, ’anything’, ’everyone’, ‘everybody’, ’everything’ ’none’
(not+one),’ ‘nobody’, ’nothing’, ’somebody’, ’something’, ’another’
(any+other)
v) Distributive Pronouns :
a) Each of the boys took his turn on the guard duty.
b) Either of us should go at the railway station.
c) Neither of the key was fitting the lock.
Here you will notice that ‘each’, ’either’, ’neither’ refer to the
persons or things, one at a time; and hence they are called
Distributive Pronouns. Thus the pronouns that are used to
denote singular person or thing one at a time are called
Distributive Pronouns. They always use singular verb.
vi) Relative Pronoun :
Seema is the girl. We met Seema at the mall yesterday.
Seema is the girl whom we met at the mall yesterday.
Here you will observe that ‘whom’,the pronoun stands for ‘seema’
the antecedent. Thus the pronoun that refers to or relates to the
antecedent is called Relative Pronoun ‘who’, ’whom’, ’what’,
’which’, ’whose’ and ‘that’ are the Relative Pronouns. Adding ‘ever’
and ‘so ever’ to the Relative Pronouns, (except ‘that’) you get
Compound Relative Pronouns, ’whosoever’, ’whoever’,
’whomsoever’, ’whichever’, ’whoseever’, ‘whatsoever’, ’whatever’.
For Example : Whoever comes first will get the seat.
1.3.4 Adjective : Its Types
An adjective is a word that describes or gives more
information about the noun is called adjective.
For Example : Neema is a pretty girl.

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Types of Adjectives.
i) Adjectives of Quality :
The adjective that denotes the quality of the noun is
called adjective of quality.
For Example: Tanya is a brave girl.
Here ‘brave’ denotes the quality of the common noun ‘girl’ and
hence is an adjective of quality.
ii) Adjective of Quantity :
The adjective that tells about the quantity of the thing denoted
by the noun is called Adjective of Quantity.
Note that by ‘Quantity’ the general quantity is meant and not the
numbers of individual objects.
For Example :
i) We ate some rice as there were no rotis left.
ii) He had sufficient knowledge of the subject.
Here ‘Some’ and’ sufficient’ are the Adjectives of Quantity.
The question ‘how much’ gives you the answer as adjective of
quantity.
iii) Adjectives of Number :
The adjective that shows the number of person or thing is
called Adjective of Number.

For Example :
a) There were ten people in the group.
b) Most of the girls from the class went for the athletics.
c) Teacher liked some of my pictures.
Here ‘ten’, ‘some’ and ‘most’ are the Adjectives of Number. You
can identify them by asking the question,’how much’. The
adjectives of number are of three types.
a) Definite numeral djectives
When the Adjective of number denotes the exact number
(cardinal or ordinal) it is called the Definite Numeral Adjective.
For Example :
a) She gets the salary on 10th day of every month.
b) Leena has six pet dogs.
c) Indefinite Numerical Adjectives
When Adjective of Number does not denote the exact number
but still mean to refer to the number, it is called Indefinite
Numeral Adjectives.
For Example : Many people were affected by the heavy rains.
vii) Distributive Numeral Adjectives :
a) Each girl was asked to go on the field trip.

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b) Neither option is applicable here.
Here adjectives ‘each’ and’ neither’ refer to every single number of
the group. Thus the adjective that shows the distributive quality
by referring to every single number of the group, is called
Distributive Numeral Adjective.
viii) Demonstrative Adjectives :
a) These bags are mine.
b) That house belongs to him.
Here the adjectives ‘these’ and ‘that’ point at the objects ‘bags’ and
‘ house’. Thus, the Adjective that is used to demonstrate the
object is called Demonstrative Adjectives.
1.3.4 Verbs : Transitive and Intransitive
Verbs, Participle Gerund and Auxiliary Verbs
a) Isha walks to school.
b) The forest is dark.
c) Leena was punished.
Herein sentence (a) ‘walks’ tells us about what the subject ‘Isha’ is
doing.In sentence (b)’is’ tells us about the state of the subject
‘forest’.
N sentence (c) ‘was punished’ tells us about what was done to the
subject ‘Leena’. Here ‘walks’, ‘is’, and ‘was punished’ are the
verbs. Thus a Verb is a word that tells us something about
what the subject did, what was done to the subject, or the state
of the subject.
Transitive and Intransitive verbs :
In order to understand the transitive and intransitive verbs we must
know the concept of direct and indirect objects.
a) I stopped the car.
b) Grandmother gave me the cake.
In sentence a) ‘I’ is the doer / subject. ‘Stopped’ is the action done
by the subject and ‘car’ is the object of that action. The action is
directly done to the car. Thus the object that directly receives
the action of the verb is called the direct object. When you ask
a question with “what” or “which” to the subject you will get the
direct object.
In sentence b) ‘Grandmother’ is the subject; ’gave’ is the action
done and ‘cake’ is the object. But the ‘cake’ is given to ‘me’. Thus
the object towards which the action is directed is,’me’ Here ‘me’ is
the indirect object. Thus the objects that are not direct recipient
of the action of the verb are called indirect objects. When you
ask a question with “whom” to the subject you will get the indirect
object.

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 In sentence a) ‘stopped’ is transitive verb. Thus transitive verb is
a verb which is followed by direct object.
The car stopped suddenly.
Here,’car’ is the subject, ‘stopped’ is the verb but the object of the
action is absent .Thus intransitive verb is a verb which is not
followed by the object of its action.
Agreement of the verb and the subject.
You have seen before that there are three persons (refer –personal
pronouns) which are applied to pronouns. Nouns and pronouns
follow singular and plural forms. And just like nouns and pronouns,
verbs too follow number forms and persons .Hence a verb and its
subject both must have the same person and the number form
(singular/plural).This is called the agreement of the verb and the
subject. A singular subject should have a singular verb and plural
subject should have plural verb.
Infinitive verbs
When the verb follows ‘to’, it is called infinitive form.
For Example To eat, To run, To drink
Teacher told the class to stay quiet.
Here ‘told’ is the main verb and ‘to stay’ is the infinitive verb. The
action of the infinitive verb is not limited and hence the name.
Read the following sentences carefully
a) I let him do it.
b) They can dance.
Here ‘do’, and ‘can’ are infinitive verbs without ‘to’.
The participle :
Participle is a form of verb that shows the qualities of both, a
verb and an adjective.
Present participle :
Present participle is formed by adding the suffix ‘ing’ to the verb. It
is used when the action is in the present tense (see Tenses) and is
ongoing or incomplete.
For Example Teacher entered the classroom carrying books.

Past Participle :
Past participle is formed by using the past perfect form of the verb.
It shows that the action is complete.
For Example : Drawn by the sweet music he entered the room.
Perfect Participle :
Perfect participle is formed by placing ‘having’ before the past
perfect form of the verb. It shows the action has completed
sometime in the past.
For Example : Having spent all the money he felt guilty.

15
Gerund : Verbal Noun
Gerund is the ‘ing’ form of the verb and it shows the qualities of
both the verb and the noun.
For Example : We like seeing movies.
Cleaning is her favorite hobby.
Here ‘cleaning’ and ‘seeing’ act like verbs by referring to the
action related to main verbs and they also act like adjectives by
being the objects of the verbs, ‘like’ and ‘is’. Hence ‘seeing’ and
‘cleaning ‘are gerunds.
Auxiliaries :
Auxiliary verbs are the verbs which combine with the other verbs to
form tenses, commands, questions, question tags, negatives and
passive voices. They are , ‘be’ ( am, was, are, were etc.),’have’, ‘do’
,’can’ , ‘could’ ,’may’ ,’might’ ‘shall’ ,’should’ ,’will’,’ would’, ’ought’
,’must’ ,’used’, ’need’ and ‘dare’. Of these, ’can’, ’could’, ’may’,
’might’, ‘shall’, ’should’, ’will’,’would’, ’must’, ’used’, ’dare’, ’ought’,
’need’ are special verbs in that they combine with other verbs to
express permission, probability ,request, certainty ,necessity,
capacity, future tense, etc.
They are called Modal auxiliaries. Modal Auxiliaries do not take ‘s’
in third person singular and they do not carry suffix ‘ing’ and also
they do not have an infinitive form.
Example of auxiliary verbs
They have to go .Don’t they? (Question Tag)
Do they have to go? (Question)
They don’t have to go. (Negative)
Example of Modal Auxiliaries.
Can you buy the books for me? (Capacity)
May I go now? (Permission)
May God bless you. (Wish)
1.3.5 Adverb : Its Types
An adverb is a word that adds more meaning to or changes the
meaning of verb, adjective or another adverb.
For Example :
a) Ramesh writes slowly.
b) The scene was very pleasant.
c) Reema memorized the answer quite correctly.
Here ‘slowly” tells us more about the verb ‘writes’, ’very ‘modifies
the adjective ‘pleasant’ and 'quite' modifies the adverb
‘correctly. ‘slowly’, ’very ’and’ quite’ are adverbs.
Kinds of Adverbs
i) Adverbs of Time : They answer the question ‘when’ and
show the time or relative time of the action.

16
For Example : I went for the walk yesterday.
He will soon be going to school.
Here ‘yesterday’ and’ soon ‘both show the time of action, but ‘soon’
denotes relative time.
ii) Adverbs of Place : They answer the question ‘where’ and
show the place of action
For Example: The dog follows Neeta everywhere.
iii) Adverbs of frequency : They answer the question ‘how
often’ and show the frequency of the action.
For Example: She goes for shopping once a week.
iv) Adverbs of manner : They answer the question ‘how’ , ‘in
what manner’.
For Example : The soldier fought bravely.
v) Adverbs of Reason : They refer to the reason of the
action.
For Example : She therefore left the office.
vi) Adverbs of Degree /Quality : They answer the question ‘to
what extent’ or ‘ how much’.
For Example : Both of them are equally right.
These bananas are very sweet.
1.3.6 Preposition
a) The dog sat under the table.
b) The book is on the table.
In sentence a) ‘under’ join the words ‘sat’ and ‘the table’ and shows
the relationship between them. Also ‘on’ join the words ‘is’ and’ the
table’. Thus a Preposition is defined as a word that is written
before a noun or pronoun, and which shows the relation of the
person or thing or quality denoted by that noun or pronoun to
something else.
Prepositions : In , out ,off, of , up, down, for, at, to, from, by. till,
with, within, without, through, above, below, beneath, beside,
beyond, between, underneath, across, outside
Read the following sentences carefully.
a) Come in
b) The biscuits are in the jar.
Here in the first sentence ,’in’ gives the information about the verb
‘come’ ,so it is an adverb. But in the second sentence ‘in’ join the
words ‘are’ and ‘the jar’ and it shows the relationship between
them and therefore is a preposition.

1.3.7 Conjunction : Its Types

a) Rice and dal is staple Indian diet.
b) The fort is captured but the lion is dead.

17
In sentence a), ‘and’ join the two words. In sentence b), ‘but’ join
the two sentences. Thus Conjunction is a word which merely
joins together two sentences or two words.
Conjunctions: and, or, if, that, but, where, or, also, still, since, only,
after, before, because, as, neither…..nor, either…..or, not
only…..but also
Note : There are some conjunctions that are always used in pairs
For Example : neither….nor, either….or, not only….but also
Types of Conjunctions :
a) Coordinating conjunctions
b) subordinating conjunctions
Read the following sentences carefully.
i) I waited on the station but the train did not arrive.
ii) Since you asked, I am going to tell you the story.
Here in the first sentence, ‘I waited on the station’ and ‘the train
did not arrive’ are two independent clauses; joined by the
conjunction ‘but’. They can stand as the sentences of complete
meaning if separated, by removing the joining conjunction. They are
called main/ principal clauses. Thus conjunctions which join
together the two or more independent clauses are called
coordinating conjunctions.
In the second sentence, ‘since’ is conjunction and ‘since you
asked ‘and ‘I am going to tell you the story.’ are the two clauses.
Second clause can stand on its own as an independent sentence
and it is the main clause. However the first clause depends on the
second clause for its complete meaning. Here ’Since ‘is
subordinating conjunction and the clause ‘since you asked’ is
Subordinating clause. Thus conjunctions which join one or more
dependent or subordinate clauses to the independent or main
clause are called subordinating conjunctions.
1.3.8 Interjection
a) Alas! She is dead.
b) Hush! The baby is asleep.
c) Oh! Aren’t the exams over yet?
Here ‘Alas’, ’Hush’, ’Oh’ express the sudden and intense emotions.
Also you will notice that they are not grammatically related to the
other parts of the sentence. They are interjections. Thus an
interjection is a word that expresses sudden emotion and is
structurally unrelated to the rest of the sentence.
[II] CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
A) Identify the Part of speech of underlined words.
1) The batsman hit the ball hard.
2) Neela and her friend went home together.

18
3) The grapes were sour but the bananas were sweet.
4) She walked very gracefully.
B) Fill in the blanks using correct prepositions.
1) He fell ________ the stairs and broke his
ankle.
2) The minister personally spoke ___________
the people who were waiting _____ him.
3) Gandhiji impressed _____ people, the
importance ______ nonviolence.
4) We shouldn’t think only ______ ourselves all
the time.
5) Passages _____ Shakuntala are still revered
______ the academics.
C) Choose the correct adjectives.
1) A ______ sleep is necessary for health.
(beauty, sound, dreamy)
2) _______ words leave _______ impact on the
mind. (harsh, soft, deep)
3) She is an _______ reader, but has a _______
memory. (average, good, narrow)
4) His ______ help saved the day. (good, lovely,
timely)
5) She is a _____ person, but an ______ leader.
(polite, assertive, avid)

D) Fill in the blanks with correct conjunctions.

1) It is natural to get tempted ________ the
temptation does not help us.
2) One should exercise regularly ______ one
wants to stay healthy.
3) It is ______ wise _______ profitable to be lazy.
4) _________ he was ambitious, he was not
greedy.
5) The movie had already started _______ we
reached the theatre.
E) Choose the correct alternative for the underlined words.
1) I saw Tanya carrying a large pile of books in
her hands. (gerund, participle)
2) Knitting is my grandmother’s favorite hobby.
(Gerund, participle)
3) Owing to his leg injury, he walked slowly.
(Adverb of manner, adverb of frequency.)

19
 4) In Mumbai, the rains often bring life to a
standstill. (Adverb of time, adverb of frequency)
5) In some regions, it rains throughout the year.
(Transitive verb, intransitive verb)
1.4 ARTICLES : DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE
An article is a word that modifies the noun. There are two kinds of
articles.
i) Definite articles ii) Indefinite articles
Read the following sentences carefully.
Diamond is a precious stone.
The party continued for an hour.
In sentence a), ‘a’ informs about ‘diamond’, but it does not speak
about any specificity of the diamond. Similarly ‘an ‘ informs about
‘hour” in non particular ,vague way. They are Indefinite articles An
article which modifies the noun in general way without
referring to it is called indefinite article..
Note : The use of ‘a’ or ‘an’ depends upon the initial sound of the
noun which is being modified by the article. When there is
consonant sound, article ‘a’ is used; and in case of vowel sound
article ‘an’ is used.
In the second sentence, article ‘the’ is used to modify ‘party’. This
is because it is one specific party, which continued for one hour,
and not any party. An article which modifies the noun in
particular way and denotes its specificity is called Definite
Article.
Note : Indefinite article is used only for singular nouns while definite
articles are used for both, singular as well as plural nouns.
1.5 PHRASE AND CLAUSE
i) He is an honest man.
ii) He is a man who is honest by nature.
In sentence i), ‘an honest man’ is a group of words ,which makes
sense as a part of the given sentence, but if separated from the
sentence it does not make complete sense and cannot stand on its
own. Also it does not have a verb. However, in sentence ii),’ who is
honest by nature’ is a group of words which not only makes sense
as the part of the sentence but also after being separated from it. It
can stand on its own as a complete sentence with ‘who’ as the
subject, ‘is honest by nature’ as the predicate and ‘is’ as the
verb.(‘who’ ,the personal pronoun can be replaced by the noun and
the subject of the sentence.) Here, ‘an honest man’ is a phrase and
’who is honest by nature’ is a clause.
Phrase is defined as the group of words which makes sense as
the part of the sentence but does not make complete sense

20
when separated from the sentence and which does not have a
finite verb.
Clause is defined as the group of words which makes
complete sense, both as a part of the sentence and as a
separate entity and which contain a verb.
Based on subordinate clause and coordinate clause there are three
types of sentences.
i) The sentence in which two or more principal or
main clauses are joined together by the coordinating
conjunctions is called Compound sentence.
ii) The sentence in which one or more
subordinate clauses are joined to the principal or main
clause, by the subordinating conjunctions, is called
Complex sentence.
iii) The sentence made of only one clause, ( one
subject and one predicate with one verb,) is called
simple sentence.
[III] CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
A) Fill in the blanks with correct articles.
1) _______ King of Magadha was _______ kind ruler.
2) _______ hour is ________ long time to wait.
3) In _______ market she saw _________ large
decorated wooden egg kept for sale.
B) Join the clauses.
1) He didn't attend the party. It wasn't too late.
2) Marriage is a happy occasion. Marriage makes
the parents of the bride sad.
3) It is difficult to get this job. You must have very
good scores.
1.6 LET US SUM UP
• A sentence has two parts: subject, and predicate.
There are four types of sentences: Assertive, Interrogative,
Imperative, and Exclamatory.
• Functionally, there are 8 parts of speech. They are:
Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition,
Conjunction, and Interjection.
• There are two types of articles: Definite and Indefinite.
• A 'Clause' is a group of words which can stand
independently, while a 'Phrase' is a group of words which
does not have any independent meaning.
• Based on the type of conjunctions that join the
clauses, there are three types of sentences: Simple,
Compound, and Complex.

21
1.7 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
[I] A) Subject : (1) he (2) John (3) health (4) you, it is
assumed, but is absent in the sentence.
Predicate : (1) is an avid reader (2) was the best performer of the
show is wealth (3) take the book and sits down.
B) (1) exclamatory (2) interrogative (3) assertive
(4) imperative
[II] A) (1) batsman, ball: common noun, hit: transitive verb
(2) Neela : proper noun, her : personal pronoun
(3) Sour, sweet: adjectives
(4) She: pronoun, gracefully: adverb of manner, often:
adverb of frequency
B) (1) off (2) to, for (3) on, of (4) about (5) from, by
C) (1) sound (2) harsh, deep (3) average, good,
(4) timely (5) polite, assertive
D) (1) but (2) if (3) neither, nor (4) although (5) when
E) (1) participle (2) gerund (3) adverb of manner
(4) adverb of frequency (5) intransitive verb
[III] A) (1) the, a (2) an, a (3) the, a
B) (1) He did not

22
 2
BASIC LANGUAGE SKILLS :
GRAMMAR AND USAGE
PART - II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Transformation of Simple compound and complex sentences
2.2.1 Conversion of Simple Sentences into Compound and
Complex sentences
2.2.2 Conversion of Compound sentences into simple and
Complex Sentences
2.2.3 Conversion of complex Sentences into simple and
Compound sentences
2.3 Use of, Not Only….But Also, Either….Or, and Neither….Nor
2.4 Degrees of Comparison: Its usage
2.4.1 Degrees of comparison: Positive Comparative,
superlative
2.4.2 Interchange of Degrees of Comparison
2.5 Active and Passive Voice
2.6 Tenses: Its Types
2.7 Direct and Indirect Speech
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Key to the Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES
• This part will help you to analyse sentences structurally and
functionally for the practical usage.

• You will be able to do the effective transformation of the

sentences without the change in their meaning, and use
them with grammatical correctness in written as well as
spoken language.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Along with the knowledge of correct grammar, it is important
to know its correct practical use. In this part, you will study
sentences in larger context for social as well as academic
purposes. You will learn to construct and synthesize the sentences.

23
You will also learn to transform the sentences without changing
their meaning.
2.2 TRANSFORMATION OF SIMPLE, COMPOUND
AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
2.2.1 Conversion of simple sentences into complex and
compound sentences
i) Neema studied hard.
ii) Neema passed with good marks.
iii) Neema studied hard and she passed with good
marks.
iv) Since Neema studied hard she passed with good
marks.
Here, sentences (i) and (ii) are simple sentences. In the
third sentence, they are joined by the suitable coordinating
conjunction to form one compound sentence .Since the given
simple sentences have a cause – effect relationship and nearly
equal status, here the conjunction ‘and’ is used. In the fourth
sentence, they are joined by the subordinating conjunction ‘since’
placed at the beginning; to form the complex sentence .Here the
cause-effect relation is highlighted.
2.2.2 Conversion of compound sentences into simple and
complex sentences.
i) She must study hard or she will fail. (Compound)
ii) She must study hard to avoid the failure. (Simple)
iii) Unless she studies hard, she will fail. (Complex)
Here, in the second sentence, we have removed the
coordinating conjunction ‘or’ and converted the second main or
principal clause, ‘she will fail’ into the phrase, ’to avoid the
failure’ to form the simple sentence. In the third sentence, we used
the subordinating conjunction ‘unless’ at the beginning of the
sentence to form the complex sentence.

2.2.3 Conversion of complex sentences into simple and

compound sentences.
i) He sold the property which belonged to family.
(Complex)
ii) He sold his family’s property. (Simple)
iii) The property belonged to his family but he sold it.
(Compound)
Here, in the second sentence, we converted the subordinate
clause ‘which belonged to his family’ into the phrase
‘his family’s’ to form the simple sentence. In the third sentence, we

24
used the coordinating conjunction ‘but’ to form the compound
sentence.
Note : Always convert the suitable clause into the phrase to form
the simple sentence; and use the suitable conjunctions to form
complex and compound sentences.
2.3 USE OF NOT ONLY… BUT ALSO, EITHER… OR,
AND NEITHER… NOR
Earlier we have seen that these conjunctions are always
used in pairs. In this section we will learn how to use them to join
the sentences without changing their meaning.
i) He is kind. He is generous.
Not only is he kind but also generous.
ii) He ate chapatti and rice.
He ate not only chapatti but also rice.
Here, in first sentence we used the paired conjunctions to
join the two sentences but in the second sentence we used them to
join the two words.
i) Neeta cannot work and study at the same time.
Neeta can either work or study at the any given time.
ii) Violence should not be accepted. It cannot be used
against others.
Violence should neither be accepted nor used
against others.
After reading above sentences you will notice that the paired
conjunctions ‘either… or’ and ‘neither… nor’ remove the negating
words in the negative sentences. ‘Either… or’ is used when any
one of the two choices is available, while ‘Neither… nor’ is used
when both the choices are un available; and’ not only… but also is
used when both of the given instances are acceptable.
1.4 DEGREES OF COMPARISON
1.4.1 There are three degrees of comparison in English
language. They are Positive, Comparative and
Superlative.
i) Nisha is as tall as Meena. (Positive Degree)
ii) Mitali is taller than Nisha. (Comparative Degree)
iii) Seema is tallest of them all. (Superlative Degree)
When there is similarity between the given entities, the
degree is said to be Positive Degree. Its indicators are, as… as
or so… as.
When one entity is higher than the other, the degree is
said to be Comparative Degree. Its indicators are the word than
and the comparative form of the attribute, suffix ’er’.

25
 When one entity surpasses all the remaining in the
particular attribute or quality, the degree is said to be
Superlative Degree.
Its indicator is the superlative form of the attribute under
comparison, suffix ‘est’ Sometimes suffixes ‘er’ and ‘est’ can not
be used. In such cases, words ‘more’ (for comparative) and ‘most’
( for superlative) are used.
For Example : Important more important most important
In case of irregular degrees of comparison, there are
different words for different degrees.
For Example : Good Better Best
2.4.2 Interchange of the degrees of comparison.
A) Change the degree from Positive to Comparative and
Superlative.
i) He is as smart as any other boy in the class.
(Positive)
ii) No other boy in the class is smarter than him.
(Comparative)
iii) He is the smartest boy in the class. (Superlative)
B) Change the degree from Comparative to Positive and
Superlative.
i) Mahabaleshwar is cooler than Lonavala.
(comparative)
ii) Lonavala is not as cool as mahabaleshwar.
(Positive)
Here we cannot change the first sentence into the
superlative degree because the comparison is
between two entities and not many.
C) Change the degree from Superlative to Comparative and
Positive.
i) Himalaya is the tallest mountain in India.
(Superlative)
ii) No other mountain in India is as tall as Himalaya.
(Positive)
iii) Himalaya is taller than any other mountain in India.
(Comparative)
Note : The meaning of the given sentence should not be changed
while changing the degree.
2.5 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
When the sentence is presented though the point of
view of the subject; the subject is the agent of the action and
the action verb is used to denote the action, it called active
voice. They have a subject a verb and a direct object.

26
 For Example : Mr. Sharma clicked the photograph.
Here ‘Mr. Sharma’, the subject is the doer of the action. The
action is indicated by the action verb ‘clicked ‘The object of the
action is ‘photograph’.
When the sentence is presented from the point of view
of the ‘object’; the subject is not the agent of the action and the
action is shown through the passive verb, it is called the
Passive voice. The sentence has only an object, and a verb. The
subject placed at the end can be omitted.
For Example : The photograph was clicked by Mr. Sharma.
Here object ‘photograph’ is given the main position, and the
action is denoted by the passive verb, ’was clicked’. The subject
Mr. Sharma can be omitted.
Read the following sentence carefully.
The grandmother gave the sweets to me. (Active Voice)
Here,’ sweets’ is the direct object and ‘me’ is indirect object.
We can change this sentence into passive form by two ways..
i) The sweets were given to me by the grandmother.
(Direct object as the subject)
ii) I was given the sweets by the grandmother.
(Indirect object as the subject)
2.6 TENSES : ITS TYPES
You have learned earlier that the verb denotes action. The
action may be happening in the present time or it may have
happened in the past time or it may happen in the future. Thus
depending upon the time of the action or state there are three
tenses of the verbs.
i) Present tense: In this tense the verb shows that the action is
in the present time
ii) Past tense: In this tense the verb indicates that the action
has happened in the past.
iii) Future tense: In this tense the verb in dictates that the
action will happen in the future.
Depending upon the completeness or incompleteness of the
action each tense is further divided into four types.
i) Simple: In this the action is simply mentioned.
ii) Continuous: In this the action is incomplete and ongoing.
iii) Perfect: In this the action completes.
iv) Perfect Continuous: In this the action is ongoing at the time
of reporting the speech.
Read carefully the examples given below. The verb used is
‘to eat’.
Simple Present Tense: I eat the mango.

27
 Present continuous Tense: I am eating the mango.
Present perfect Tense: I have eaten the mango.
Present perfect continuous: I have been eating the mango.
Simple Past Tense: I ate the mango.
Past Continuous Tense: I was eating the mango.
Past Perfect Tense: I had eaten the mango.
Past Perfect Continuous Tense: I had been eating the
mango.
Simple Future Tense: I shall eat the mango.
Future Continuous Tense: I shall be eating the mango.
Future perfect Tense: I shall have eaten the mango.
Future Perfect Continuous Tense: I shall have been eating
the mango.
2.7 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
When we want to report a conversation to someone who was
absent at the time of actual conversation, we can do it by two ways.
i) Quoting of the actual speech of the speaker is called
Direct Speech.
ii) Reporting the speech of the speaker into one’s own
words is called Indirect or Reported Speech.
For Example : Leena said, ”I am helping my mother now.”
(Direct Speech)
Leena said that she was helping her then. (Indirect Speech)
The direct speech is marked with double inverted commas.
Here ‘said’ is called principle or reporting verb. There are some
changes made while changing the direct speech into indirect
speech.

Rules of changing the Direct Speech to Indirect /

Reported Speech.
i) Remove the double inverted commas and use the
conjunction ‘that’ after the reporting verb.
ii) If the reporting verb is in the past tense then change the
whole speech into the past tense. But if the reporting verb
is in the present tense then do not change the tense.
For Example :
a) She said, “I like shopping.” (Reporting verb ‘said’ is in
past tense. Direct speech – simple present tense)
She said that she liked shopping. (Direct speech
changes to simple past tense)
b) she says, “I like shopping.” (Reporting verb ‘says’ is in
present tense. Direct speech - simple present tense)
She says that she likes shopping.

28
 Note the changes in the tense of the direct speech in
other cases.
c) ”I am going to the mall” said Vishal. (Present
continuous tense)
Vishal said that he was going to the mall. (Past
continuous tense)
d) The teacher said,”Mitali has passed with good
grades.”(Present perfect tense)
The teacher told that Mitali had passed with good
grades. (Past perfect tense)
e) He said,”I went to meet my friend yesterday.” (Simple
past tense)
He said that he had gone to meet his friend the day
before. (Past perfect tense)
f) ”I was travelling yesterday.” Said Mr. Murthy.
(Past continuous tense)
Mr. Murthy said that he had been travelling the day
before. ( past perfect continuous tense)
g) The contractor said ,”I shall start the work tomorrow.”
(Simple future tense)
The contractor assured that he would start the work
the next day. (Simple past tense)
iii) Change the first and second person into appropriate
third person pronoun.

iv) Change the words indicating time and place in

present tense into their correct past tense.

Present tense Past Tense Present Tense Past Tense

a) Now : then f) today : that day
b) Here : there g) tomorrow : the next day
c) Ago : before h) yesterday : the day before
d) This : that i) last night : the night before
e) Thus : so
v) Reporting verb can be changed to commented, stated, told
explained, informed etc. while changing the speech
from direct to indirect as per the tone of the direct speech.
For Example :
a) “can I come to your house.” she said. (Interrogative
sentence)
She enquired whether she can come to my house.
b) The judge said to the accused,”answer the question.”
(Imperative
sentence)

29
 The judge commanded the accused to answer the
question.
c) She said, ”How generous of me to help me!”
(Exclamatory sentence)
She exclaimed that it was very generous of him to
help her.
d) ”do not do it again please!”She told him. (Request)
She begged him not to do that again.

Check Your Progress

Rewrite the sentences as directed.
1) She is intelligent. She is brave too. (Use 'not only… but also')
2) He cannot study law and medicine together. (use 'either…
or')
3) She gifted the picture to her friend. (Change the voice)
4) It was not too hot. It was not too cold either. (Use 'neither…
nor')
5) Having acted in dramas before, she decided to pursue acting
as a career. (Form a compound sentence)
6) Gold is not the costliest metal. (Change the degree to
positive)
7) He was praised by everyone for his brilliant speech. (Change
the voice)
8) It was raining lightly and he decided to take an umbrella.
(form a complex sentence)
9) Ganga isn't the largest river in the world. (Change the degree
to comparative)
10) He is a better basketball player than everyone else in the
team. (Change the degree to superlative)
11) Teacher announced, "I have corrected all the answer
sheets." (Change to indirect speech)
12) I informed him that he should meet me the next day.
(Convert to direct speech)
13) The noise was unbearable, so I decided to install special
windows. (Form simple sentence)
14) The weather today was as bad as it had been yesterday.
(Change to comparative degree)
15) "Did you go to the tuition?" asked her mother. (Change to
indirect speech)

2.8 LET US SUM UP

There are three degrees of comparison-positive,
comparative and superlative.

30
 Paired conjunctions can be used to join two sentences
without changing the meaning
Depending on the point of view of presentation of the
sentence, there are two voices : Active, and Passive.
There are three tenses in English grammar: Present, Past,
and Future. They are further divided into simple, continuous, perfect
and perfect continuous.
Speech can be reported in two ways: Direct, and Indirect.
2.9 KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) She is not only intelligent, but also brave.
2) He can study either law, or medicine.
3) The picture was gifted by her to her friend.
4) It was neither too hot nor too cold.
5) She had acted in dramas before, and she decided to pursue
acting as a career.
6) Many other metals are as costly as gold.
7) Everyone praised him for his brilliant speech.
8) Since it was raining lightly, he decided to take an umbrella.
9) Many other rivers in the world are larger than Ganga.
10) He is the best basketball player in the team.
11) Teacher announced that he had corrected all the answer
sheets.
12) I said to him, "You shall meet me tomorrow."
13) The noise being unbearable, I decided to install special
windows.
14) The weather today wasn't worse than it had been yesterday.
15) Her mother inquired whether she had gone to the tuition.

31
 3
COMPREHENSION OF AN UNSEEN PASSAGE
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Comprehension- What it means?
3.3 Ideas, Facts, Argument, Purpose, Tone and Attitude
3.4 Strategy to Answer Comprehension Passages
3.5 Literary Passages
Scientific & Technical Passages.
Journalism, Management and Commerce.
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Glossary
3.8 Unit End Exercises

3.0 OBJECTIVES

• This unit helps you to understand the concept of

comprehension.

• It presents the concepts of ideas, facts, argeement, purpose,

tone and attitude.

• It also helps to write the answers of the questions based on

given passage.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Comprehension is a test of reading passages. A passage is
an extract from some authentic and scholarly work of repute.
A passage will consist of one or more paragraphs chosen at
random but with a sense of continuity. It will have a theme and it will
serve the purpose of providing material for testing comprehension.
In this syllabus questions will test the understanding of the passage
in question, a group of general language skills and the power of
short independent composition based on the themes and issues
raised in the passage. The question framed will include those which
require recognition, analysis and evaluation both objective / multiple
choice and short answers.

32
3.2 COMPREHENSION - WHAT IT MEANS?
A good writer will write every sentence or paragraph to take
the reader towards the intended purpose of communication. There
is also a third flow which is not always very obvious. This is a flow
of certain feelings and attitudes about individuals, things, countries
or whatsoever the author discusses. These flows are interrelated
because to express facts certain type of expression is required.
Expression involves feeling, different choice of words is necessary.
The important process of understanding the relationship of parts
with the whole passage is important in the overall comprehension of
the passage.
3.3 Ideas, Facts, Arguments, purpose, Tone and
Attitude
Comprehension requires that the reader understands the
important facts, ideas and arguments which the author is
expressing in the passage, idea means a belief or opinion or
concept developed by the author. It may also mean a belief or
opinion or concept developed by the author. It may also mean a
mental picture or a sequence of thoughts that the author wants to
express through his writing. The reader should here an
understanding and appreciation of both the ideas and their
sequencing.
Facts are something that exist or have happened. They may
be proved by evidence or already established through logical
reasoning.
Passages also have arguments. The author persuades the
reader through arguments.
Good authors write purposefully. Every sentence in the
paragraph has utility or relevance to the exposition the author is
attempting. Over and above grammatical necessity, some words or
sentences will have a very strong relationship or bonding with the
purpose of the passage. Students should identify words, phrases
and sentences which indicate the author's purpose.
Many passages will have underlying feelings of the author.
The writer's feelings matter a lot in creating the intended effect in
the reader's mind. A position taken by the author means that he has
argued out on the basis of facts, opinion and then come to the
conclusion about things, person etc.
3.4 STRATEGY OF ANSWERING THE QUESTIONS
Reading comprehension is an area where available strategy
is very meager because of the great diversity of style and the

33
vastness of knowledge domain but the following table would be of
help in determining the task for each question.
No. Type of Task Language
Question
1 Main Idea / To identify an What is the main
Primary Purpose answer choice idea / purpose of
which correctly the passage?
summarizes the
author's main idea
in the passage
2 Factual Question To locate and The questions
identify certain generally ask
specific 'What' 'When'
information 'Where' 'How' to
elicit facts
3 Scanning To find the place Where in the
Question in the passage passage does the
where some idea / author mention --?
fact is mentioned.

4 Title question To identify a Give a suitable

suitable Title Title

5 Vocabulary in To identify a The word ---

Content synonym or closest in meaning
antonym of a to -----
particular word in
the passage
6 Inference To draw Which of the
Question conclusion based following can be
on information in inferred from the
the passage passage?
7 Attitude Question To identify the What is the
author's attitude author's attitude to
--- ?
8 Further To apply certain Write a story
Application ideas in the based on -----
question passage to
another situation
3.5 LITERARY PASSAGES
Sample 1
Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions
given below.

34
 Among the chief sources of education available to Tagore,
was, a quiet garden adjoining his family house. Here he used to
spend much of his time, absorbing the peace and beauty of nature.
It was through this early contact with nature that he acquired the
serenity of mood that distinguished him all his life. It was in this
garden that he came to understand the principle of harmony that
was at work throughout the Universe. At the same time, he formed
the habit of observing and reflecting on things.
1) How did Tagore spend much of his time in the garden?
Ans :- absorbing the peace and beauty of nature
2) How did the garden near Tagore's house serve him?
Ans :- as a chief source of education
3) What did Tagore come to understand about universe?
Ans :- The principle of harmony.
4) Give the antonym of .
a) ugliness
b) chaos from the passage
Ans :- a) beauty b) harmony
5) Give a suitable title
Ans :- Tagore A Nature [Answer can vary]

Sample 2
On August 15,1947, India was granted independence from
British colonial dominance. This was an event of international
significance. From this day onwards, the Indian Union assumed
a role in world politics that was appropriate enough to modify the
thinking of nations. Concepts like non-alignment, tolerance,
non-violence and peaceful co-existence were introduced by India
into the international vocabulary.
''Our dreams concern India'', said the first Prime Minister of
the country, Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, on the eve of achieving freedom,
''but they also concern the whole world, for the world has become
one.''
Mahatma Gandhi chose Nehru to become the first PM of
independent India. With his vision of unity of the nation, he became
the architect of modern India. It was to be a federal state based on
secularism- the commitment to an Indian identity, which was above
all races, castes, and religions.
It was a vision of extraordinary dimensions. Nehru as well as
his daughter and successor, Indira Gandhi, were well aware that

35
only a firm anchorage in the Indian identity could unite the nation
and enable it to make an impact on the world. In these days of
mutual interdependence, the western powers and America cannot
afford to ignore what is happening in this region. It is possible that
the fate of the Asian democracies would one day be decided on the
banks of the Ganges. If India fails to remain a democracy, this
would trigger the fall of the whole of South and Southeast Asia.
That is why the Indian Prime Minister has to play a role that goes
well beyond duties related to internal affairs only. It is of
international political significance.
1) What made Pt. Nehru the architect of modern India?
Ans :- due to his vision of the unity of the nation.
2) Which concepts have been introduced by India into the
international vocabulary?
Ans :- non-alignment, tolerance, non-violence and peaceful co-
existence
3) Which word in the passage describes the phrase to live
together with mutual tolerance?
Ans :- co-existence
4) Which word describes the word 'trigger' used in the
passage?
Ans :- aggravate (Give choices)
5) Select the word synonymous to Dimensions
(a) support (b) size (c) importance (d) height
Ans:- (b)
6) Why does the role of the Indian Prime Minister go beyond
the duties related to the internal affairs of the country?
Ans :- because these are the days of mutual interdependence and
the fate of Asian democracies depends upon India.
7) Select the word that is opposite in meaning to dominance
used in the passage
(a) government (b) rule (c) subordination (d) importance
Ans :- (c)
8) Give a suitable title to the passage.
Ans :- Role of the Indian PM ( any other title will do )
9) How can India make an impact on the world ?
Ans :- a firm anchorage in the Indian identity.
10) How does the passage define secularism ?
Ans :- the commitment to an Indian identity which was above all
races, castes and religions.
Sample 3
Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions
given below.

36
 An important aspect of the growth of modern towns and
cities is the increasing population density. Mr. J. P. Orr, the
Honorable Chairman of the Mumbai Improvement Trust, pointed out
in a recent lecture on the subject, how it affected the health and
prosperity of the inhabitants. Life in most thriving towns is intimately
connected with the local trades and industries.
Unhealthy conditions in factories and workshops, and
offensive trades have been prevented in big towns, and this had led
to better health. The question of density is more difficult to deal with
in India, because, older towns have been built on different
principles. People not only want to live healthy but also live in
communities that give them greater social convenience, comfort
and safety. They care for the health, comfort and beauty of the
town, and these conditions of a well-built and well-arranged town
are still insisted on by the people. So as long as individuals obey
the laws of health, and their habits and customs are free from
insanitary effects, mere density of population does not perhaps tend
to increase the death rate and harbour diseases. But in the present
day, it is apparent that the habits of people have changed greatly
and they do not obey the laws of health and cleanliness as well as
their forefathers used to do in days when cities expanded and
people flourished. It is, therefore, necessary to modify the old plans
of city buildings in the light of modern sanitary laws and
requirements.
In this lecture, Mr. Orr spoke mainly of the density of the city
of Mumbai. But his observations are of considerable interest to all
those whose population is huddled in narrow quarters, without
adequate air and light.
1) The density of population does not increase the death rate
and harbour diseases as long as… (Complete the sentence)
Ans :- People obey the laws of health and their habits are free from
insanitary effects.
2) Why is it necessary to modify the old plans of city buildings?
Ans :- Because the habits of people have greatly changed and they
do not obey the health laws.
3) Life in most thriving towns is connected with … (Complete
the sentence )
Ans :- local trade and industry.
4) In addition to health what do the people want in towns?
Ans :- social convenience, comforts and safety.
5) What has led to better health in big towns?
Ans:- prevention of unhealthy conditions in factories and
workshops.

37
6) What should be kept in mind while modifying the old plans of
city buildings?
Ans:- Modern sanitary laws and requirements.
7) The word 'thriving' in the above passage means
a) populated b) modern c) growing d) well planned
Ans :- c)
8) Select a synonym for 'to huddle'
a) grow b) heaped together c) scatter d) sporadic
Ans :- b)
9) Select the right antonym for 'to harbour'
a) shelter b) cherish c) banish d) infectious
Ans :- b)
10) Which city did Mr. Orr spoke of?
Ans :- Mumbai

3.6 LET US SUM UP

The word comprehension means understanding.

Understanding the passage means the following. In every passage,
there are three different flows. On the printed page, what the reader
physically sees is a flow of words, phrases and sentences.
Underlying these words, phrases and sentences there are rational
thought processes which consist of facts, ideas and arguments.

3.7 GLOSSARY

Conprehension : The act or procets of comprehending

Argument : a statement, reason or fact for or against a point

Passage : a portion or section of a written work

Strategy : a plan

Management : The act or manner & managing.

3.8 UNIT END EXERCISES

1) Read the following passage and answer questions given
below it.
At one time in the history of India, most women knew very
well how to bring up their infants and they lived a perfectly healthy
life, free from diseases. The overall standard of women and
children in the country was much better than those of other

38
civilizations of that period. But ever since India was exposed to
frequent invasions by foreign nations, life became unsafe and
property was unprotected, and people were forced to congregate in
towns in such a compact way, that it led to awful insanitation and
diseases. The traditional knowledge of domestic and personal
health and hygiene was ignored. Women were confined indoors for
fear of insults and a train of social and unhealthy dangers followed.
It is a problem now, how we can restore the original conditions of
healthy and happy life in India. This is a socio-economic problem
which needs to be given priority to bring back the original culture
and restore welfare of women and children in India.
1) What was the main cause of the poor health
conditions of women in India ?
2) What question has the writer posed before the
readers ?
3) How did life become unsafe and property
unprotected?
4) Why were the women confined indoors?
5) When were women leading a perfectly healthy life?
6) What does the word ' congregate ' mean in the
passage?
7) How are foreign invasions responsible for poor health
conditions?
8) Write the antonym of ' confine ' from the following
a) forced b) directed c) to keep out d) reject
9) Give a suitable title to the passage.
2) Read the following passage carefully and answer the
questions given below:
Swami Dayanand was the first to use the word 'Swaraja'
even before Dadabhai Naoroji and Tilak used it. The British
regarded Arya Samaj as a seditious organisation and during the
martial law days (1919) students of DAV College, Lahore, were
ordered to go for roll call by the police thrice a day. It is now being
increasingly accepted that during the Sepoy Revolt of 1857
Dayanand played a historic role, not as a soldier but by inspiring the
freedom fighters.
It was (and is even now) taught in school textbooks that the
Aryans migrated here from Central Asia. Daynand was the first to
debunk that view and assert that the Aryans were the original
residents of Arya Varta (India); now many historians agree with him.
Indians told the British rulers: ''You quit because you are
foreigners.'' Their reply was : " You too were migrants from other
lands. Only you came much before us. So first you quit and then we

39
will see." They invented this theory of Aryan migration as a part of
their imperial policy of 'divide and rule'. The aim was to put the
Dravidians - according to them original residents of this country-
against the Aryan invaders.
Swami Dayanand said: " Ours is not any independent
religion. I am under the Vedas and my duty is to preach the Truth.''
Dayanand in his own humble way said: " I am not a knowall. If you
discover any error in me, you may correct it after reason and
argument." "" Anything that cannot be justified by reason and
commonsense must be rejected as irreligious - an idea too
revolutionary for his age.
(1) During the Sepoy Revolt of 1857, what was the role of
Swami Dayanand?
(2) What did the Britishers think of Arya Samaj?
(3) What did Swami Dayanand consider it his duty?
(4) Which other leaders used the word Swaraj ?
(5) What viewpoint of history books was debunked by
Swami Dayanand?
(6) Which idea of Swami Dayanand was considered
revolutionary?
(7) What role did Swami Dayanand play during the Sepoy
Revolt?
(8) Who were considered as original residents of India?
(9) Give the vedic name of India.
3) Read the following passage and answer the questions given
below it.
It was in Germany and France that the first successful
attempts were made to produce an internal-combustion engine
driven by petrol. In England people were strangely timid about
horseless vehicles. English inventors were handicapped by a quaint
old law that forbade any such vehicle to attain a greater speed than
four miles an hour, and compelled each one to be preceded by a
man carrying a red flag. This law was not repealed until 1896.
The earliest motor cars were looked upon as mere jokes, or
as rather dangerous playthings, by everyone except their
inventors.Some of them were single-seaters, others would carry
two or even three people; but all were noisy, clumsy, queer-looking
things. When in 1888, Carl Benz, a German, produced a three-
wheeled internal-combustion car, a great forward stride had been
made. Another German, whose name, Daimler, is often seen on
motor cars to this day, was experimenting about the same time, and
testing a petrol-driven engine.

40
 It is easy to understand how the introduction of the petrol-
driven engine revolutionized road transport throughout the world.
Until then the necessary power to push a vehicle along could not be
obtained without the cumbersome tanks, boilers and the furnaces of
the stem engine. The internal- combustion engine is light in weight
and small in size by comparison , the fuel is burned in it, so that
there is no waste, like the dusty cinders of a coal fire.
1) How did most people regard early motor cars?
2) What made the English inventors handicapped?
3) What does 'repealed' mean?
4) Give the antonym of 'clumsy'.
5) How were the earliest motor cars designed?
6) What did Carl Benz design?
7) What revolutionized road transport?
8) How did the internal-combustion engines score over
their counterparts?
9) Give a word for ' outdated' from the first paragraph?
10) Write a suitable title for the passage.

41
 4
PHONOLOGY AND STRESS MARKING
PART - I
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Differences between Phonetics and Phonology
4.3 Organs of Speech
4.3.1 The Tongue
4.3.2 The Lips
4.3.3 The Vocal Cords
4.3.4 The Soft Palate
4.3.5 The Teeth
4.3.6 The Alveolar Ridge
4.4 The Speech Sounds
4.4.1 The Consonants
4.4.2 The Pure Vowels
4.4.3 The Diphthongs
4.4.4 Table or Three-Term Label
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Glossary

4.0 OBJECTIVES
The study of this unit aims to enable you to know about:
• Phonology
• Speech mechanism
• I.P.A. symbols

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the study of language, the terms like phonetics,
phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics are
commonly used. Therefore, before entering into the intricacies of
phonology, a brief discussion of all these terms will be useful to
understand various aspects of language study.
• Phonetics: Phonetics is the study of the articulatory and
acoustic properties of the sounds of human language.

• Phonology: Phonology is the study of how sounds are

organized and used in natural languages.

42
 • Morphology: Morphology is the identification, analysis and
description of the structure of a given language's morphemes
and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of
speech, intonation/stress, or implied context.
• Syntax: Syntax is the study of the rules that govern the ways
in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and
sentences.
• Semantics: Semantics is the study of meaning that is used to
understand human expression through language.
• Pragmatics: Pragmatics is the study of the ways, in which
context contributes to meaning. It includes speech act
theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and
other approaches to language behavior in philosophy,
sociology, and linguistics. It studies how the transmission of
meaning depends not only on the linguistic knowledge of the
speaker and listener, but also on the context of the
utterance, knowledge about the status of those involved, the
intention of the speaker, and so on.

5.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHONETICS AND

PHONOLOGY

Phonetics Phonology

Phonetics deals with the Phonology deals with the sound patterns
physical production of and their meanings both within and
the sounds. across languages.

It is the basis for It is the basis for further work in

phonological analysis. morphology, syntax, discourse, and
orthography design.

It analyzes the It analyzes the sound patterns of a

production of all human particular language by determining
speech sounds of any which phonetic sounds are significant
language. and explaining how these sounds are
interpreted by the native speaker.

43
4.3 ORGANS OF SPEECH
The speech sounds produced by human beings are the
result of a combined functioning of the speech organs. The
production of sounds involves many operations. It begins with the
birth of the concept in the brain which is transmitted to the speech
organs through the nerves. The movements of the speech organs
create sound waves which are received by the listener’s ear and
carried by his nervous system to his brain. The movement of the
speech organs is determined by the specific sound which the
speaker wants to produce. The speech organs include: larynx,
pharynx, vocal cords, tongue, upper and lower lips, upper and lower
teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate, and nose. The
following diagram shows all these speech organs:

Figure -1 – Organs of Speech

Thoug all these organs of speech are necessary to produce
the speech sounds, all of them are not equally important. Some
speech organs like the tongue, lower lip and soft palate actively
participate in the speech act whereas the speech organs like teeth,
hard palate, alveolar ridge, etc. Remain passive. The important
organs of speech are:
4.3.1 The Tongue
It is one of the most important organs of speech. It can move
and take variety of shapes. Therefore, it is actively engaged in the
production of many speech sounds. The tongue has four parts: the
tip, the blade, the front and the back.
4.3.2 The Lips
Both upper lip and lower lip participate in the [production of
speech sounds. The bilabial sounds /p, b, m/ are produced with the
help of lips.
4.3.3 The Vocal Cords
There is a pair of small elastic tissues in the larynx. They are
called vocal cords. There is a slight opening between the vocal

44
cords which is called epiglottis. When we breathe in or breathe out
the air, it pushes the vocal cords and the glottis is opened. For the
production of the voiceless sounds like /f/, /s/ and /h/ the glottis is
required to be open. When the glottis is brought together we
produce voiced sounds.
4.3.4 The Soft Palate
The soft palate forms the roof of the mouth. It separates the
oral cavity from the nasal cavity. The last part of the soft palate is
called uvula. When it is raised, it closes the nasal cavity and the air
passes out through the oral cavity. When it is lowered, the air
passes through the nasal cavity and helps us to produce the nasal
sounds (/m, n, ŋ/).
4.3.5 The Teeth
The upper teeth are mainly used in the production of
consonant sounds. The dental sounds /θ/ and / ð/ are produced
with the help of teeth.
4.3.6 The Alveolar Ridge
The part between the upper teeth and the hard palate is
called alveolar ridge. The sounds /s/, /t/, /d/, etc. are produced with
the tongue touching the alveolar ridge. These sounds are called
alveolar sounds, e.g.
4.4 THE SPEECH SOUNDS
The speakers of English use 44 sounds. Out of these 44
sounds, 24 are consonants, and 20 vowels. The vowels comprise of
12 pure vowels and 8 diphthongs.

4.4.1 The Consonants

The following table enlists 24 consonants and their illustrations:
Sr. No. Consonant Examples

1. /p/ pet, pat, pot

2. /b/ bet, bat, bobby

3. /t/ ten, tap, take

4. /d/ den, dad, did

5. /k/ can, cat, care
6. /g/ get, got, give
7. / tʃʃ / chap, cheer, chair

8. ʒ/
/ dʒ judge, job, joke

9. /f/ fan, fast, fission

10. /v/ van, vast, vision

45
11. /θ/ thin, thing, think
12. /ð/ then, that, those

13. /s/ see, so, sit

14. /z / zoo, zebra, zinc
15. /ʃ / she, share, shine

16. /ʒ / vision, measure, pleasure

17. /h/ hat, hut, hit

18. /m/ mat, meet, million
19. /n/ not, neat, nation
20. / ŋ/ king, ring, sing

21. /l/ let, low, lion

22. /r/ rate, row, roar
23. /w/ wet, wow, wear
24. /j/ yes, yet, yacht
4.4.2 The Pure Vowels :
There are 12 pure vowels. They are :
Sr. No. Vowel Examples
1. /ə/ away, about, again

2. /ʌ/ cup, cut, but

3. / ɜ: / girl, bird, dirt

4. /e/ get, bell, sell

5. /æ/ bat, cat, mat

6. / ɑ: / arm, father, bard

7. /ɪ/ sit, fill, nit

8. / i: / seat, feel, neat

9. /ʊ/ pull, full, do

10. / u: / pool, fool, too

11. /ɒ/ cot, rot, hot

12. / ɔ: / caught, wrought, call

46
4.4.3 The Diphthongs :
In all, there are 08 diphthongs. The following table shows the
list of diphthongs:
Sr. No. Diphthong Examples
1. / eɪ / fail, tale, sale

2. / aɪ / file, tile, sign

3. / ɔɪ / foil, coil, join

4. / əʊ / no, go, home

5. / aʊ / now, cow, house

6. / eə / air, care, fare

7. / ɪə / bear, near, fear

8. / ʊə / poor, sure, cure

4.4.4 Manner of Articulation :

Sr.No Name Manner of Articulation Example
.
01 Plosive 1. A stricture of complete /p/, /b/
closure. /t/,/d/
2. First complete closure of
the passage of air at some
point in the vocal track.
3. As a result air pressure is
built up behind the closure

47
 4. The closure is then
suddenly removed causing
explosive noise.
02 Affricat 1. A stricture of complete / tȓ / / dz/
e closure followed by gradual
release.
2. A stricture of complete
closure of the oral passage
only, the nasal passage
remaining open.
Nasal 2. The Lung air pass free
03 /m/, /n/ /ŋ/
through nose.
04 Roll or A stricture of intermittent /r/
trill closure. A kind of interrupted
closure.

The tip of the tongue taps

against the alveolar ridge (or
just behind it or the uvula
against the back of the
tongue, several times, so that
air pass only intermittently
between the articulators.
05 Lateral Involves a stricture or partial /l/
closure. There is a partial
closure at some point in the
mouth, so that the airstream
can escape on one or both
sides of the contact.

06 Fricativ A Stricture of close /f/

e approximation.

There is no closure
anywhere.

The air passes through this

narrow gap.

It produces audible friction.

As air passes continuously,

the sound produced in the

48
 same manner can be
continued.

Fricatives are continuants

and are accompanied by
audible friction.
07 Friction In the oral passage of air, if /r/, /v/
less there is a narrowing of lesser
continu degree, i.e., articulators do
ant not come so close together,
then no audible friction
accompanies the sound
produced. Such sound is a
frictionless continuant, now
more often called an
approximant.

08 Semi- Short approximants. They are /j/

vowel very rapid glides towards, or
from, a vowel of greater
steady duration. They differ
from both approximants and
vowels in that they are
momentary in nature, and
cannot be prolonged.

(Notes are taken from A Course in Phonetics and Spoken English, Second
Edition by J. Sethi, P.V. Dhamija ,Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1999.

4.5 LET US SUM UP

Study of phonetics and spoken English is too vast. It is

required to study in detail all aspect of this chapter. In speech
sounds use of speech organs is vital. The speech sounds are
divided in vowel and consonants.

49
4.6 GLOSSARY

Vowel : A speech sound produced by humans when the breath

flows out through the mouth without being blocked by the teeth,
tongue or lips

Consonants : One of the speech sounds which is not a vowel.

Consonants are pronounced by stopping the air from flowing easily
through the mouth, especially by closing the lips or touching the
teeth with the tongue.

Articulation : The way in which you pronounce words or produce

sounds

Friction : The force which makes it difficult to move through

Bilabial : Using both lips

4.7 UNIT END EXERCISES

1. Answer the questions below.

1. Write a note on vowels.

2. Write a note on consonants.

3. Write description of all vowels

4. Write description of all consonants.

2. Identify only the consonant sounds in the following words:

(For example: chair - tʃ, r)

1. rise

2. place

3. giraffe

4. division

5. singer

50
 6. player

7. sofa

8. challenge

9. decision

10. occasion

11. simplification

12. realization

3. Identify only the vowel sounds in the following words:

(For example: decide - ɪ)

1. king

2. shuttle

3. ripple

4. revision

5. orchestra

6. identify

7. rectification

8. understanding

9. ramification

10. shining

11. synchronize

12. situation

51
4. Identify only the diphthongs in the following words:
(For example: ride - aɪ)

1. home

2. mouse

3. hearing

4. divine

5. combine

6. announce

7. sure

8. articulate

9. tear

10. bowl

11. foliage

12. mileage

52
5. Match the words in Column ‘A’ with the words in Column
‘B’ having similar vowel sounds. (e.g. nine – fine; gate –
late, etc.):

Column ‘A’ Column ‘B’

1 rider flower

2 home bow

3 came fun

4 row fame

5 run well

6 live rather

7 shower rope

8 single give

9 father glider

10 tell mingle

53
 5
PHONOLOGY AND STRESS MARKING–PART II
(STRESS MARKING)
Unit Structure

5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Syllable
5.3 Stress: Its Meaning
5.4 Primary Stress and Secondary Stress
5.5 Grammatic Stress
5.6 Stress Change
5.7 Rules for Stress Marking
5.8 Sentence Stress
5.9 Let Us Sum Up
5.10 Glossary
5.11 Unit End Exercises

5.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit intends to make you familiar with:
• The meaning of stress
• The concept of syllable
• The rules of marking stress

5.1 INTRODUCTION
English is a rhythmic language. It contains a fixed pattern of
stressed and unstressed syllables. To speak English in its natural
manner, it is necessary to learn which syllable receives stress and
which is unstressed. Therefore, this unit is devoted to learn the
terms like stress, syllable and also the rules of marking stress.

5.2 THE SYLLABLE

Language is made up of sounds. These sounds are

combined to form the words. The words are arranged in specific
order to form meaningful sentences. A unit of the language which is
next in the hierarchy to the speech sound is called ‘syllable’. A word
may contain one or more than one syllable. Therefore, a syllable is
the unit of language which is higher in hierarchy than the sound or

54
the phoneme. Syllables are made up of either only vowels or the
combination of vowels and consonants. If a syllable contains only
one sound, it will usually be a vowel. E.g. I, a, ah, oh, etc. If a
syllable contains more than one sound, one of them will be a vowel
and remaining will be consonants. E.g. The word ‘boy’ has one
syllable which contains one consonant sound /b/ and one vowel
sound /ǤǺ/. The word ‘girl’ has one syllable containing one vowel
sound /Ǭ: / and two consonant sounds /g/ and /l/. The word ‘silly’
has two syllables /sǺ/ and /lǺ/. Each of these syllables contains one
vowel and one consonant sound each. It means a syllable may
contain one or more than one sound. Similarly a word may also
contain one or more than one syllables. E.g. the words like cow,
dog, hen, cat, boy, man, pin, hair, hand, sky, etc. have one syllable
each. So the words having one syllable are called monosyllabic
words. The words like women, Gopal, college, season, disco,
naughty, beauty, etc. have two syllables each. They are called
disyllabic words. The words like property, destiny, sympathy,
currency, silently, specific, electric, etc. have three syllables each.
They are called trisyllabic words. The words activity, regularity,
conversation, nationality, punctuality, similarity, complexity, etc.
have more than three syllables each. Such words are called
polysyllabic words.

The syllables are put together to form the meaningful words.

The words can be formed by the addition of affixes to the base of
the word. The affix is a group of letters which is added at the
beginning or at the end of the word to form new words. A group of
letters, which is added at the beginning of the word is called prefix.
E.g. the word ‘discourage’ is formed by the addition of ‘dis-’ to the
word ‘courage’. The word ‘irregular’ is made up of ‘ir-’ and ‘regular’.
In these examples ‘dis-’ and ‘ir-’ are called the prefixs. Similarly, a
group of letters added at the end of the word is called suffix. E.g.
the word ‘courageous’ is formed by the addition of ‘-ous’ to
‘courage’ and the word ‘regularly’ is formed by the addition of ‘-ly’ to
‘regular’. Here ‘-ous’ and ‘-ly’ are called suffixes. The addition of
these prefixes and suffixes may or may not change the meaning of
the root word.

In any syllable, one sound which is more prominent than the

other is usually a vowel sound. It is called ‘nucleus’ of the syllable.
The less prominent sound is called ‘marginal element’ which usually
comes at the beginning or at the end or at both the places of the
syllable. When it comes at the beginning, it is called ‘releasing

55
consonant’ and the consonant at the end is called ‘arresting
consonant’. For example, the word ‘bat’ contains one syllable /bæt/.
In this syllable, /æ/ is the nucleus, /b/ is the releasing consonant
and /t/ is the arresting consonant. However, there are also syllables
in which consonant takes the nucleus position. Such consonants
are called syllabic consonants. For example, the word ‘sudden’ has
two syllables - /sȜ/ and /dn/. In the syllable /dn/, /n/ is prominent
consonant. So /n/ is the nucleus in this syllable.

5.3 STRESS : ITS MEANING

The degree of force with which a speaker pronounces a

sound or a syllable is called stress or accent. It is an important
feature of English language. Degrees of stress usually are taken by
the listeners as degrees of loudness. All the syllables of the words
having more than one syllable are not pronounced with the same
degree of force. The syllables which are more prominent than the
others are pronounced a little loudly and so they are said to receive
the stress. Less prominent syllables are called unstressed syllables.
The stressed syllable is little longer than the others. For example, in
the word ‘again’, there are two syllables - /ə/ and /geǺn/. The
syllable /ə/ is weak and so it is unstressed, whereas the syllable
/geǺn/ is prominent and so it receives the stress. The stress is
usually shown with the stroke at the head of the syllable. E.g.

1. a'gain

2. a'bout

3. de'cide

4. be'come
5. 'judgment

5.4 PRIMARY STRESS AND SECONDARY STRESS

There are two degrees of stress – primary and secondary. In

any word having two or more syllables, the most prominent syllable
receives he strongest stress. This stress is called primary stress.
The remaining syllables of this word may be stressed or
unstressed. When some other syllable of that word is also
prominent but not as prominent as the first one, then it is also
slightly stressed. It is called secondary stress. The primary stress is

56
marked with a stroke at the head of the syllable and the secondary
syllable is marked with the stroke at the foot of the syllable. E.g.

1. ac'tivity

2. ֽrecog'nition
3. ֽcult'ivation
4. eֽxami'nation
5. ֽqualifi'cation

5.5 GRAMMATIC STRESS

In English, there are certain words in which the stress
changes according to the grammatic form of a word. E.g. the
nouns and adjectives receive stress on their first syllable, whereas
the verbs receive the stress on their second syllable. Such kind of
change in the place of the stress helps us to recognize whether the
word is noun, adjective or the verb. E.g
1. 'subject (N)

sub'ject (V)

2. 'object (N)

ob'ject (V)

3. 'record (N)

re'cord (V)

4. 'increase (N)

in'crease (V)

5. 'conduct (N)

con'duct (V)

5.6 STRESS CHANGE

The stress is usually fixed on certain syllable of the word.

However, it can change as per the intention of the speaker and the
circumstance in which it is used. Therefore, sometimes one syllable
will receive the stress and at the other, some other syllable will be
stressed. Naturally, in some cases the meaningful words will lose

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the stress and other less meaningful words will receive it. This is
called stress change. It is observed that the words with the same
stem do not keep the primary stress on the same syllable. It goes
on changing its place from one syllable to the other. E.g.

1. a'cademy aca'demic aֽcade'mician

2. 'politics po'litical ֽֽpoli'tician

3. bac'teria bacֽteri'ology bacֽterio'logical

4. 'democrat de'mocracy ֽdemo'cratic

5. 'photograph pho'tography ֽphoto'graphic

5.7 RULES FOR STRESS MARKING

Stress within a word is called word-stress. The words in
English generally follow certain rules of stress marking. These
rules are:

1. The words belonging to the class of Noun, Verb, adjective

and Adverb are usually stressed. If there is only one syllable
in such words, there is no need to indicate the stress with the
stroke. Eg. The words boy, girl, come, shine, black, blue,
quite, well, etc. have only one syllable in each of them.
Therefore, there is no need to show the stress in these
words.
2. Words beginning with weak syllable are stressed on the
second syllable. E.g.

1. a'rrive
2. ad'mit
3. a'broad
4. be'low
5. com'pose
6. a'loud
7. a'lone
8. a'gain
9. be'tween
10. re'duce

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3 Words ending in ‘-ic’, ‘-ical’, ‘-ically’, ‘-ity’, ‘-ial’, ‘-ially’, ‘-ious’,
‘-ian’ receive the primary stress on the syllable preceding the
suffix. Eg.

1. e'lectric

2. e'lectrical

3. po'litically

4. ac'tivity

5. ֽarti'ficial

6. ֽartifi'cially

7. 'anxious

8. e'lectrician

9. ֽpatri'otic
10. gra'mmatical

11. ֽgramma'tically

12. ֽcuri'osity

13. ֽconfi'dential

14. ֽconfiֽdenti'ally

15. in'dustrious

16. mu'sician

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4. Words ending in ‘-ion’ receive the primary stress on the last
syllable but one. For example:

1. ֽreali'zation

2. ֽstabili'zation

3. ֽimpli'cation

4. ֽconver'sation

5. ֽappli'cation

6. ֽcivili'zation

7. inֽdustriali'zation
8. conservation

9. ֽintro'duction
10. ֽcompo'sition
11. ֽculti'vation

4. The words ending in ‘-eer’, ‘-aire’, ‘-ental’, ‘-ential’, ‘-ique’, ‘-

esque’, ‘-itis’, and ‘-escence’ receive their primary stress on
their suffix’s first syllable. For example:

1. ca'reer

2. ֽmillio'naire

3. ֽconti'nental

4. referential

5. bou'tique

6. gro'tesque

7. ֽengi'neer

8. ֽbillio'naire

9. ֽfunda'mental

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 10. ֽexi'stential

11. phy'sique

5. The suffixes, ‘-es’, ‘-ing’, ‘-ed’, ‘-en’, ‘-age’, ‘-ance’, ‘-er’, ‘-

ess’, ‘-ful’, ‘-fy’, ‘-hood’, ‘-ice’, ‘-ist’, ‘-ive’, ‘-less’, ‘-ly’, ‘-ment’,
‘-ness’, ‘-ship’, ‘-ter’, ‘-ure’, and ‘-zen’ do not affect the place
of the stress. For example:

1. 'reaches

2. 'shortage

3. 'shatered

4. 'beautiful

5. 'childhood

6. de'velopment

7. 'friendship

8. 'failure

9. 'given

10. 'tolerance

11. ֽpoe'tess

12. 'signify

13. 'service

14. 'nicely

15. 'coldness

17. 'citizen

6. The words ending with the suffixes ‘-al’ and ‘-ally’ change
the stress pattern. For example:

'accident ֽacci'dental acֽciden'tally

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 ֽeco'nomic ֽeco'nomical ֽeco'nomically

'politic po'litical ֽֽpoli'tically

5.8 SENTENCE STRESS

As all the syllables of a word are not prominent and so are

not stressed, similarly not all the words of a sentence are important
and so not all of them are stressed. The words of a sentence which
are semantically important are usually stressed. These words are
called content words. They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
and demonstrative pronouns. For example, in the sentence ‘Ram
and Sham drink the milk’ the words ‘Ram’, Sham’ and ‘milk’ are
nouns and the word ‘drink’ is a verb. All these are content words.
So they are stressed.

The words of a sentence which express the relations

between the content words are called structure words and they are
generally unstressed. For example, in the sentence ‘Gopal is sitting
on the chair’, the word ‘on’ refers to the relation between ‘sitting’
and ‘chair’. Hence it is unstressed. Articles, prepositions,
conjunctions, interjections, and auxiliary verbs are relatively less
important elements of a sentence. Therefore they are generally
unstressed.

5.9 LET US SUM UP

English is arhythmic language. The degree of force with

which a speaker pronounces a sound or syllable is called stress or
account. There are two degrees of stress – Primary and secondary.
There are certain words in which the stress changes according to
the grammatic form of word. The stress is usually fixed on certain
syllable or the word.

5.10 GLOSSARY

Stress : an extra force used when pronouncing

Syllable : any of the units into which a word is divided, containing a

vowel sound and usually one or more cansonants.

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Phonetic : Using special symbols to represent each differant
sound.
Phonetics : The Study of speech sounds & how they are produced.

Phoneme : any one of the set of smallest units of speech in a

language that distinguish one word from another.

5.11 UNIT END EXERCISES

1. Divide the following words in syllables: E.g. return:- re –

turn, permanent:- per - ma- nent.

1. reply

2. ago

3. alive

4. beginning

5. baton

6. shallow

7. singular

8. platoon

9. recognize

10. explanation

11. industrialization

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2. Mark the primary stress in the following words:

1. refer

2. retire
3. glorify

4. guitar

5. guarantee

6. decision

7. picturesque

8. pivotal

9. tortoise
10. xerox

11. synthetic

12. sonography
13. situation

14. realization

15. clarify
16. discussion

17. criticize

18. priority
19. nationality

20. regularity

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3. Mark the stress in the following words:

1. contact (N)

2. contact (V)

3. present (V)

4. present (N)

5. desert (V)

6. desert (N)

7. produce (V)
8. produce (N)

9. subject (V)

10. subject (N)

4. Complete the following table and mark the stress in each of

the words:

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

prevention
glorify
beautiful
understand
comfortably
system
awful
subject
ability
regularize
originally

5. Mark the stress on the words in the following sentences:

1. We are very happy today.
2. The workers have finished their work.
3. Rajesh is a clever student of this class.
4. They are planning to go for a picnic.
5. He had signed the agreement last week.

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