Chemical bonding

When elements react they form compounds. They react to attain a stable electronic configuration
as the noble gases. There are two main ways of forming bonds between atoms
1. Ionic bonding
2. Covalent bonding

Ionic bonding
• Ionic bonding is found in compounds that contain metals and non-metals.
• Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of electrons from the outer shell of a metal to non
metal.
• When metals transfer electrons, they form positively charged cations and when non metals
gain electrons they form negatively charged anions.
• These oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force of
attraction which results in the formation of an ionic bond.

Ions are charged particles. They are charged because they contain
unequal number of protons and electrons.

Features of ionic bonding

• Metal atoms always lose their outermost electrons to form cations(positive ions).
• The number of positive charges on a metal ion is equal to the number of electrons lost.
• Non-metal atoms (with the exception of hydrogen), always gain electrons to form anions
(negative ions).
• The number of negative charges on a non-metal ion is equal to the number of
electronsgained.
• Ionic bonds result from the attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
Key; Sodium Chlorine
Dot and Cross Diagram To Show Ionic Bonding

Page | 1
(In all the diagrams electrons from the metal are shown as a ‘’ and the
electrons from non-metal shown as an ‘x’ but remember that all electrons are
exactly the same.)

Formation of Sodium Chloride

The electrons in the outer most shell are used when bonds are formed.

Sodium has one electron in the outer most shell, while chlorine has seven
electrons in the outermost shell. Sodium needs to lose one electron to become
stable and chlorine needs to gain one electron to become stable.

When these two elements react, the electron from the outer most shell of
sodium is transferred to the outer most shell of chlorine. Sodium ion (Na +) and
chloride ion (Cl) are formed. In this way both the atom obtain filled outer shells
and become stable by achieving the electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas.
These two ions form the ionic compound sodium chloride (NaCl).

Formation of ionic bond showing all electrons

Page | 2
Formation of ionic bond showing outer most electrons only
Magnesium chloride
Magnesium has two electrons in its outermost shell. Chlorine has seven
electrons in its outermost shell. To obtain stable electronic configuration a
magnesium atom must lose two electrons and a chlorine atom must gain one
electron. Therefore when magnesium reacts with chlorine, each magnesium
atom reacts with two chlorine atoms. A magnesium ion (Mg 2+) and two chloride
ions (Cl) are formed. These ions form the compound magnesium chloride
(MgCl2).

Calcium Oxide
Calcium has two electrons in its outermost shell. Oxygen has six electrons in its
outer most shell. When the two elements react calcium loses the two electrons

Page | 3
in the outer most shell to oxygen. Calcium ion (Ca 2+) and oxide ion (O2) are
formed which have obtained the stable electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas. These two ions form the compound calcium oxide (CaO).

Lithium Oxide
Lithium has one electron in its outermost shell. Oxygen has six electrons in its
outermost shell. To obtain stable electronic configuration lithium must lose one
electron and oxygen must gain two electrons. Therefore when lithium reacts
with oxygen, two lithium atoms reacts for every oxygen atom. Two lithium ions
(Li+) and an oxide ion (O2) are formed. They form the compound lithium oxide
(Li2O).

Aluminium fluoride
Aluminium has three electrons in the outermost shell. Fluorine has seven
electrons in its outermost shell. To obtain stable electronic configuration
aluminium must lose three electrons and fluorine must gain one electron.
Therefore when aluminium reacts with fluorine, each aluminium atom reacts
with three fluorine atoms. An aluminium ion (Al 3+) and three fluoride ions (F)
are formed which have obtained the stable electronic configuration of the
nearest noble gas. These ions form the compound aluminium fluoride (AlF 3).

Page | 4
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium has three electrons in its outermost shell. Oxygen has six electrons
in its outermost shell. To obtain the stable electronic configuration aluminium
must lose three electrons in its outer most shell and oxygen must gain two
electrons. Therefore when aluminium reacts with oxygen, two aluminium atoms
react with three oxygen atoms. Two aluminium ions (Al 3+) and three oxide ions
(O2) are formed. They form the compound aluminium oxide (Al 2O3).

2 O

Ionic lattice
• The alternative positive and negative ions in an ionic compound are arranged in a regular
arrangement in a giant lattice.
• The anions are larger than cations and the ions are packed together in a crystal.
• The oppositely charged ions are held together in fixed positions by the strong electrostatic
force of attraction between them.
• The strong bonding makes the structure hard and has high melting and causes it to have a
high melting and boiling point.
• The bigger the charges on the ions, the stronger the electrostatic force of attraction. Eg:
Magnesium oxide has a higher melting point than Sodium chloride because the charges on
Mg2+ and O2- ions are higher than the charges on Na+ ions and Cl- ions.

Page | 5
Properties of ionic bonding

• Ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature.

• They are hard but brittle, when stressed the bonds are broken along the plane of ions.
• Generally ionic compounds are soluble in water.
• In solid state the ionic compounds do not conduct electricity because the ions are not free to
move, to carry an electric current. However in the molten (melted) state or aqueous
(dissolved in water) state, ionic compounds conduct electricity as they have free mobile ions.

Covalent bonding
• Covalent bonding is found in betweennon-metalsonly.
• Covalent bonds are formed bysharing of electronsin the outermost shell.

Single Covalent Bond – Two Atoms Share One Pair of Electrons

Chlorine molecule (Cl2)

There are two chlorine atoms in a chlorine molecule. A chlorine atom needs one
electron to obtain a filled outer shell. By sharing one electron with another
chlorine atom, both atoms will gain a stable electronic configuration. Each

Page | 6
chlorine atom contributes one electron to the shared pair, therefore two chlorine
atoms bond covalently by a single bond.

Methane (CH4)

Methane is formed by one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Carbon atom
has four electrons in its outer most shell. It needs four more electrons to
completely fill its outer most shell. Hydrogen requires one electron to attain the
stable electronic configuration of helium (2 electrons in the outer most shell).
Therefore carbon atom shares electrons with four hydrogen atoms, forming
single covalent bonds with each hydrogen atom. Hence both hydrogen and
carbon atom obtain stable electronic configuration.

Ammonia (NH3)

Page | 7
Ammonia contains one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms. Nitrogen atom
has five electrons in its outer most shell. It needs three more electrons to
completely fill its outer most shell. Hydrogen needs one electron to gain a filled
outer shell. Therefore nitrogen atom shares electrons with three hydrogen
atoms, forming single covalent bonds with each hydrogen atom. Hence both
hydrogen and nitrogen atom obtain stable electronic configuration.

Water (H2O)

Water contains one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Oxygen atom has
six electrons in its outer most shell. It needs two more electrons to completely
fill its outer most shell. Therefore oxygen atom shares two electrons with two
hydrogen atoms, forming single covalent bonds with each hydrogen atom.
Hence both hydrogen and oxygen obtain stable electronic configuration.

Double Bond – Two Atoms Share Two Pairs of Electrons

Oxygen (O2)

Page | 8
Oxygen molecule contains two oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom has six
electrons in its outer most shell. Each oxygen atom needs two more electrons to
obtain a stable electronic configuration. Therefore each oxygen atoms shares
two electrons forming a double bond.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide contains one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Carbon atom
has four electrons in its outer most shell and it needs four more electrons to
obtain the full outer most shell. Oxygen atom has six electrons in its outer most
shell and it needs two more electrons to obtain full outer most shell. Therefore
carbon atom shares two electrons with each oxygen atom forming two double
bonds.

Triple Bond – Two Atoms Share Three Pairs of Electrons

Nitrogen (N2)

Nitrogen molecule contains two nitrogen atoms. Each nitrogen atom has five
electrons in its outer most shell. Each nitrogen atom needs three more electrons

Page | 9
to obtain a full outer most shell. Therefore each nitrogen atoms shares three
electrons forming a triple bond.

Simple molecular structures

• Simple molecular structures are formed from only few atoms.
• They have strong covalent bonds between the atoms, within a molecule. These bonds are
called intramolecular bonds.
• But they have weak bonds between the molecules. These bonds are called intermolecular
bonds.

Covalent bond
(Intramolecular bond)

Intermolecular bond

Properties of covalent substances

• They are often liquid or gases at room temperature. These substances are made up of simple
molecules.
• They have low melting and boiling points. Due to weak intermolecular force ( the force of
attraction between the molecules). Less energy is required to move molecules further apart.
• They are usually insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
• They do NOT conduct electricity. Because they do not have charge particles to carry the
current.

Page | 10
IONIC COMPOUNDS COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Property Reason Property Reason

They are crystalline solids at  There is a regular They are often liquids or  These substances
room temperature. arrangement of gases at room temperature. are made up of
ions in a lattice. simple molecules.
 Ions of the opposite  The atoms are
charge are next to joined together by
each other held by covalent bonds.
strong electrostatic
force of attraction.

Page | 11
They have high melting and  Ions are attracted They have low melting and  The forces between
boiling points. to each other by boiling points. the molecules are
strong electrostatic Weak intermolecular bonds
very weak.
forces of attraction (Intermolecular
 Large amounts of forces are weak).
energy are needed  Less energy is
to separate them. needed to move
molecules farther
apart.

They are often soluble in water.  Water molecule can They are usually NOT soluble  Covalent molecular
attract the charged in water. Very few are soluble substances dissolve
in water.
ions and dissolve in organic solvents.
the solid so that the
ions from the
compound can
move about in it.

They conduct electricity when  In molten or They do NOT conduct  There are no free
molten or dissolved in water but aqueous state, the electricity. mobile ions present
NOT when they are in solid
state. ions are free to to carry the current.
move towards the
electrodes when a
voltage is applied.

Giant covalent structures

• Giant covalent structure consists of very large number of atoms joined together by covalent
bonds forming a net work of structure. Eg: diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide.
• Both diamond and graphite is made up of carbon atoms. Carbon occurs naturally in more than
one crystalline form. These forms are called allotropes.
• Allotropes are different physical forms of the same element in the same physical state. Eg;
diamond and graphite.

Diamond

Page | 12
 • In diamond each carbon atom uses four electrons in the outer shell (all the valence electrons),
to form a strong covalent bonds with four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement.

Properties
• Very hard- due to the strong covalent bonds that connect all the carbon atoms together
within its structure.
• Have a very high melting point due to strong covalent bonds through out the structure.
• Electrical insulator – because there are no mobile electrons to carry the charge.

Uses
Since it is very hard, it is used to
• Cut glass and as a drilling equipment.
• It is also used to make jewellery.

Graphite
• Graphite is also made from carbon. However the structure of graphite is very different from
that that of diamond.
• In graphite, carbon atoms form flat hexagonal layers.
• Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds. There is
one free electron for each carbon atom, which is not used for bonding.
• The layers of graphite are held together by weak forces called Vander Waal’s force. This weak
force allows the layers of graphite to slide over each other.

Page | 13
Properties
• Conducts electricity- as the mobile electrons (delocalised electrons) can move between the
layers carrying an electrical charge.
• Soft and slipperyas the weak forces between the layers of graphite allows the layers to slide
over each other.
• Have a high melting and boiling point– The atoms within the layers are held together by
strong covalent bonds.
Uses
• As a lubricant- due to weak forces held by the layers, the layers of graphite slide over
• In pencil lead- the layers of graphite shear off and mark the paper
• As electrodes in batteries

Differences between diamond and graphite

Diamond Graphite

One of the hardest mineral Very soft

Good insulator Good conductor of electricity

Abrasive Good lubricant

Page | 14
Transparent Opaque

*Scientists have recently discovered another form of carbon. This form of carbon, called
buckminsterfullerene, does not have a giant structure. It is a football shaped molecule
made up of 60 carbon atoms.

Metallic bonding
• In a metal atoms are packed together in a regular structure called a lattice.
• The electrons in the highest energy level of a metal (the valence electrons) are relatively easily
removed, with the formation of metal cations.

Page | 15
 • The valence electrons are no longer located in a outer shell of one particular metal atom but
are attracted by a number of the surrounding positively charged nuclei. These delocalised
electrons are free to move throughout the metal lattice.

• Metallic bond is defined as the electrostatic force of attraction between the regular
arrangement of positively charged metal ions and the mobile sea of electrons.

Properties of metallic bonding

Metal are
• Good conductors of electricity- as they have free mobile electrons to move throughout the
metal structure.
• Have a high melting and boiling point- as high temperature is needed to provide enough
energy to pull an atom away from the attractive forces of the positive cations and the
delocalised electrons.
• Malleable (can be hammered into flat sheets)and ductile(can be drawn into wires) –This is
because the charges on the ions and electrons holding the structure together allows the ions
to slide overeach other without breaking the bond.
• Hard- because of the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the metal ions and the
delocalized electrons holding the metallic lattice together.
• Shiny appearance- This is because when light falls on metal, the electrons are excited
(Jumping into a higher energy level). As electrons return to lower energy level, light is emitted,
which makes the metals shine.

Page | 16