DRILLING PROBLEMS

1. DRILL STRING TORQUE AND DRAG

Because no hole truly vertical, and because the drillstring is flexible, the rotating drillpipes lay
against the side of the hole at numerous points. The frictional resistance thus generated may
require considerable extra torque than otherwise required to turn the bit. Similarly, considerable
resistance to raising or lowing the pipe may occur, such a problem is referred as drag. Under
certain conditions, highly deviated holes, holes with frequent changes in direction, undergauge
hole, or poor drillstring dynamic, such a drag can be large enough to cause an unacceptable loss
of power. The addition of certain lubricating agents to the mud can reduce this power loss.

In general engineering practice, friction is reduced by interposing a film of oil or grease between
moving metal parts. These lubricants are evaluated by their effect on the coefficient of friction,
which is defined as the ratio of the frictional force parallel to the contact surface to the force
acting normal to the contact surface, the figure below. Expressed mathematically as;
µ = F/W

Figure (1): Measurement of coefficient of friction

where µ is the coefficient of friction, F the force parallel to surface, and W the force normal to
the surface. Note that µ is constant for homogenous surfaces; thus, for a given value of W, F is
dependent of the area of contact.

2. PIPE STICKING
Stick pipe is one of the commonest hazards encountered in drilling operations. Sometimes the
problem is caused by running or pulling the pipe into an under gauge section of the hole, or into
a key seat or a bridge of cavings. In such cases, the driller is usually able to work the pipe free. A
more intractable form of stuck pipe, known as differential sticking Figure (2).

2.1.Differential Pipe Sticking:

Differential pipe sticking, characteristically occurs after circulation and rotation have been
temporarily suspended, as when making a connection. The term differential pressure sticking

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was introduced in 1956 to identify a portion of drill-string sticking in the filter cake. The sticking
force is described mathematically by the following Equation:

Fs = ΔPs Apf fpf

Where; Fs : Sticking force or total pulling force required to free stuck pipe.
ΔPs: Hydrostatic pressure of mud minus pore pressure of formation.
Apf : Area of contact between pipe and filter cake.
fpf : coefficient of friction between pipe and filter cake.

Figure (2): Pipe sticking in wall cake

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Mechanism of differential pipe sticking and solutions:
As portion of the drillstring lies against the low side of the deviated hole. While the pipe is being
rotated, it is lubricated by a film of mud, and the pressure on all sides of the pipe is equal. When
rotation of the pipe is stopped, however, the portion of the pipe in contact with the filter cake is
isolated from the mud column, and the differential pressure between the two sides causes drag
when attempt is made to pull the pipe, if the drag exceeds the pulling power of the rig, the pipe is
stuck. Thus, increasing drag when pipe is being pulled warns that the pipe is liable to differential
pipe sticking.

The differential pressure is imposed by the magnitude of hydrostatic pressure because formation
pore pressure are at fixed levels. Thus; one method to minimize this effect is to drill with
minimum mud weights. The problem of minimizing the differential pressure is often complicated
by long sections of open hole where the formation pore pressures are substantially different. For
this reason a given mud weight may be necessary to control the pore pressure in one open
formation, which imposes a large pressure differential across another open formation.

The area of contact represents the total area of the pipe covered by filter cake across which the
pressure differential is effective. Thus; the area of contact is affected by the following:

 Length of the permeable zone where the pipe contacts the filter cake.
 Hole size and pipe size.
 Pipe shape, whether externally flush or pipe with raised shoulders.
 Thickness of filter cake
 External stabilization of the pipe.

The length of the permeable zone is a fixed parameter, so this factor cannot be changed by the
operator. Even the hole and pipe sizes sometimes cannot be altered.

The pipe shape is a very important parameter and one that can be changed easily. Large,
externally flush drillcollars represent the ideal equipment to cause differential pressure sticking.
In recent years special drillcollars configuration have been used. Some of these are:

(1) spiral collars with circulation groves in the external surface of the
drillcollars,
(2) square drillcollars,
(3) shouldered drillcollars,
(4) heavy weight drillpipes.

The effect of special drillcollars is to reduce the area of wall contact. The heavy weight
drillpipes has reduced the differential pressure sticking problem considerably, particularly in
directional wells. This pipe, some of which is made by turning down the OD of regular drill
colloars, has upsets in the middle and in both ends in each 30 ft joint. This configuration reduces
the area of contact. Other advantages to heavyweight pipes are that the reduction in stiffness
lessens some of the dangers of keyseating and substantially reduces twist-offs at the connection
points between the drillcollars and the drillpipe.

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The potential effect of filter cake on contact area is shown in the Figure (3) bellow. The area of
contact maybe more than doubled by thickening filter cake. This has been the primary reason for
controlling the high-temperature, high-pressure filtration rate.

Filter cakes during normal drilling generally reach and equilibrium thickness. This simply means
that the rate of erosion by the circulation fluid equals the rate of deposition of new solids in the
filter cake. This concept of erosion shows that short trips are unnecessary during long bit run.

Figure (3): Mechanism of differential pipe sticking

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2.2.Mechanical Pipe Sticking:
In mechanical sticking the pipe is usually completely stuck with little or no circulation. In
differential sticking, the pipe is completely stuck but there is full circulation. Mechanical sticking
can occur as result of the following;

i. Drilled cuttings
Excessive drilled-cuttings accumulation in the annular space caused by improper cleaning of the
hole can cause mechanical pipe sticking, particularly in directional-well drilling. The settling of a
large amount of suspended cuttings to the bottom when the pump is shut down, or the downward
sliding of a stationary-formed cuttings bed on the low side of a directional well can pack a
bottomhole assembly (BHA), which causes pipe sticking. In directional-well drilling, a
stationary cuttings bed may form on the low side of the borehole (see Fig. b). If this condition
exists while tripping out, it is very likely that pipe sticking will occur. This is why it is a common
field practice to circulate bottom up several times with the drill bit off bottom to flush out any
cuttings bed that may be present before making a trip. Increases in torque/drag, and sometimes in
circulating drillpipe pressure, are indications of large accumulations of cuttings in the annulus
and of potential pipe-sticking problems.

(a) Cuttings bed during drilling, and: (b) cuttings jamming the drill bit during tripping out.

Mechanical pipe sticking caused by drilled cuttings

ii. Borehole instability

The most troublesome borehole instability issues occur when drilling shale. Depending on mud
composition and mud weight, shale can slough in or plastically flow inward, which causes
mechanical pipe sticking. In all formation types, the use of a mud that is too low in weight can
lead to the collapse of the hole, which can cause mechanical pipe sticking. Also, when drilling
through salt that exhibits plastic behavior under overburden pressure, if mud weight is not high
enough, the salt has the tendency of flowing inward, which causes mechanical pipe sticking.
Indications of a potential pipe-sticking problem caused by borehole instability are:

 A rise in circulating drillpipe pressure

 An increase in torque
 No fluid return to surface

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 a. Reactive shale

b. Fractured and faulted fragile formations

c. Pressured shale

Pipe sticking caused by wellbore instability.

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 iii. Key seating
Key seating is a major cause of mechanical pipe sticking. The mechanics of key seating involve
wearing a small hole (groove) into the side of a full-gauge hole. This groove is caused by the
drillstring rotation with side force acting on it. The Figure below illustrates pipe sticking caused
by key seating. This condition is created either in doglegs or in undetected ledges near washouts.

Pipe sticking caused by key seat.

The lateral force that tends to push the pipe against the wall, which causes mechanical erosion
and thus creates a key seat.

Generally, long bit runs can cause key seats, therefore, it is common practice to make wiper
trips. Also, the use of stiffer BHAs tends to minimize severe dogleg occurrences. During tripping
out of hole, a key-seat pipe-sticking problem is indicated when several stands of pipe have been
pulled out, and then, the pipe is stuck.

iv. Cement or junk in the hole

When cement blocks or junk falls into the wellbore, they can act as a wedge and jam the
drillstring. This can happen when cement becomes unstable around the casing shoe or from
open-hole plugs and kickoff plugs.

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Metal junk can also fall from the rig floor or come from failed down hole equipment or pieces of
milled tubulars and equipment.

Freeing mechanically stuck pipe

Freeing mechanically stuck pipe can be undertaken in a number of ways, depending on what
caused the sticking. For example, if cuttings accumulation or hole sloughing is the suspected
cause, then rotating and reciprocating the drillstring and increasing flow rate without exceeding
the maximum allowed equivalent circulating density (ECD) is a possible remedy for freeing the
pipe. If hole narrowing as a result of plastic shale is the cause, then an increase in mud weight
may free the pipe. If hole narrowing as a result of salt is the cause, then circulating fresh water
can free the pipe. If the pipe is stuck in a key-seat area, the most likely successful solution is
backing off below the key seat and going back into the hole with an opener to drill out the key
section. This will lead to a fishing operation to retrieve the fish. The decision on how long to
continue attempting to free stuck pipe vs. back off, plug back, and then sidetrack is an economic
issue that generally is addressed by the operating company.

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 preventive measures to minimize Cement or junk in the hole
 Limit the casing rathole to minimize the source of cement blocks.
 Allow sufficient cement setting time before drilling out.
 Maintain sufficient distance between offset wells.
 Begin washing down at least two stands before the theoretical top of the cement.
 Pull up two stands before attempting to circulate, if set-down weight is observed
when tripping in the hole after a cement operation.
 Control drilling when cleaning out soft cement.
 Keep the hole covered when the drillstring is out of the hole.
 Maintain rig floor equipment in good operating condition.

3. LOST CIRCULATION
Lost circulation is one of the most common drilling problems. Circulation of drilling fluid in a
drilling well can be lost into fractures induced by excessive mud pressures, into preexisting open
fractures, or into large opening with structural strength (such as large pores or solution channels).

Causes of Lost Circulation:

Lost circulation is the loss of mud or cement to the formation during drilling operations. Lost
circulation may causes the followings:

 Increased well costs, due to lost rig time and loss of expensive drilling fluid.
 Loss of accurate hole monitoring and,.
 Well control problems.

Mud loss can be experienced as a result of either:

 Natural losses
 Induced fractures during drilling operations or due to,
 Excessive overbalance.

i. Natural losses:
Natural losses occur in rocks containing porosity and permeability or with natural fractures.
Three types of formations can be recognized:

a) Coarse Sands and Gravel Beds;

Usually occur near the surface where the formation is both porous and highly permeable; where
permeability in excess of 10 to 25 Darcy.

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 b) Natural Fissures or Fractures;
Natural fissures or fractures usually occur in lime stones and chalks which have been subjected
to tectonic activities or to leaching by acids. Losses in the formations is usually severe.

Natural fractures

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 c) Caverns Formations;
Caverns develop in lime stone and dolomite formations ranging in size from fraction of an inch
to large tunnels. They form as a result of ground water percolating through the formation and
subsequent dissolving of the calcium. Total losses are usually experienced when drilling
cavernous formations, resulting in the use of special drilling technique called blind drilling, in
blind drilling, drilling is carried out without returns to surface, usually using sea water.

Caverns Formations
ii. Induced Fractures:
In formations where the difference between pore pressure and formation fracture pressure is low,
Fracture may be induced by either the drilling ECD or surge pressures, the Figure below shows
the induced fractures. Mud losses will occur through the induced fractures.

The increased volume of cuttings in the annulus can increase the ECD to beyond the formation
fracture pressure. This is especially true in surface holes. Increases in annular mud weight due to
drilled cuttings loading can result in formation breakdown, particularly in surface holes. The
increase in annular mud weight due to drill cuttings must be calculated and taken into account. It
may be necessary to reduce the ROP in order to keep the annular mud density to an acceptable
value.

Induced fractures

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iii. Excessive Overbalance.
Excessive overbalance occurs when hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluids in the annulus is
greater than fracture pressure of formation being drilled, the difference in pressure induces
fractures through which drilling fluids may loss as shown in the Figure above.

Classes of Lost Circulation

Lost circulation can be grouped into four classes:

a) Seepage Losses; From 1 – 10 bbl/hr. and lost while circulating at the normal drilling
circulating rate.

b) Partial Losses; From 10 – 50 bbl/hr. and lost while circulating at the normal drilling
circulating rate.

c) Sever Losses; Greater than 50 bbl/hr. and lost while circulating at the normal drilling
circulating rate. In some cases, no losses may seen if pumping stops indicating that ECD
is the cause of the loss circulation.

d) Total Loss; when the mud level in the annulus cannot be seen or the hole cannot be filled
through the annulus. Total losses usually occur in cavernous formations.

Prevention of Lost Circulation

The following is a list of measures which must be considered to prevent lost circulation:

1) Volume of drillcuttings in the annulus.

2) Controlling viscosity and gel strength.
3) Controlling surge pressure.

1. Volume of Drillcuttings in the Annulus

Increase in annular mud weight due to drilled cuttings loading can result in formation
breakdown, particularly in surface holes. The increase in annular mud weight due to drillcuttings
must be calculated and taken into account. It may be necessary to reduce the ROP in order to
keep the annular mud density to an acceptable value.

2. Controlling Viscosity and Gel Strength

The viscosity and gel strengths of the mud affect he equivalent circulating density (ECD) and
therefore should be maintained within the programmed specification. If the yield point of the
mud is too high, breaking circulation will induce high ECD before the mud shears and flows,
break circulation slowly and increase the pump speed only after returns are obtained.

If viscosities are very high, circulation should be broken at stages whilst running through the
open hole. This will help shear the mud reducing the high surge pressures when running in and
ECD when initially circulating.

3. Controlling Surge Pressures

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Fast running of pipes in hole induces surge pressures which when added to the mud hydrostatic
pressure can fracture exposed formations. Typically, the weakest formations are near the casing
shoe and these

Loss of circulation Treatment Decision Tree.

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4. SURGE AND SWAB PRESSURE

What is surge pressure?

Surge Pressure: When pipe moves downward with mud circulation through drill string,
additional bottom hole pressure called “Surge Pressure” is created. If surge pressure is too much,
many problems will occur as formation brake down, partial mud loss and lost circulation.

What is swab pressure?

Swab Pressure: If a drill string , casing string or logging tool is being pulled out of hole too fast,
due to bigger diameter almost same hole size, BHA/ bit, casing or logging tool will possibly
swab mud out of hole, like pulling small a piston of syringe. For this reason, hydrostatic pressure
of bottom hole will be reduced. Pressure reduction created by this situation is called “Swab
Pressure”. If swab pressure is too much, kick (wellbore influx) may be into the hole and well
control must be conducted in order to secure well.

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