SOLMEC 414 – SOIL MECHANICS However, the actual velocity of water (that is, the

1st SEM. A.Y. 2022 – 2023 seepage velocity, vs) through the void spaces is greater than
v.
CHAPTER 7: PERMEABILITY

A. INTRODUCTION
In its natural occurrence, water and soil interacts
with each other or shall we say they do affect each other.
Water is a continuous phase of matter while soil (in a mass)
is the opposite. And due to this interconnected voids, water
can flow through this voids from points of higher energy to
points of lower energy making soil a permeable media. The Figure shows a soil of length L with a gross cross-
rate of which vary depending on the soil type and physical u  u  sectional area A, the quantity of water flowing through the
properties. h = hA − hB =  A + Z A  −  B + Z B  soil in unit time is, q then
 w   w  q = vA = vs Av
However, A = Av + As, combining the two gives
B. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION The head loss can be expressed in a non-
According to Bernoulli’s principle, the total energy dimensional form as q = v( As + Av ) = vs Av
head at a point in water under motion can be given by the h
i= v( As + Av ) v( As + Av ) L v(Vs + Vv )
sum of the pressure head, velocity head and elevation head, L vs = = =
or Av Av L Vv
where i = hydraulic gradient
u v2 v(Vs + Vv )
h= + +Z L= distance between points A and B – that is, the  Vv 
w 2g  1+ V  1+ e 
 = v 
length of flow over which the loss of head Vs v
occurred.
vs = = v s
 =
If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow of water Vv  Vv   e  n
Hydraulic gradient is a measure of the slope of the  V 
through a porous soil medium, the flow of water or the Vs  s 
seepage velocity is very small, thus the term expressing the line connecting the water surfaces in the piezometers in
velocity head can be negligible, and the total head at the points A and B.
point can be represented by D. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
C. DARCY’S LAW Hydraulic conductivity, k, is the measure of the
u
h= +Z Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge conducting capability of soil to permit water to flow into it and
w velocity of water through saturated soils which may be it is expressed in cm/sec or m/sec in SI units and in ft/min or
When open standpipes called piezometers are expressed as ft/day in English units and the values varies widely for
installed at point A and B with water flowing from A to B, v = ki
different soils.
water will rise into the tubes in the manner as shown in the where v = discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water The hydraulic conductivity of soil generally depends
figure. in unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional on several factors:
As can be seen from the figure, the water surfaces area of soil at right angles to the direction of flow fluid viscosity void ratio
in the tube have different levels, thus denoting that some k = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as the pore-size distribution roughness of mineral particles
energy is lost when water particles flow from point A to B. coefficient of permeability) grain-size distribution degree of soil saturation
This loss of energy or head loss, Δh, between two points A In the equation, v is the discharge velocity of water For clayey soils, clay structure, ionic concentration
and B can be given by based on the gross cross-sectional area of the soil. and the thickness of layers of water held to the clay particles
(adsorbed water) plays an important factor in the The equation is used to determine the hydraulic
determination of its hydraulic conductivity. Constant-head Permeability Test conductivity of the soil using the constant-head permeability
k In this laboratory set-up, the water supply in the inlet test.
Soil Type
cm/sec ft/min is adjusted n such a way that the difference in head between
Clean gravel 100 – 1.0 200 – 2.0 the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test Falling-head Permeability Test
Coarse sand 1.0 – 0.01 2.0 – 0.02 period. Water from a standpipe permitted to flow through the
Fine sand 0.01 – 0.001 0.02 – 0.002 After a constant flow rate is established (that is when soil. The initial head difference h1 at time t1, usually taken as
Silty clay 0.001 – 0.00001 0.002 – 0.00002 the head difference is constant for time being), water is zero, is recorded and is water is allowed to flow through the
Clay < 0.00001 < 0.00002 collected in a graduated flask for a known duration. soil specimen.
As the flow continues, water in the standpipe drops
Sample Problem 1: Find the flow rate through the permeable to a head diff erence h2 at time t2is then recorded.
soil layer shown in the figure given that k = 0.08 cm/sec for
the permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage through
it if H = 8 m, H1 = 3 m, h = 4 m. L = 50 m and α = 8º.

Sample Problem 2: A permeable soil layer is underlain by an The total volume collected may be expressed as
impervious layer as shown in the figure. With k = 4.8 × 10-3 V = Avt = A(ki )t
cm/sec for the permeable layer, calculate the rate of The rate of flow of water through the specimen can be given
seepage through it if H = 3 m and α = 5º. where V = volume of water collected by
h dh
A = cross sectional area of the specimen q= k A = −a
perpendicular to the flow L dt
t = duration of water collection where q = flow rate (discharge)
Since i = h/L and L is the length of the specimen parallel to a = cross sectional area of the standpipe
the flow A = cross sectional area of the soil specimen
 h perpendicular to the flow
V = A k  t
 L From the above equation
or
aL  dh 
E. LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC k =
VL dt = − 
Aht Ak  h 
CONDUCTIVITY
Integrating More recently, Chapius (2004)
k (cm / sec) = cD10
2
t2 h2 0.7825

   2 e3 
aL dh
dt = − k (cm / sec) = 2.4622  D10
Ak h where c = a constant that varies from 1.0 to 1.5 
t1 h1
D10 = effective size, in mm  (1 + e) 
aL The equation is valid for natural, uniform sand and
t 2 − t1 = − ln(h2 − h1 ) The equation is based primarily on observations on
Ak loose, clean filter sands. A small quantity of silts and clays, gravel to predict k that is in the range of 10-1 and 10-3 cm/s.
aL when present in a sandy soil, may change the hydraulic This can be extended to natural, silty sands without
t 2 − t1 = ln(h1 − h2 ) plasticity. It is not valid for crushed materials or silty soils with
Ak conductivity substantially between the inlet and the outlet
remains constant during the test period. some plasticity.
Solving for k Kozeny-Carman equation gives fairly good results
aL in estimating the hydraulic conductivity of sandy soils. Sample Problem 5: The hydraulic conductivity of sand at a void
k =− ln(h2 − h1 )
A(t 2 − t1 )  w e3
ratio of 0.62 is 0.03 cm/sec. Estimate the hydraulic
1
when t1 = 0 and t2 = t k= conductivity at a void ratio of 0.48.
C s S s2T 2 η 1 + e
aL aL
k= − ln(h2 − h1 ) = ln(h1 − h2 ) where Cs = shape factor, function of the shape of the flow Sample Problem 6: The grain size distribution for sand is given
At At channels in the table below. Estimate the hydraulic conductivity using
then Ss = specific surface area per unit volume of the Cozeny-Karman equation. The void ratio of the soil is 0.6
aL h1 particles and use SF = 7.
k= ln
At h2 T = tortuosity of flow channels Fraction of
Sieve
Sieve Percent particles between
Sample Problem 3: Refer to the constant head permeability γw = unit weight of water Opening
No. Passing two consecutive
test arrangement previously shown. A test gives these η = viscosity of permeant (mm)
sieve (%)
L = 457.2 mm e = void ratio 30 0.60 100
A = area of the specimen = 2258.06 mm2 For practical purpose, Carrier (2003) 40 0.425 96
Constant-head difference, h = 711.2 mm 60 0.20 84
100 0.15 50
Water collected in a period of t = 3 min is 353.63 cm3
200 0.075 0
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec.
According to the experimental observations,
Sample Problem 4: For a falling-head permeability test, the And the equation suggest that
Samarasinghe, Huang and Drnevich (1982), suggested that
following values are given: e3 the hydraulic conductuvity of normally consolidated clays
Length of the specimen = 200 mm k
1+ e can be given by
Area of the soil specimen = 1000 mm2
 en 
Area of the standpipe = 40 mm2 where fi = fraction of particles between two sieves, in k =C 
1+ e 
Head difference at time t = 0 is 500 mm percent  
Head difference at time t = 3 min is 300 mm SF = shape factor which varies from 6 to 8, Sample Problem 7: For a normally consolidated clay soil, the
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in cm/sec. depending on the angularity of the soil following values are given:
particles Void ratio k (cm/sec)
F. RELATIONSHIPS FOR HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY Further refinement of the relationship gives 1.1 0.302 × 10-7
2 3 
 100%   1 
For fairly uniform sand (that is, sand with small 2 0.9 0.12 × 10-7
k = 1.99  10 4  e 
uniformity coefficient), Hazen (1930) proposed an empirical 1+ e 
relationship for hydraulic conductivity in the form  0.404 fi 0.595   SF    Estimate the hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio of 0.75.
 Dli  Dsi 
G. EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN Since the total flow or water passing through the In this case the velocity of flow through all the layers is the
STRATIFIED SOIL cross section is equal to the sum of the water or flow through same. However, as the soil travels over a layer, head loss
As been stated previously that different soil have the individual layers then occurs. As it again passes through another layer, head loss
different hydraulic conductivity. It is also good to note that q = q1 + q2 + q3 +  + qn occurs, though it does not connote that the magnitude of the
even a single soil could have different conductivity with head losses are equal for every layer. Therefore, every layer
v  1  H = v1  1  H1 + v2  1  H 2 + v3  1  H 3 +  + vn  1  H n
respect to the flow direction. It means that a soil have a of the soil strata contributes to the total head loss, h, as water
different conductivity when the flow if horizontal than when where v1, v2, v3,…,vn = individual discharge velocities in passes through the whole stratum. Thus
the flow is vertical. In terms of conductivity, a soil with the the respective layers denoted v1 = v 2 = v3 =  = v n
same value of hydraulic conductivity is referred to as by the subscript and
isotropic soil and the soil with different values of hydraulic H1, H2 , H3,.., Hn = individual thickness in the h = h1 + h2 + h3 +  + hn
conductivities in the horizontal and vertical direction is respective layers denoted by
referred to as anisotropic soil. the subscript
In its natural state, soil might be composed stratified Let kH1, kH2 , kH3,.., kHn be the hydraulic conductivities
layers of soil with differing hydraulic conductivity for flow in a of the individual layers in the horizontal direction and kH(eq)
given direction. Nevertheless, an equivalent hydraulic is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal
conductivity can be computed to simplify conductivity direction. From Darcy’s Law
calculations.
v = k H (eq) i(eq) , v1 = k H1 i1 , v2 = k H 2 i2 ,... v n = k Hn i n
1 21 n

Horizontal Flow with Horizontal Stratification For this case, the hydraulic gradient i(eq) of the soil
The figure shows n layers of soil with flow in the strata, which is a function of the head loss over the distance
horizontal direction. Consider a cross section of unit length. traveled by water in the soil, is equal to the hydraulic gradient
The total flow through this layer can be represented by for the individual layers, thus
q = v 1 H i(eq) = i1 = i2 = i3 =  = in
where v = average discharge velocity Substituting the preceding relations for velocities
H = total thickness of the soil strata and taking note about the relations of the hydraulic gradient
results in Noting from Darcy’s Law that v = ki and i = h/L, then

k H (eq) H = k H1 H1 + k H 2 H 2 + k H 3 H 3 +  + k Hn H n h
kV (eq)   = kV 1i1 = kV 2 i 2 = kV 3 i3 =  = kVn i n
H
1 2 3
1 2 3 n

and
1
k H (eq) = (k H 1 H 1 + k H 2 H 2 + k H 3 H 3 +  + k Hn H n ) H H1 H H H
H 1 2 3

v = v1 + v2 2 + v3 3 +  + vn n
kV (eq) kV kV
1
kV kV 2 3 n

In general, the equation also applies whenever the

flow is parallel to the stratification the soil and the thickness Since v = v1 = v 2 = v3 =  = v, nthen
of the soil is the dimension of the soil that is perpendicular to H H1 H 2 H 3 H
the direction of flow. = + + + + n
kV (eq) kV 1
kV kV2
kV 3 n

Vertical Flow with Horizontal Stratification H

kV (eq) =
The figure shows n layers of soil with flow in the H1 H H H
+ 2 + 3 +  + n
horizontal direction. kV 1
kV 2
kV 3
kV n
 In general, equation also applies to compute the Determine the total flow per meter width and the equivalent H. PERMEABILITY TEST IN THE FIELD BY PUMPING
equivalent hydraulic conductivity when the flow is coefficient of permeability. FROM WELLS
perpendicular to the soil stratification and the thickness of Figure shows a case where the top permeable layer,
the soil is that dimension of the soil that parallel to the flow. whose hydraulic conductivity has to be determined, is
unconfined and underlain by an impermeable layer.
Sample Problem 8: Figure shows layers of soils in a tube that During the test, water is pumped out at a constant rate from
is 100 mm × 100 mm in cross section. Water is supplied to a test well that has a perforated casing. Several observation
maintain a constant head difference of 400 mm across the wells at various radial distances are made around the test
sample. The hydraulic conductivities of the soils in the well. Continuous observations of the water level in the test
direction of the flow through them are as follows: wells and in the observation wells are made after the start of
Soil k (cm/sec) Porosity, n pumping until a steady state is reached.
A 1 × 10-2 25%
B 3 × 10-3 32%
C 4.9 × 10-4 22%
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in cm/sec.
Sample Problem 9: A test set-up is shown in the figure. A
cylindrical mold 4” in diameter is filled with silt to H1 = 0.20 ft,
whose coefficient of permeability k1 = 3.6 × 10-4 ft/min. A
second coaxial mold (negligible thickness) is placed on top
of the first mold whose inside diameter d = 1.5” and whose
H2 = 0.30 ft and is filled with silt, but the annular ring outside
the small tube is filled with sand whose coefficient of
permeability is k2 = 2.7 × 10-3 ft/min. The test set-up is a
permeameter of constant head and maintained at a level h
= 1.25 ft above the level of the outlet.
(a) What is the total flow of water in ft3/min?
(b) What is the equivalent coefficient of permeability?
(c) Total amount of water that percolated after 55 min. The expression for the rate of flow of ground water
into the well, which is equal to the rate of discharge from
pumping can be written as:
Sample Problem 9: Given the stratified soil shown with a  dh 
constant head difference of 1.8 m. The properties of each q = kiA = k   (2rh)
 dr 
soil are as follows:
Coefficient of permeability: r dr  2k  h

 = 
 h dh
1 1

k1 = 6.25 cm/hr; k2 = 5.75 cm/hr; k3 = 4.50 cm/hr;

r r  q  h
k4 = 6.25 cm/hr; k5 = 8.15 cm/hr; k6 = 3.60 cm/hr
2 2

  (h − h )
Thickness: 2k
ln r1 − ln r2 = 1
2
2
1
2
2
H = 1.20 m, H3 = 0.30 m, H4 = 0.50 m, H5 = 0.40 m q
Length: q r1
L1 = 0.80 m, L2 = 0.70 m, L3 = 1.50 m, L6 = 0.90 m k=  ln
 (h12 − h22 ) r2
 The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined Sample Problem 10: Consider a case of pumping from a well in
aquifer can also be determined by conducting a pumping an unconfined permeable layer underlain by an
test by penetrating the full depth of the aquifer and by impermeable stratum.
observing the piezometric level in a number of observation q = 26 ft3/min
wells at various radial distances. Pumping is continued until h1 = 18.0 ft at r1 = 200 ft
a steady state is reached. h2 = 15.7 ft at r2 = 100 ft
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of the permeable layer.

Sample Problem 11: An aquifer with an average thickness of

20 m is overlain by an impermeable layer 30 m thick. A test
Because water can only enter the test well from the well 0.5 m in diameter and two observation wells at a
aquifer of thickness H, the steady state of discharge is distance of 10 m and 60 m from the test well are drilled
through the aquifer. After pumping 0.10 m3/sec for a long
 dh 
q = kiA = k   (2rH ) time, the following drawdowns are stabilized in these wells.
 dr  First observation well, 4 m, and second observation well, 3m.
r dr  2kH  h Determine the hydraulic conductivity and the drawdown in
 = 
 dh
1 1

r 2
r  q  h2
the test well.

2kH
ln r1 − ln r2 =  (h1 − h2 )
q
q r
k=  ln 1
2H (h1 − h2 ) r2

Transmisivity
q r
T = kH =  ln 1
2 (h1 − h2 ) r2