5.

2 The Earth’s Life Change Overtime

Evolution Explains How Life Changes over Time
How did the earth end up with such an amazing diversity? Scientific answer is biological
evolution or simply evolution- the process by which species change genetically over time.
According to this scientific theory, specie have evolved from earlier, ancestral species through
natural selection- the process in which individuals with certain genetic traits are more likely to
survive and reproduce under a specific set of environmental conditions. These individuals then
pass there traits on their offspring.
A huge body of scientific evidence supports this idea. As a result, biological evolution through
natural selection is the most widely accepted scientific theory that explains how the earth’s life
has changed over the past 3.8 billion years and why we have today’s diversity of species/
Most of what we know about the history of life on the earth comes from fossils-the remains or
traces of past organisms. Fossils include mineralized or petrified replicas of skeleton, bones,
teeth, shells, leaves and seeds or impressions of such items found in rocks. Scientists
discovered fossil evidence in successive layers of sedimentary rock such as limestone and
sandstone. They have also studied evidence of ancient life contained in ice core samples drilled
from glacial ice at the earth’s poles and on mountain tops.
This total body of evidence is called the fossil record. It is uneven and incomplete because
many past forms of the left no fossils and some fossils have decomposed. Scientists estimate
that the fossils found so far represent probably many unanswered scientific question about the
details of evolution by natural selection and research continues in this area.

Evolution Depends on genetic Variability and Natural Selection

The idea that organisms change over time and are descended from a single common ancestor
has been discussed since the early Greek Philosophers, There was no convincing explanation
of how this could happen until 1958 when naturalists Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Alfred
Russel Wallace (1823-1913) independently proposed the concept of natural selection as a
mechanisms for biological evolution. Darwin gathered evidence for this idea and published it in
1985 book/
Biological evolution by natural selection involves changes in a population's genetic makeup
through successive generations/ Populations—not individuals evolve by becoming genetically
different. The first step in this process is the development of genetic variability: a variety in the
genetic makeup of individuals in a population. This occurs primarily through mutations, or
changes in the coded genetic instructions in the DNA in a gene. During an organism's lifetime,
the DNA in its cells is copied each time one of its cells divides and whenever it reproduces. In a
lifetime, this happens millions of times and results in various mutations.
Most mutations result from random changes in the DNA’s coded genetic instructions that occur
in only a tiny fraction of these millions of divisions. Some mutations also occurs from exposure
to external agents such as radioactivity, UV radiation from the sun, and certain natural and
human-made chemicals called mutagens.
Mutations can occur in any cell, but only those that take place in the genes of reproductive cells
may be passed on to offspring. Sometimes a mutation can result in a new genetic trait, called a
heritable trait, which can be passed from one generation to the next. In this way, populations
develop genetic differences among their individuals.
The next step in biological evolution is natural selection, which explains how populations evolve
in response to changes in environmental conditions by re changing their genetic makeup.
Through natural selection, environmental conditions favor increased survival O and reproduction
of certain individuals in a population.
These favored individuals possess heritable traits that give d them an advantage over other
individuals in the population. Such a trait is called an adaptation, or adaptive r trait. An adaptive
trait improves the ability of an individual organism to survive and to reproduce at a higher rate
than other individuals in a population can under current environmental conditions.
An example of natural selection at work is genetic resistance. It occurs when one or more
organisms in a population have genes that can tolerate a chemical (like as a pesticide or
antibiotic) that normally would be fatal. The resistant c individuals survive and reproduce more
rapidly than the members of the population that do not have such genetic traits. Genetic
resistance can develop quickly in populations of organisms like bacteria and insects that can
produce large numbers of offspring in a short time. For example, some disease-causing bacteria
have developed genetic resistance to widely used antibacterial drugs, or antibiotics.
Through natural selection, humans have evolved traits that have enabled them to survive in
many different environments and to reproduce successfully. If we think of the earth's 4.6 billion
years of geological and biological history as one 24-hour day, the human species arrived about
a tenth of one second before midnight. In that short time, we have dominated most of the earth's
land and aquatic systems with a growing ecological footprint. Evolutionary biologists attribute
our ability to dominate the earth to three major adaptations:

 Strong opposable thumbs allowed humans to grip and use tools better than the few
other animals that have thumbs.

 The ability to walk upright gave humans agility and freed up their hands many uses.

 A complex brain allowed humans to develop many skills, including the ability to
communicate complex ideas.
Limits to Adaptation through Natural Selection
In the not-too-distant future, will adaptations to new environmental conditions through natural
selection protect us from harm? For exarnple, will adaptations make the skin of our descendants
more resistant to the harmful effects of UV radiation or enable their lungs to cope with air
pollutants?
Scientists in this field say this is not likely because of two limitations on adaptation through
natural selection. First, a change in environmental conditions leads to adaptation only for
genetic traits already present in a population's gene pool, or if such traits arise from random
mutations.
Second, even if a beneficial heritable trait is present in a population, the population's ability to
adapt may be limited by its reproductive capacity. Populations of genetically diverse species
that reproduce quickly often adapt to a change in environmental conditions in a short time (days
to years). Examples are dandelions, mosquitoes, rats, bacteria, and cockroaches. By contrast,
species that cannot produce large numbers of offspring rapidly—such as elephants, tigers,
sharks, orangutans, and humans— take thousands or even millions of years to adapt through
natural selection.
Myths about Evolution through Natural Selection
There are a number of misconceptions about biological evolution through natural selection.
Here are five com mon myths:

 Survival of the fittest means survival of the strongest. To biologists, fitness is a measure
of reproductive success, not strength. Thus, the fittest individuals are those that leave
the most descendants, not those that are physically the strongest.

 Evolution explains the origin of life. It does not. However it does explain how species
evolved after life came being around 3.8 billion years ago.

 Humans evolved from apes or monkeys. Fossil and other evidence shows that humans,
apes, and monkeys evolved along different paths from a common ancestor that lived 5—
8 million years ago.

 Evolution by natural selection is part of a grand plan in nature in which species are to be
known more perfectly adapted.

 Evolution by natural selection is not important because it is theory. This reveals a

misunderstanding on the concept of a scientific theory, which is based on extensive
evidence and accepted widely by the scientific experts in a particular field of study .
Numerous polls show that evolution by natural selection is widely accepted by over 95%
of biologists because it best explains the earth’s biodiversity and how populations of
different species have adapted to changes in the earth’s environmental conditions over
billion years.
Factor Affect Biodiversity

How Do New Species Arise?

Under certain circumstances, natural selection can lead to an entirely new species. Through this
process, called speciation, one species evolves into two or more different species.
Speciation, especially among sexually reproducing happens in two phases: first geographic
isolation and then reproductive isolation. Geographic isolation occurs when different groups of
the same population of a species become physically isolated from one another for a long time.
Part of a population may migrate in search of food and then begin living as a separate
population in an area with different environmental conditions. Winds and flowing water may
carry a few individuals far away they establish a new population. A flooding stream, new road, a
hurricane, earthquake, or volcanic eruption, and long-term geological processes can also
separate populations. The separated populations can develop quite different genetic
characteristics because they are no longer exchanging genes.
In reproductive isolation, mutation and change by natural selection operate independently in the
gene pools of geographically isolated populations. If this process continues for a long enough
time, members of isolated populations of sexually reproducing species can become( different in
genetic makeup. Then they cannot produce live, fertile offspring if they are rejoined and attempt
to interbreed. When that happens, speciation occurs and one species becomes two.
Artificial Selection, Genetic Engineering, and Synthetic Biology
For thousands of years, humans have used artificial selection to change the genetic
characteristics of populations with similar genes. First, they select one or more desirable genetic
traits that already exist in the population of a plant or animal. Then, they use selective breeding,
or crossbreeding, to control which members of a population have the opportunity to reproduce
to increase the numbers of individuals in a population with the desired traits.
Artificial selection is not a form of speciation. It is limited to crossbreeding between genetic
varieties of the same species or between species that are genetically similar to one another.
Most of the grains, fruits, and vegetables we eat are produced by artificial selection. Artificial
selection has also given us food crops with higher yields, cows that give more milk, trees that
grow faster, and many different varieties of dogs and cats. However, traditional crossbreeding is
a slow process.
Scientists have learned how to speed this process of manipulating genes in order to select
desirable traits or eliminate undesirable ones. They do this by transferring segments of DNA
with a desired trait from one species to another through a process called genetic engineering.
In this process, also known as gene splicing, scientists alter an organism's genetic material by
adding, deleting, or changing segments of its DNA to produce desirable traits or to eliminate
undesirable ones. Scientists have used genetic engineering to develop modified crop plants,
new drugs, pest-resistant plants, and animals that grow rapidly.
The result is a genetically modified organism (GMO)—an organism with its genetic
information modified in a way not found in natural organisms. Genetic engineering enables
scientists to transfer genes between different species that would not interbreed in nature. For
example, scientists can put genes from a cold-water fish species into a tomato plant to give it
properties that help it resist cold weather. Genetic engineering has revolutionized agriculture
and medicine. However, it is a controversial technology.
A new and rapidly growing form of genetic engineering is synthetic biology. It enables scientists
to make new sequences of DNA and use such genetic information to design and create artificial
cells, tissues, body parts, and organisms not found in nature.
Proponents of this new technology want to use it to create bacteria that can use sunlight to
produce clean-burning hydrogen gas, which can be used to fuel motor vehicles. They also view
it as a way to create new vaccines to prevent diseases and drugs to combat parasitic diseases
such as malaria. Synthetic biology might also be used to create bacteria and algae that would
break down oil, industrial wastes, toxic heavy metals, pesticides, and radioactive waste in
contaminated soil and water. Scientists are a long way from achieving such goals but the
problem is that like any technology, synthetic biology can be used for good or bad. For example,
it could also used to create biological weapons such as deadly bacteria that spread new
diseases, to destroy existing oil deposits, or to interfere the chemical cycles that keep us alive.
This is many scientists call for increased monitoring and regulation of this new technology to
help control its use.
Extinction Eliminates Species
Another factor affecting the number and types of species on the earth is biological extinction,
or simply extinction, which occurs when an entire species ceases to exist. When environmental
conditions change dramatically or rapidly, a population of a species faces three possible futures:
adapt to the new conditions through natural selection, migrate (if possible) to another area with
more favorable conditions, or become extinct.
Species found in only one area, called endemic species, are especially vulnerable to
extinction. They exist on islands and in other isolated areas. These organisms are unlikely to be
able to migrate or adapt to rapidly changing environmental conditions. Many of these
endangered species are amphibians, such as the now-extinct golden toad.
Fossils and other scientific evidence indicate that 99.9% of all the species that have existed on
the earth are now extinct. Throughout most of the earth's long history, species have
disappeared at a low rate, called the background extinction rate.
Evidence indicates that life on the earth has been sharply reduced by several periods of mass
extinction during which there is a significant rise in extinction rates, well above the background
rate. In such a catastrophic, widespread, and often global events, 50-95% of all species are
wiped out primarily because of major widespread environmental change massive flooding
because of rising sea levels and huge meteorites striking the earth’s surface, Fossil and
geological evidence indicate that there have been five mass extinctions.
A mass extinction provides an opportunity for the evolution of new species that can fill
unoccupied ecological niches or newly created ones. Scientific evidence indicates that each
mass extinction has been followed by an increase in species diversity.
As environmental conditions change, the balance between speciation and extinction determines
the earth's biodiversity. The existence of millions of species today means that speciation on
average, has kept ahead of extinction. However, evidence indicated that the global extinction
rate is rising dramatically.