CHAPTER 4: SAMPLING DESIGN

 A complete enumeration of all items in the population is

known as a census inquiry.
 This method is beyond the reach of ordinary researchers,
and mostly done by government.
 In many cases, undertaking a census survey is not
possible.
 Sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate
results by studying only a part of total population,
technically called samples.
 SAMPLING is the process of selecting a number of study
units from a defined study population.
– It aims at obtaining consistent and unbiased estimates
of the population parameters.
slide 1
The Need for Sampling
 There could be limitations in resource (time, finance,
manpower, etc.) which would make it difficult to study
the whole population.
 In some cases, tests may be destructive.
 Sampling provides much quicker results than does a
census.
 Sampling is the only process possible if the population
is infinite.
 There is also an argument that the quality of a study is
often better with sampling than with a census.
– The basis of the argument is that sampling possesses the
possibility of better interviewing, more thorough investigation
of missing, wrong, or suspicious information, better
supervision, and better processing than is possible with
complete coverage.
2
Some Fundamental Terms
 Population: is the theoretically specified aggregation of
survey elements from which the survey sample is selected
 Sampling Frame: is the list of elements from which the
sample is drawn
 Sample: a subset or some part of a larger population
 Sample design: is a definite plan for obtaining a sample
frame
 Sampling: is the process of using a small number or part
of a larger population to make conclusion about the
whole population.
 Element: is a unit from which information is collected
and provides the basis of analysis
slide 3
Some Fundamental Terms…(cont’d)

 Statistic: is a characteristic of a sample.

 Parameter: is a characteristic of a population.
When we work out certain measurement, like
mean from a sample, it is called statistic.
– But when such measure describe the
characteristic of the population, they are
called parameter (s); That is, population
mean (μ) is a parameter Where as the
sample mean (x) is a statistic.

slide 4
 Steps in Sampling Design
a) Identifying relevant population & sampling unit:
– Sampling Unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a
sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit
may be a geographical one such as district, kebele,
village, etc., or a social unit such as family, school, etc.,
or it may be an individual.
Example: if the study concerns income, then the
definition of the population elements as individuals or
households can make a difference.
b) Determining the method of sampling:
– Whether a probability sampling procedure or a non-
probability sampling procedure has to be used is also
very important.
5
 Steps in Sampling Design…(Cont’d)
c) Securing a sampling frame:
– A list of elements from which the sample is actually
drawn is important and necessary. A source list should
be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.
d) Identifying parameters of interest:
– what specific population characteristics (variables and
attributes) may be of interest.
e) Determining the sample size
– The determination of the sample size depends on
several factors:
i) Degree of homogeneity:
 The simple most important factor in determining the
size of the sample need for estimating a parameter is
the size of the population variance.
6
ii) Degree of confidence:
– since a sample can never reflect its population with
certainty, the researcher must determine how much
precision he/she needs.
– Precision is measured in terms of:
• an interval range in which we would expect to find the
parameter estimate.
• the degree of confidence we wish to have in the
estimate.
iii) Number of sub-groups to be studied:
– When the researcher is interested in making
estimates concerning various sub-groups of the
population then the sample must be large enough for
each of these subgroups to meet the desired quality.
iv) Cost: all studies have some budgetary constraint &
hence cost dictates the size of the sample.
7
 Stages in
Selecting a Define the target Population
Sample

Select a sampling frame

Determine if probability or non-probability sampling will be chosen

Plan procedures for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct field work

8
Sources of incorrect inference
 Three factors influence sample representativeness:
– Sampling procedure
– Sample size
– Participation (response)
 There are two causes of incorrect inferences: namely,
systematic bias and sampling error.
1) Systematic bias:
 Systematic bias results from errors in the sampling
procedures, and it can not be reduced or eliminated by
increasing the sample size.
– Bias enters in when a sample fails to represent the
population it was intended to represent.

9
 Factors causing systematic bias
a) Inappropriate sampling frame
E.g., Using registrar’s list vs. Class rosters.
b) Defective measuring device
E.g., Using questionnaire vs. interview; physical measuring
device
c) Non-responses
d) Indeterminacy principle
– sometimes we find that individuals act differently
when kept under observation than what they do when
kept in non-observed situations.
e) Natural bias in the reporting of data
E.g., the downward bias in the income data

10
 2) Sampling error
 Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample
estimates around the true population parameters.
 It is the difference between the sample result and the
result of a census conducted using identical procedures.
 It is a statistical fluctuation due to chance variations.
 Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in
either direction, their nature happens to be of
compensatory type.
 Sources of sampling error is inadequate sample size.
– The smaller the sample, the more difficult it will be for that sample to
truly capture the characteristics of a population; the larger the
sample, the better. But, collecting large samples costs money and
resources. In reality, there should be a balance b/n collecting
extensive samples & spending a lot of money and resources.
11
Types of Sample Designs
 Sample designs are basically of two type:
– Probability sampling and
– non-probability sampling.
a) Probability Sampling Techniques
 It involves using random selection procedures to
ensure that each unit of the sample is chosen on
the basis of chance.
 A randomization process is used in order to reduce
or eliminate sampling bias so that the sample is
representative of the population from which it is
drawn.
 A basic principle of sampling is that a sample
will be representative of the population from which
it is drawn if all members of the population have an
equal chance of being included in the sample.
 Probability sampling requires a sampling frame
(listing of all study units). 12
 Types of probability sampling methods
– Generally speaking we could distinguish between the
following types of sampling designs.
• Simple Random Sampling Technique
• Systematic sampling Technique
• Stratified Sampling Technique
• Cluster Sampling Technique.
• Hybrid/multistage Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS):
– The SRS is the simplest and easiest method of
probability sampling.
– It is the sampling procedure in which each element of
the population has an equal chance of being selected.
– It assumes that an accurate sampling frame exists.

13
Simple Random Sampling…cont’d
– SRS can only be applied in situation where the population
size is small and homogeneous.
– Usually two methods are adopted to pick a sample.
(a) Random number table
(b) Lottery method
How to choose random sample using the random
number table?
 To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1
to N. Then, n random numbers are selected from the table.
 To do this we select some random starting point and then a
systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table.
We might start in the 7th row, 8th column and proceed
down the column to the bottom of the table and then move
to the top of the next column to the right.
14
15
2. Systematic Sampling Technique
 This is also one of the most widely used probability
sampling.
 In Systematic Sampling individuals are chosen at
regular intervals (for example every fifth) from the
sampling frame.
 Steps
– Assign a sequence number to each member of the
population.
– Determine the skip interval by dividing the number of
units in the population by the sample size. I=N/n
where I is skip interval, N is population size, and n is
sample size.
– Select a starting point in a random digit table (it
must be between 1 and I).
– include that item in a sample and select every ith
item thereafter until total sample has been selected. 16
 Example of
Systematic
Random Sample

17
Division of Traffic Safety at IDOT
Merits and Demerits of Systematic Sampling
 The merits of this sampling technique is:
– the samples will spread evenly over the entire
population.
– It is also an easier
– less costly method of sampling and can be
conveniently used even in case of large populations.
 Demerits
– if there is a hidden periodicity in the population,
systematic sampling will prove to be an inefficient
method of sampling.

18
3. Stratified Sampling
 The stratified sampling technique is particularly
useful when we have heterogeneous populations
 Most populations can be segregated into a
number of mutually exclusive sub populations or
Strata.
 Sub-populations(strata) that are individually
more homogeneous than the total population
 After a population is divided into the appropriate
strata a simple random sample can be taken
either using the SRS or the SS techniques from
each stratum.
19
Steps in Stratified Random Sampling
1. Divide the population to be surveyed in to strata of
similar study units or into areas with which similar
social, environmental, or economic conditions exist.
2. Make a separate and complete list of the stratum and
from each stratum draw a separate random sample of
study units using these lists.
3. A similar survey is then done on the sample of study
units in each of the strata i.e. the same questionnaire
is used.

20
 How to form strata?
 The strata are formed on the basis of common
characteristic(s) of the items to be put in each stratum.
i.e. strata be formed in such a way as to ensure elements
being most homogeneous within each stratum and most
heterogeneous between the different strata. Strata are
purposively formed usually based on past experience and
personal judgment of the researcher.
 How should items be selected from each stratum?
– use simple random sampling, or
– Systematic random sampling

21
How many items be selected from each stratum?
i) proportional to the sizes of the strata
– That is, if Pi represents the proportion of population
included in stratum i, and n represents the total
sample size, the number of elements selected from
stratum i (ni) is n*Pi. i.e. ni =n(Ni/N)
– For example, Suppose we want to take a sample of
size n=30 to be drawn from a population of size
N=800 which is divided into three strata of size
N1=400, N2=240, and N3=160. The sample size for
stratum with N1=400 is n1=30(400/800)=15.
– The sample size for stratum with N2=240 is
n2=30(240/800)=9.
– The sample size for stratum with N3=160 is
n3=30(160/800)=6.
22
ii) Disproportionate sampling design
 When we account for both differences in stratum size
and differences in stratum variability
 Formula: n  n.N i . i
N1 1  N 2 2  ...  N k k
i

 For example, assume a population is divided into

three strata so that N1=5000, N2=2000, and
N3=3000.Respective standard deviations are
 1  15,  2  18,  3  5
 How should a sample of size n=84 be allocated to the
three strata , if we want optimum allocation using
disproportionate sampling design?
84(5000)(15)
n1   50
(5000)(15)  (2000)(18)  (3000)(5) 23
Pros and Cons of stratified sampling
 Pros of stratified sampling:
1) more reliable information is obtained for the same
sample size if the population is stratified than they are
for the population as a whole.
2) Comparisons between strata are easy.
 Drawbacks to using stratified sampling:
1) First, sampling frame of entire population has to be
prepared separately for each stratum
2) Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying
variables may be related to some, but not to others,
further complicating the design, and potentially reducing
the utility of the strata.
3) Finally, stratified sampling can potentially require a
larger sample than would other methods.
24
4. Cluster sampling
 This is an example of two stage sampling.
– First stage a sample of areas is chosen; Second stage a
sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
– Divide population into a large number of groups, called
clusters and then sample among clusters. Finally select all
individuals within those clusters.
• Clusters are often geographic units (e.g., districts, villages)
or organizational units (e.g., clinics, training groups, etc).
 Cluster sampling addresses two problems:
– Researchers lack a good sampling frame for a dispersed
population.
– The cost to reach a sample element is very high and
cluster sampling reduces cost by concentrating surveys
in selected clusters.
 But certainly it is less precise than simple random sampling.

25
Cluster Sampling.. Cont’d
Advantages :
 Cuts down on the cost of preparing a
sampling frame.
 This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
Disadvantages:
 sampling error is higher for a simple
random sample of same size.

26
 Differences between stratified
sampling and cluster sampling
Stratified sampling Cluster sampling

• We divide the population into a • We divide the population into

few subgroups, each with many subgroups, each with a
many elements in it. few elements in it.
• The sub-groups are selected • The sub-groups are selected
according to some criterion according to some criterion of
that is related to the variables ease or availability in data
under study. collection.
• We try to secure homogeneity • We try to secure heterogeneity
within sub-groups & within subgroups and
heterogeneity b/n subgroups. homogeneity b/n sub-groups,
but we usually get the reverse.

• We randomly choose elements • We randomly choose a number

from within each sub-group. of sub-groups, which we want
to study about.
27
 Sampling with probability proportional
to the cluster size
 In case the cluster sampling units do not have
the same number of elements, it is considered
appropriate to use a random selection process
where the probability of each cluster being
included in the sample is proportional to the
size of the cluster.
 For this purpose, we have to list the number of
elements in each cluster irrespective of the
method of ordering the cluster.
 Then we must sample systematically the
appropriate number of elements from the
cumulative totals.
28
Multi-stage random sampling
 Complex form of cluster sampling in which two
or more levels of units are embedded one in
the other.
 Sampling plan that uses a combination of
sampling methods in various stages
 First stage, random number of districts
chosen in all states.
 Followed by random number of villages.
 Then third stage units will be houses.
 All ultimate units (houses, for instance)
selected at last step are surveyed.

29
b) Non-probability Sampling Techniques
 Non-probability selection is non random i.e.,
each member does not have a known non-zero
chance of being included.
 While useful for many studies, non-probability
sampling procedures provide only a weak basis
for generalization. In reality, the conclusions
drawn from a study of a non-probability sample
are limited to that sample and cannot be used
for further generalization.
 The followig are the types non-probablity
sampling methods

30
1) Convenience Sampling
 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling
or accidental or haphazard sampling.
 A type of non-probability sampling which involves the
sample being drawn from that part of the population
which is close to hand. That is, readily available and
convenient.
 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
 The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically
make generalizations about the total population from
this sample because it would not be representative
enough.
– Example: the person on street and interview
conducted regarding television programs are
examples of convenient samples.
31
2) Purposive or Judgment sampling

 Purposive sampling occurs when one draws a non-

probability sample that conforms to a certain criteria.
 The researcher chooses the sample based on who
they think would be appropriate for the study.
– When focusing on a limited number of informants,
whom we select strategically so that their in-depth
information will give optimal insight into an issue is
known as purposeful sampling.
 It uses the judgment of the expert in selecting cases.
 Purposeful sampling should not be haphazard.
– Care should be taken that for different categories of
informants; selection rules are developed to
prevent the researcher from sampling according to
personal preference.
32
 3) Quota Sampling
 Quotas are assigned to different strata group and interviewers are
given quotas to be filled from different strata.
 But, the actual selection of the items is left to the interviewers
discretion.
 In quota sampling a researcher first identifies categories of people
(e.g., male, female) then decides how many to get from each
category.
– Example: the researcher interviews the first 5 male and the first 5
females that he or she encounters.
 The major limitation of this method is the absence of an element of
randomization.
– Consequently the extent of sampling error cannot be estimated.
 In spite of its limitations, quota sampling is used in opinion pollsters,
marketing research and other similar research areas.

33
 4) Snowball /Network/Referral/Sampling
– This is a method for identifying and sampling (or
selecting) the cases in a network.
– Snowball sampling is based on an analogy to a
snowball, which begins small but becomes
larger as it is rolled on wet snow and pick up
additional snow.
– Snowball sampling begins with one or a few
people or cases and spread out on the basis of
links to the initial case.
– You start with one or two information-rich key
informants and ask them if they know persons
who know a lot about your topic of interest.

34