1.

(a) (i) right whale; 1

(ii) pollution of seas/overfishing/overexploitation of food species/
e.g. harvesting of krill in Antarctic/climate change – degradation
of habitats/distortion of food chains; 1 max

(iii) Any three of:

degree of specialisation/e.g. dietary needs too specialised;
distribution limited to some oceans;
slow reproductive rate/K-selected species/small number of young;
higher trophic levels – may accumulate toxins;
long migration routes; 3 max

(iv) difficult to monitor and estimate numbers;

easy for hunters to avoid detection;
no one’s property/“tragedy of the commons”;
difficult to keep open ocean species in captivity/OWTTE; 2 max

(b) Allow for any reasonable comparisons e.g.

Greenpeace – fast response to issues;
actively uses media/“stunts”/may break national laws;
UNEP – works more slowly;
has to get agreement of nations/national bodies may be in conflict;
capable of initiating international laws; 3 max

(c) named habitat;

importance of species/communities/habitat;
other arguments for preservation relevant to local example;
Allow an actual name or a habitat type e.g. name: Walberswick
National Nature Reserve, Suffolk/John Forrest National Park,
Western Australia or habitat type: (English lowland heathland/
Jarrah forest). 3 max
[13]

2. (a) Award [2 max].

pyramid of biomass represents the standing stock of each trophic
level measured in units such as grams of biomass or energy per sq m;
(units required)
pyramid of numbers represents the number of individuals in
each trophic level within a food chain;
Award [2 max].
pyramid structure of ecosystems means that non-biodegradable
toxins can become concentrated in upper levels;
it also demonstrates why there is a limit to the number of trophic
levels that can be supported;
and why species at the top of the pyramid may be more vulnerable
to e.g. hunting; 4 max

1
(b) Disadvantages of banning DDT: [3 max]
DDT effectively killed malarial mosquitoes, and since the ban
populations of mosquitoes have increased;
incidence of malaria has increased as a result;
malaria is a disease to which children are particularly vulnerable
and has huge socio-economic implications;
90% of all malaria cases are in Africa, a continent least able to deal
with the socio-economic consequences of the disease;
Advantages of banning DDT: [3 max]
environmental side-effects of DDT have been avoided by banning
its use;
e.g. DDT is not biodegradable and accumulates in the tissues
of living organisms (bioaccumulation) damaging or even
eliminating populations;
e.g. because DDT becomes more concentrated along food chains
(bioconcentration) top carnivores tend to be most affected and
these may play a very significant role in maintaining balance
of whole ecosystem;
target insects can develop resistance, but DDT also kills other
insects which may be natural predators of the mosquitoes, so
the ban allows natural balance to be restored; 6 max

2
(c) Methods for improving productivity of soil:
improving fertility of the soil with (organic fertilizers/manure/chemical)
fertilizers;
reducing losses due to pests/disease with chemical treatments;
improving nitrogen fixation by planting leguminous crops e.g. beans;
reducing loss of nutrients due to soil erosion by terracing fields;
reducing loss of nutrients/topsoil due to wind erosion by planting
shelter belts;
avoiding over-intensive farming by allowing fields fallow/rest
periods;
avoiding depletion of nutrients by rotating crops;
improving yields through irrigation;
avoiding over-compaction of soil through use of appropriate/low
impact technology;
reducing wastage by increasing field size e.g. through removal
of hedgerows;
use of GM/Green Revolution crops e.g. higher yielding varieties
of rice;
Contrasting approaches of ecocentric and technocentric farmers:
both ecocentric and technocentric farmers might apply fertilizers, but
choice of fertilizer might reflect their values e.g. ecocentric using
manure (to work with natural processes), whereas technocentric
might use chemical fertilizers;
technocentrics might favour high tech solutions such as GM crops
whereas ecocentrics might be concerned about the ethical issues of GM;
ecocentrics often express a lack of faith in large-scale technology
so might oppose strategies used by agribusiness e.g. high-tech
irrigation systems; 8 max
Award credit for any other answers of equivalent validity, relevance
and substance.
Award [6 max] if no contrast is made between ecocentric and
technocentric farmers.
Allocation of marks can be split flexibly for part (c).
Expression of ideas [2 max]
[20]

3
3. (a) describing water budget: [3 max]
only 2.6 % is fresh water;
over 80 % is in ice caps and glaciers;
0.6 % is groundwater;
rest of is made up of lakes, rivers, etc.;
Precise figures are not required, but some indication of relative amounts is.
explaining why possible source of conflict: [5 max]
water resources are now becoming a limiting factor in many societies;
availability of water for drinking, industry and agriculture needs to
be considered;
many societies are now dependent primarily on groundwater
which is non-renewable;
as populations grow, greater demands are made on water resources;
as societies develop water needs increase;
when water supplies fail, populations will be forced to take drastic
steps, e.g. mass migration/civil unrest/wars may result; 7 max

(b) ecocentrism involves an holistic world view;

this implies individuals/local groups making changes which affect the
whole;
it also means working with natural processes;
ecocentric involves self-imposed restraint e.g. reuse of bath water;
ecocentric involves emphasis on small-scale e.g. local tube well;
ecocentric involves emphasis on community involvement e.g. locally
built micro dams;
ecocentric involves education e.g. local awareness campaigns;
ecocentric focuses on basic needs of those below subsistence e.g.
low technology irrigation; 5 max
Award [2 max] if ecocentrism is discussed without reference to
local application. Features of ecocentrism do not need to be stated
explicitly; as the choice of strategy may imply these.

4
 (c) description: [3 max]
irrigation using pumped groundwater reserves;
genetically modified plant species, disease-resistant cereals;
rice with genes to produce more proteins and vitamins;
hydroponics is a good example of a technological solution;
mechanization;
agribusiness/industrial agriculture;
fertilizers/pesticides;
Award [1 max] for any statement which explains what a technocentric
strategy might be.
evaluation: [3 max]
techno solutions may represent the only way to increase yield to
meet demand;
may have environmental costs/not be environmentally sustainable;
high economic outlay, and therefore not an option for LEDC;
may include both engineering solutions and biotechnology solutions; 6 max
Award [4 max] if there is no evaluation. Award [1 max] for any
correct reference to Boserup’s theory.
Expression of ideas [2 max]
[20]

4. (a) low biodiversity reflects poor ecological/environmental conditions;

low biodiversity is a measure of a stressed environment;
factors which cause low biodiversity also may lead to an environment
unsuitable/stressful for humans, e.g. toxins, pollutants, contaminated
land and water, drought;
biodiversity can be seen as a gauge for environmental quality;
a more diverse environment is likely to be more resource rich/abundant;
opportunities for discovering new resources are more likely in areas
with high diversity;
loss of biodiversity is the loss of potential new resources, e.g. medicines;
areas of high diversity are more aesthetically pleasing than areas
of low diversity, thus better places to live;
a society that ignores the need for high biodiversity/allows
biodiversity to be lost, shows little respect for the environment,
this attitude may also be reflected in its government’s care of its
people, society, etc.; 6 max
Award [6 max] if arguments are supported with appropriate evidence.
Award [4 max] for more than one line of argument. Award [3 max]
if answer considers only one line of argument.

5
(b) local support: [2 max]
local guides and rangers earn a living assisting tourists within the
park and prevent poaching;
their economic future and the future of the park are intrinsically linked;
they have a positive vested interest in the park;
they have a respect and pride for the park that they view as theirs;
government agencies: [2 max]
government through its employees, wildlife agencies, rangers, guides,
provides the park with security
and infrastructure;
they monitor and control visitor numbers;
co-ordinate anti-poaching activities;
punish poachers;
manage park funding;
maintain communications;
provide resources;
liaise with local groups, non-government groups and international
organizations;
research: [2 max]
scientific research discovers change/damage/stress/new species/
monitors abiotic and biotic conditions within the park;
highlights new information;
research identifies new hazards and new goals;
produces information that supports the parks existence and informs
management decisions;
helps educate those inside and those outside the park; 6 max
Award [4 max] if no named protect area.

6
 (c) species based conservation: [3 max]
concentrates on one or two key species;
usually organisms that possess strong aesthetic qualities, tigers,
bears, pretty birds etc.;
habitat conditions are maximized to meet the needs of the key species;
indirectly such management techniques may benefit many
non-target species and the ecosystem per se;
habitat protection for one species may protect many species;
however, a species based approach may result in a species
being conserved artificially outside its habitat, thus the organism
and not the habitat it belongs in is protected;
trophy hunting: [3 max]
the protection of animals for sport/hunting may also be seen as a
species based approach to conservation;
though the animal is being maintained for economic gain and
pleasure, it is none the less being conserved;
numbers are kept high by managing habitat, controlling predators
providing additional food;
managing habitat for “game” may have benefits for many other species;
game reserves may have less disturbance, less alien species
(e.g. cattle and sheep); 6 max
Expression of ideas [2 max]
[20]

5. (a) perhaps cartoonist is suggesting that politicians/society refuse

to act because they claim that more research needs to be done first;
despite the fact that evidence (falling birds) is in front of their eyes; 2
Accept similar interpretations of cartoon, no need to mention acid rain.

(b) conflict might exist because different groups see the resource differently;
economic value of timber/land is incompatible with leaving forest
standing for other uses (indigenous cultures);
indigenous tribes need large amounts of space in which to live
sustainably;
reserves left for indigenous people may be too small to sustain them;
forest is cut down by outsiders ignoring the needs of indigenous
people;
intrinsic value of forest (biorights) is ignored by exploitative
users only interested in economic use;
difference between sustainable use of forest (natural income)
and users who exploit natural capital;
conflict between short-term and long-term perspective
(indigenous people); 3 max
[5]

7
6. (a) This can be argued either way, although it is more probable that
Kuan Tzu was an ecocentrist. Give credit for strong justification.
Ecocentrist because
the proverb seems to be advising taking a long-term view;
clearly advocates education and ecocentrism stresses importance
of self-reliant communities;
through education people will arguably learn to value the
environment and use resources sustainably;
refers to “the people” and this perhaps suggests a lack of faith
in elites/authorities;
or technocentrist because
education will help lead to technological development;
through technology we will find longer term solutions to
environmental problems;
we need to understand natural processes in order to control them;
faith in the ability of people to overcome obstacles; 4

(b) education – level and type will affect environmental awareness;

economic conditions – will shape views towards environment
e.g. short-term or long-term view;
political context – will affect e.g. how groups in society are
organized/treated;
cultural views – will affect predominant attitudes to the
environment;
religious view – holy texts/doctrine may dictate relationship
between people and creation/nature; 2 max
Accept other reasonable answers.
[6]

8
7. (a) 6

Award [1] for each two correct labels.

(b) (i) the quantity of organic matter produced or solar energy

fixed, by photosynthesis in green plants per unit area
per unit time; 1

(ii) net primary productivity is GPP less the biomass / energy

lost by plants through respiration; 1

(iii) nutrient and mineral availability;

temperauture; 2

(c) kaway ;

salmon ;
kaway is more efficient; 3 max

(d) in terrestrial systems most food is harvested from relatively

9
 low tropic levels, but in aquatic systems most food is
harvested from higher trophic levels;
energy conversions along the food chain may be more
efficient in aquatic systems;
initial fixing or available solar energy by primary producers
tend to be less efficient due to the absorption and reflection
of light by water; 3

(e) salmon is a source of income as well as a food source; 1

(f) technology likely to be simpler;

methods likely to be more traditional;
environmental impact will probably be smaller;
more likely to be sustainable in the long term; 3 max
[20]

8. (a) (i) maize, USA; 1

(ii) intensive agricultural system;
high levels of inorganic fertilizer used per unit area;
high yielding/management-intensive crop varieties
(possibly GM types);
extensive and intensive weed, pest and disease control;
efficient harvesting;
possibly irrigation; 3 max

(iii)
Low Input Systems High Input Systems
migratory pastoralists, Kenya cattle, UK
shifting cultivation, Papua New Guinea wheat, UK
maize, USA

5 correct [2], 4/3 correct [1], 2/1 correct [0] 2 max

(b) (i) MEDCs have a greater proportion of animal protein in their

diet (approx 26%), whereas LEDCs are more dependant
on grain crops;
MEDCs generally have greater variation in their diets than LEDCs; 2

10
 (ii) MEDCs tend to have larger ecological footprints than LEDCs;
because they have high “grain equivalent” food consumption
lifestyles;
they consume high levels of fossil fuel;
high CO2 emissions;
produce larger amounts of waste;
higher lifestyle expectations and possess more consumer goods;
use proportionately more raw materials; 4 max

(iii) limits biodiversity because of herbicide and pesticide

elimination of non-crop species;
introduces toxins through fertilizers/irrigation;
limits habitat type because of monoculture;
eutrophication due to fertilizer application;
risk of hybridization from GM maize;
aesthetic impact on landscape; 2 max

(iv) trampling from livestock leading to soil loss/desertification;

cause overgrazing and soil loss/desertification;
introduce diseases from herds to native species; 1 max
[15]

9. (a) a community of interdependent organisms and the physical environment

they inhabit/OWTTE; 1

(b) e.g. water flow through a river ecosystem; 1

Accept any reasonable answer that identifies a flow and an ecosystem.
Award [0] if no named ecosystem.

(c) biomass within trees and plants/nutrient within soil; 1

Do not accept for example “trees” or “soil”. The item stored must
be identified.

(d) 0.04; 1

11
 (e) e.g. tropical rainforest and tundra;
mean NPP tropical rainforest greater than tundra/mean biomass
tropical rainforest far greater than tundra;
NPP per kg biomass of tropical rainforest is far lower than tundra;
Candidates may give figures from the table but they need to make
comparative statements.
tropical rainforest hot and wet so greater opportunity to develop
large biomass/high rate of photosynthesis and high rate of
respiration so NPP/per kg biomass/per year is low;
tundra cold and dry so low rates of photosynthesis and respiration/
plants slow growing, slow accumulation of biomass, relatively large
growth in biomass per year; 4 max
Award up to [2 max] for comparison and up to [2 max] for
explanation. Award any other combination of two ecosystems.

(f) name of primary producer: e.g. grassland;

method: [2 max]
collect all the vegetation (including roots, stems, leaves) within a
series of quadrats;
weigh vegetation;
dry the vegetation until no further weight loss is encountered/dry
weight represents biomass; 3 max
Award [2 max] if no named primary producer.
[11]

10. (a) (i) 20.6 (accept 21) 1

2
(ii) 50 × 50 cm quadrat = 0.25 m ;
–2
therefore 20.6 × 4 = 82.4 primroses m ; (accept 82) 2
or 21 × 4 = 84

(iii) e.g. light levels would decrease with distance into wood 1
(iv) along a profile or transect;
take reading at regular intervals;
enough to be statistically significant;
take samples using relevant equipment; 2

(b) (i) N= ;
N = 89.6; 2

12
 (ii) make sure all traps were working properly;
ensure all traps were equally baited;
ensure all animals were handled humanely and not hurt;
ensure all traps were in similar locations (e.g. all at the base
of a tree, all on a defined animal track);
traps checked at same time each day;
mark in a way that will not rub off;
mark in a way that does not compromise survival; 2 max
Accept other reasonable answers.

(c) randomly place a series of quadrats in the meadow/grassland;

remove all vegetation from each quadrat;
dry the vegetation in an oven to remove water and measure the
dry mass;
work out the average dry biomass per quadrat and multiply by
total area of meadow; 3 max

(d) (i) D = ;

D= ;
D = 4.28; 3

(ii) low diversity index suggests that a habitat is newly colonised;

a monoculture dominated by a single species; 2 max

(iii) abundance is a measure of the number of organisms per

unit area;
diversity is the number of different species and the relative
number of individuals within a species; 2
[20]

11. (a) 911 kg (units required) 1

(b) November 1

(c) introduction of disease to indigenous species;

over predation of indigenous species who have little (evolutionary)
defence against new predator;
out competition of indigenous species in same niche;
hybridization of indigenous species; 3 max

13
 (d) Any two of the following for [1]
natural hazards;
global catastrophe;
habitat loss;
pollution;
over exploitation; 1 max
Accept other appropriate answers.
[6]

12. (a) use of global resources at a rate that allows natural regeneration;
and minimizes damage to the environment;
Give credit if concept of replenishable capital is mentioned. 2

(b) Give full credit for either a brief discussion of several human
actions or a full discussion of one. Credit should be given
for use of examples / case studies.
Allow [5] for how resource has been managed unsustainably
and [5] for consequences for ecosystems.

soil resources
human actions could include:
overgrazing;
deforestation;
unsustainable irrigation;
land pollution;
acid deposition; 5 max
Or a more detailed discussion of one or more of these.

consequences could include:

soil degradation;
loss of soil structure;
desertification;
soil erosion;
loss of organic matter and consequences for primary productivity;
effects of acid deposition on nutrient content of soils;
loss of soil organisms; 5 max

water resources
human actions could include abstraction of ground water;
pollution;
eutrophication;
increased demand for water;
wastage of water resources;
Or a detailed discussion of one or more of these. 5 max

14
 consequences could include:
loss of habitat;
role of water in soil formation and consequences for soil formation
if water shortage occurs (e.g. increased rates of salinisation;
increased rates of soil erosion as water table is lowered);
eutrophication consequences on aquatic ecosystem;
impact of pollutants on aquatic fauna (e.g. mutations, progressive,
concentration of pollutants along the food chain);
impact of pollutants on flora e.g. impact of acid rain on coniferous forests; 5 max

(c) Soil resources

suggest possible soil conservation methods:
soil conditioners;
wind reduction techniques;
cultivation techniques;
efforts to stop plowing marginal lands;
crop rotation; 5 max
Credit should be given if reference is made to
specific farming systems.

OR
Water resources
suggest more sustainable practices;
reducing water use;
recycling;
metering water;
pollution monitoring or control;
e.g. with respect to eutrophication; 5 max
Credit should be given if reference is made to
specific case studies.
[20]

13. (a) e.g. the Aral Sea, Former Soviet Union;

sustainable use of water resources means using them at a rate
that allows natural regeneration and minimizes damage to
the environment;
this has not happened in the Aral Sea which has been
shrinking in size due to excessive removal of water from
feeder rivers;
water was taken and used to irrigate cotton fields by the
Soviet government;
high rates of evaporation together with high applications of
chemical fertilizers led to salinization;
and pollution of remaining water resources;
this has had a knock-on effect on local communities as water
supplies were decimated;
and local farming and fishing industries collapsed; 6 max

15
 (b) global warming will lead to changes in global water budget;
with increased melting of glacial ice and ice caps;
and will cause changes in precipitation (amounts and distribution);
evaporation rates will change;
seasonality will vary which could be significant in water supply;
increased flood risks in certain areas;
and expanding desert zones with water shortage; 5 max

(c) economic factors will be central - whether or not a country can

pay for sanitation and water purification;
technological factors – if the technology is available;
often Governments will be reluctant to impose limits if multinational
companies will then be deterred from locating there;
monitoring water quality in remote rural areas can be very difficult;
the political priority might be development first, environment later;
the political structure might favour short-term profits rather than
long-term environmental protection;
cultural inertia - reluctance to change the way in which resources
have always been used; 6 max
Expression of ideas [3 max]
[20]

14. (a) The system should be both terrestrial or both aquatic. Examples
could compare salmon fishing in Norway with rice fish farming
in Thailand, intensive beef farming in North America and Masai
herding in Kenya. No credit should be given for naming the food
production system. However, if food production system is not
named award [5 max].
Award [2 max] for resource inputs.
The following points could be considered:
comparison of contrasting fertilizer use;
variation in water resource use;
labour input;
energy input;
Award [2 max] for resource outputs.
The following points could be considered:
consideration of variation in system productivity;
reference to net and gross production;
Award [2 max] for technology.
The following points could be considered:
comparison of the variation in technology and the implication for
the system;
technology may include machinery and organic technology
e.g. GM crops, the use of draft animals versus agricultural
machinery; 6 max
Any other reasonable answers.

16
(b) Answers should clearly demonstrate the direct and indirect impact
of the two farming systems on their immediate environment.
The nature of the systems chosen will dictate the content of the
answer.
salmon fishing in Norway:
organic debris contamination of coastal waters from waste food
and excreta;
the addition of steroids and other chemical waste to the adjacent
coastal waters;
accidental escape and the contamination of local gene pools;
potentially introduces non-natural genetic variation;
rice fish farming:
impacts on local biodiversity – both plants and animals;
introduces alien species;
changes nutrients budget;
impacts directly on natural resources/food within the system; 5 max
Answers must refer to both systems for full marks.

(c) (i) Award [2 max] for any of the following.

food resources needs:
needs will change over the next 100 years as the global
human population continues to increase;
as countries develop further their demand for a greater
variety of food products (at a greater level) will expand;
dietary animal protein will increase/food fashion may change;
change in productivity due to environmental degradation
will further stress systems;
Award [2 max] for any of the following.
achievement of food resource change:
adoption of new crop varieties;
use of GM crops;
increased productivity driven by new technology and
farming initiatives; 4 max

(ii) environmental stress;

more land required for food production;
agricultural intensification;
loss of diversity; 2 max
Accept other reasonable answers.
Expression of ideas [3 max]
[20]

17
15. (a) as tractor use increase farm labour use goes down;
agriculture is becoming more mechanized;
agriculture may be more intensive;
less need for labour on farm;
farms becoming larger require more machinery;
farming/agriculture is becoming more technocentric; 2 max

(b) greater use of pesticides to protect crops and livestock;

use of high yielding crops and livestock;
the use of GM crops and livestock;
greater agricultural industrialization/mechanization;
improving irrigation;
soil management techniques e.g. terracing;
agroforestry; 2 max

(c) Award [1] for named agricultural system and associate impact.
e.g. prairie grassland US, loss of biodiversity;
e.g. Norfolk grasslands UK, loss of marshland from drainage;
e.g. slash and burn subsistence farming, loss of forest habitat;
e.g. extensive cattle farming east-Africa, introduction of disease; 1 max

(d) soil has become more valuable as it has become more scarce;
increasingly seen as a resource requiring protection with special
techniques e.g. shelter and salinisation of soil resource due to
poor management;
decline in soil quality due to poor management e.g. salinisation
(over irrigation);
loss of soil due to soil erosion;
soil degradation and lowered productivity; 2 max
Accept other reasonable responses.
[7]

16. (a) The pedosphere is the biotic / non-biotic link between

the lithosphere and the biosphere;
there is a two-way movement of water between the
pedosphere and the hydrosphere;
there is an exchange of atmospheric gases with the pedosphere;
atmospheric processes influence the pedosphere
(e.g. through soil erosion);
atmospheric factors will affect soil forming processes
(e.g leaching, weathering);
soil organisms are part of the biosphere but also part of the soil;
biosphere contributes detrital / organic matter to the soil; 5 max

18
(b) Sandy soils are characterised by large grains and large pore spaces
whereas clay soils are characterised by small grains and small pore spaces;
sand soils are therefore freely drained (but have poor water retention);
whereas clay soils hold water well (but have poor water retention);
whereas clay soils hold water well (but are subject to water logging);
clay soils have a better nutrient content due to the clay humus complex
whereas sand soils do not;
sand soils tend to have a blocky or crumb structure favouring root
growth whereas clay soils tend to have a platy structure which can
inhibit root growth;
clay soils are traditionally more difficult to work / plow (heavy and sticky
when wet, hard when dry), sandy soils are generally easier to work;
clay soils heat and cool quickly, sandy soils exhibit a slower
thermal response; 5 max

(c) Award [1] for naming systems. e.g. N. America cereal farming
nomadic herding in Tanzania
Commercial measures tent to be large scale;
high technology;
and may be supported by government initiatives;
examples of measures:
addition of fertilizers;
crop rotation;
contour plowing;
plowing technology which leaves roots in soil;
strip cultivation;
tree belts as wind breaks;

subsistence measures tend to be small scale;

low technology;
ad hoc;
based on traditional practise;
and may be supported by grass-roots initiatives;
example of measures:
terraces;
application of organic fertilizers (manure);
debris dams;
shifting cultivation;
tree planting;
agroforestry; 7 max
[17]

19
17. (a) eutrophication represents the nutrient enrichment of a body of
water;
it can occur naturally but is often triggered by the addition of
external anthropogenically derived material, waste fertilizer etc.;
nutrients cause an explosion in algae/blue green algae within the
water column;
the massive growth rate consumes a high proportion of available O 2;
physiological stress due to lack of O2 causes population crashes in
many other aquatic organisms;
food chains, habitats, ecosystems collapse;
positive feedback situation;
sewage waste, agricultural run-off rich in phosphates and nitrates
and fisheries food and excrement all represent sources of nutrient
enrichment within the aquatic system; 6 max

(b) treatment of sewage before entering the watercourse to remove

organics and dissolved nitrates and phosphates will reduce enrichment;
e.g. the use of filters and scrubbers to remove phosphates from
domestic sewage;
the use of agricultural fertilizers in a way that prevents/reduces
nitrate/phosphate loading e.g. controlling the rate and timing of
fertilizer application and controlling the chemical content of fertilizer;
not applying fertilizers during rainy periods and using reduced
phosphate fertilizers;
addressing run-off and intercepting contaminated water;
managing the fishery such that stocking density of fish and fish
feeding practice minimize nutrient enrichment within the system;
removing un-eaten food and fish waste mechanically from the system; 6 max

(c) the key difference between aquatic and terrestrial food production
systems is the level from which food is harvested;
terrestrial systems harvest the bulk of food from much lower in
the food chain;
aquatic/marine systems from much higher up;
aquatic/marine systems harvest primarily animal protein (fish,
birds, mammals, crustaceans etc.);
whereas terrestrial systems harvest primarily carbohydrates/plant
material (cereals, grains, root crops etc.) with some additional
animal protein (livestock);
aquatic/marine systems are predominantly hunter-gatherer systems
(sometimes on an industrial scale);
stocks are left to recover naturally after harvesting;
terrestrial systems are predominantly farmed systems with food
crops being planted, tended and harvested;
terrestrial systems use domesticated plant and animal species;
aquatic systems generally harvest wild species; 6 max
Expression of ideas [2 max]
[20]

18. (a) succession: orderly change over time in an ecosystem;

20
succession e.g. temperate forest development;

zonation: the arrangement/patterning of plant

communities/ecosystems, into parallel/sub-parallel bands in
response to change, over a distance, in some environmental factor;
zonation e.g. changes in ecosystems up a mountain with increasing
altitude;
Accept other reasonable responses.

6 max
Award [1] for definition, [1] for example and [1] for a diagram
of each process.

21
 (b) food production system e.g. intensive wheat production;
natural ecosystem e.g. deciduous woodland;

both wheat fields and woodlands have low initial productivity;

increases rapidly as biomass accumulates;
wheat harvested before production:respiration = 1;
herbivores controlled or isolated from the food production system;
natural woodland consumer community increases so naturally
high productivity is balanced by consumption and respiration;
woodland reaches climax when production: respiration = 1/all
productivity is balance by respiration; 6 max
Award [2 max] for examples and [4 max] for comparisons.

(c) characteristics: [3 max]

greater habitat diversity;
complex ecosystem;
various niches;
different nutrient and energy pathways;
large size;
little human activity;
minimal pollution;
plentiful abiotic factors e.g. water, light, heat;
different trophic levels;
threats: [3 max]
pollution – kills some species, makes conditions impossible for
others/Trent Biotic Index organisms/degradation of ecosystems;
selective logging;
hunting of top carnivores;
human activities – burning/building;
grazing animals;
climate change; 6 max
Award credit if named examples are used.
Expression of ideas [2 max]
[20]

19. (a) variety of species per unit area/OWTTE; 1

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 (b) Award [1] each for two of the following.
environmental pressures (e.g. predation, climate);
act on variations within a population (e.g. size, colour, resistance to disease);
to change the frequency of genetic traits/genes in a population;
where this reaches the point that the forms cannot interbreed,
speciation has occurred; 2 max
Any other appropriate point.

(c) (i) Award [1] each for two of the following.

natural hazard events:
volcanic eruptions;
droughts;
floods;
global catastrophic events:
glaciation;
meteor impact;
change in climate; 2 max

(ii) Award [1] each for two of the following.

habitat fragmentation;
habitat destruction;
monoculture;
introduction of exotic species;
pollution;
hunting/collecting/overharvesting; 2 max
Any other appropriate point.
[7]

20. (a) describe:

very low numbers of extinctions before 1650;
slightly higher number 1651 to 1850/approximately 0.5 species
per year;
rapid increase 1851 to 1950/approximately 2.5 per year;
decrease in extinction rate since 1951 to approximately one
species per annum; 2 max
explain:
extinction rate before 1850 low as human effect on biodiversity low
as population pressure on environment relatively low;
extinctions before 1850 not fully recorded;
extinction rate 1851 to 1950 much higher due to rapid human
population increase;
and rapid rate of habitat loss;
decrease in extinction rate since 1951 due to greater efforts to
protect endangered species and ecosystems;
or many vulnerable species already extinct;
any other reasonable points; 3 max

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(b) low total numbers/long or complex migration route/specialised
habitat/specialised food sources/widely hunted or otherwise
used by humans/low reproduction rate/large number of
predators/susceptibility to disease/limited distribution/
catastrophe such as flooding or meteor impact;
any other reasonable points; 2 max
Responses need two factors per mark.
Factors must be specific to extinction of organisms. No credit for
vague answers such as “global warming” or “degradation of
environment”.

(c) endangered:
species in danger of becoming extinct in the immediate future
because their numbers have declined to a critical level;
extinct:
species believed to no longer exist alive; 2 max

(d) Any reasonable example: reasons must be appropriate to example.

[1] for name and [2] for reasons e.g.
name: Dodo;
reasons: confined to small island (Mauritius);
extreme tameness;
hunting as a source of food by visiting sailors;
destruction of forest habitats;
competition with introduced organisms, e.g. pigs; 3 max
Note: recent research has suggested that dodos were not very tame
and that the flesh was unpleasant to taste; thus habitat
destruction and introduction of pigs (and rats) were
probably most significant factors. However, the points
given above are widely mentioned in the literature and
may be considered acceptable responses.

(e) (i) [1] for name, [1] for brief description e.g.
Kakadu National Park, Northern Territory, Australia;
tropical savanna with extensive wetlands; 2 max

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 (ii) Any reasonable examples, but must have some evaluation
for full [5] marks.
For above example:
measures:
designation as World Heritage Area by UNESCO;
involvement of Aboriginal people in management;
concentration of visitor pressure, campsites, into limited areas;
strict protection of flora and fauna by law;
international agreements with Japan, China to protect migratory
birds;
attempts to eliminate introduced species; 3 max
evaluation:
considerable success, as measured by visitor numbers;
and protection of habitats and biodiversity;
success due to use of modern scientific techniques and
traditional land management;
and due to use of local, national and international measures; 2 max

(f) genetic diversity represents the variety of genetic material in a gene

pool or population, habitat diversity is the range of different habitats
or ecological niches in an ecosystem, community or biome/OWTTE 1 max
[20]

21. (a) Award [1] for name e.g. Peregrine falcon.

legislation (e.g. ban hunting);
cloning;
artificial breeding/zoos;
creating new reserves/parks;
protection of habitats;
reduction in use of toxic substances (e.g. DDT); 3 max
Any other reasonable suggestion.

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 (b) Answers only need to show one advantage and one disadvantage
for each of the listed approaches to conservation. 6 max

Advantage Disadvantage
Zoos controlled breeding; problems reintroducing
allow for research; animals to wild;
allow for education; prisons for animals;
extreme protection for sends wrong message –
individuals; “we don’t need to worry”;
tend to favour “popular”
animals;
small genetic pool;
Creation of conserves whole difficult to manage;
reserves or ecosystem; very expensive;
protected areas prevents hunting;
protects from humans;
Convention on signed by many countries; difficulty enforcing treaty;
International Trade protects many species; many countries have not
in Endangered signed it;
Species (CITES) implementation varies from
country to country;

Allow any other reasonable points.

(c) Award [1] for name and brief description e.g.

Coto Doñana – wetlands and coastal habitats in southern Spain;
Evaluation:
provides vital habitat and food for birds migrating between Europe
and Africa;
also plays an important role in education;
provides opportunity for ecological research; 3
[12]

22. (a) loss of habitat;

logging of forests;
fragmentation of habitats;
pollution;
hunting;
natural hazards; 1 max
Two correct points required for [1].

(b) lack of data from many areas;

data predicted by models;
need for long time to observe changes/need to observe changes over
prolonged period;
birds are difficult to monitor because they are very mobile;
difficulties in taxonomy/identification; 2 max

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 (c) lack of international agreements;
regular hunting at any point in life cycle;
need for conservation in breeding and wintering areas
(and between them);
unpredictable losses due to hazards on long migration routes; 2 max
Credit any reasonable answer.
[5]

23. (a) catastrophic extinction events;

past extinctions occurred suddenly over relatively short time periods;
caused by definitive environmental catastrophes e.g. meteorite
strikes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes etc.;
animals/plants died from both the initial event and the short-term
environmental turmoil that followed;
long-term change model;
gradual environmental change leading to gradual species extinction
yet apparent in a rock record (that provides a condensed view of time);
climate induced change is the most likely cause;
the most notable example being the extinctions caused by glaciation; 4 max

(b) e.g. tiger (endangered);

endangered because of habitat (forest) loss due to agriculture;
loss of food source as traditional food source is being used by humans;
hunting for hides, trophies, medicine;
destroyed because regarded as a nuisance/pest;
ecological role is as top carnivore;
loss would lead to an increase in herbivorous mammals;
ethical issues surrounding loss (rights of future generations, rights
of species);
human guilt of allowing this to happen;
e.g. crocodile (now removed from endangered list);
was endangered due to excessive hunting for skins, meat and trophies;
and due to threat to humans and livestock;
and due to habitat degradation (loss of water quality);
ecological role is as top carnivore;
loss would lead to imbalance in food pyramid;
no longer endangered because of education (no longer seen as “evil”);
ban on hunting;
legislative protection;
controlled culling/hunting of certain crocodile species now being
considered; 7 max

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(c) arguments for zoos
individual organisms are protected in a controlled environment;
education of public through visits may make them more likely
to support conservation campaigns;
genetic monitoring can take place;
captive breeding enables higher rates of reproductive success;
benefit of artificial insemination;
number of offspring surviving to adulthood is higher so species
numbers increase more effectively;
studying species so understanding improves, helping management
outside zoos;
holding species while habitats are restored;
arguments against zoos
ethical arguments against keeping animals
in captivity for profit;
conserving species is just used as an excuse;
poor conditions or treatment in zoos leading to physiological and
psychological problems with the animals;
captive animals unable to adapt to life back in the wild;
small genetic pool; 6 max
personal justification (needs to be more than just arguments for
or against);
Expression of ideas [3 max]
[20]

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