WELCOME TO BASIC

CALCULUS
TEACHER:
MARGARETT KENN G. SUMAGAYSAY-TIQUIAN
 OVERVIEW OF THE SUBJECT

At the end of the course, the students

must know how to determine the limit of
a function, differentiate, and integrate
algebraic, exponential, logarithmic, and
trigonometric functions in one variable,
and to formulate and solve problems
involving continuity, extreme values,
related rates, population models, and
areas of plane regions.
LESSON 1
LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
Limits are the backbone of calculus,
and calculus is called the Mathematics
of Change. The study of limits is
necessary in studying change in great
detail. The evaluation of a particular
limit is what underlies the formulation of
the derivative and the integral of a
function.
LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Consider a function f of a single variable x.

Consider a constant c which the variable x
will approach (c may or may not be in the
domain of f). The limit, to be denoted by L, is
the unique real value that f (x) will approach
as x approaches c. In symbols, we write this
process as
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐
This is read, ‘ ‘The limit of f (x) as x approaches
c is L.
Example 1. Consider lim (1 + 3𝑥).
𝑥→2
Here, 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑥 and the constant c,
which x will approach is 2. To evaluate the given
limit, we will make use of the table to help us
keep track of the effect that the approach of x
toward 2 will have on 𝑓 𝑥 . Of course, on the
number line, x may approach 2 in two ways: 1.
Through values on its left and 2. Through its values
on its right.
Let us first consider approaching 2 from is left or through values less
than 2. Remember that the values to be chosen should be close to 2.

X f (x)
1 4
1.4 5.2
1.7 6.1
1.9 6.7
1.95 6.85
1.997 6.991
1.9999 6.9997
1.9999999 6.9999997
 Now we consider approaching 2 from its right or through
values greater than but close to 2.
X f (x)
3 10
2.5 8.5
2.2 7.6
2.1 7.3
2.03 7.09
2.009 7.027
2.0005 7.0015
2.0000001 7.0000003
Observe that as the values of x get closer and
closer to 2, the values of f (x) get closer and
closer to 7. This behavior can be shown no
matter what set of values, or what direction, is
taken in approaching 2. In symbols,
lim 1 + 3𝑥 = 7
𝑥→2
If one knows the graph of f (x), it will be easier
to determine its limits as x approaches given
values of c.
The graph of the function f (x) = 1 + 3x is a
straight line with slope 3 and intercepts (0, 1)
and (—1/3, 0). Look at the graph in the
vicinity of x = 2.
You can easily see the points (from
the table of values) (1, 4), (1.4, 5.2), (1.7,
6.1), and so on, approaching the level where
y = 7. The same can be seen from the right
(from the table of values). Hence, the graph
clearly confirms thatlim 1 + 3𝑥 = 7
𝑥→2
 Example 2. limx→1(x2-5x+4)x-1
Solution:
Remember that 1 is not in the domain of the function. But that does not
affect the problem. In evaluating functions, we are only getting close to 1 and
not 1 itself.
Let us consider values from the left of 1.

x f (x)
1.5 —2.5
1.17 —2.83
1.003 —2.997
1.0001 —2.9999
Approach 1 from the right.

x f (x)

0.5 —3.5
0.88 —3.12
0.996 —3.004
0.9999 —3.0001
The tables show that as x
approaches 1, f (x) approaches
—3. In symbols,
2
(𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 4)
lim = −3
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
 (𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4) (𝑥−4)(𝑥−1)
Take note that lim = =𝑥−4
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1
provided x=1. Hence, the graph of f(x) is also the
graph of x-4, excluding the point where x=1.
Have you noticed a pattern in the way we have
been solving a limit? We have been specifying
whether x will approach a value c from the left,
through values less than c, or from the right,
through values greater than c. This direction may
be specified in the limit notation, lim 𝑓(𝑥)by adding
𝑥→𝑐
certain symbols.
 If x approaches c from the left, or
through values less than c, then we write
lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
If x approaches c from the right, or
through values greater than c, then we write
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐

Furthermore, we say that lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 if

𝑥→𝑐
and only if f(x)= L and lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 .
𝑥→𝑐
Exercise your knowledge!
1. Construct a table of values and
(𝑥−1)
graph: lim
𝑥→0 𝑥+1

2. Without the table of values and

graphing, find lim (3𝑥 − 5)
𝑥→1
 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION AT C VERSUS
THE VALUE OF THE FUNCTION AT C

The study of limits is the understanding that the

value of lim 𝑓(𝑥) may be distinct from the value of the
𝑥→𝑐
function at x = c, that is, f (c). As seen in previous
examples, the limit may be evaluated at values not
included in the domain of f . Thus, it must be clear
that the exclusion of a value from the domain of a
function does not prohibit the evaluation of the limit of
that function at that excluded value, provided of
course that f is defined at the points near c. In fact,
these cases are actually the more interesting ones to
investigate and evaluate.
 Consider again the example
lim (1 + 3𝑥) . Recall its table of values.
𝑥→2
Because of its value in the table, we
concluded that
lim (1 + 3𝑥) = 7 .
𝑥→2
In comparison, f (2) = 7. So, in this
example, lim f (x) and f (2) are
equal.
Consider some examples.
1. lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥→−1
𝑓 𝑐 =2

2. lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→𝑐
𝑓 𝑐 =0
 This, however, is not always the case. Consider the
function
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥≠0
𝑓 𝑥 = *2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥=0

When we evaluate the limit of the function, we

have
lim 𝑥 = 0 and at 𝑓 0 = 2.
𝑥→0
Does this in any way affect the existence of the
limit? Not at all. This example only
shows that lim 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑓 𝑐 are distinct.
𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT LAWS

In the previous topic, we discussed about how

limits can be determined through either a table of
values or the graph of a function. Filling in a table of
values sometimes requires very tedious calculations.
Likewise, graph may be difficult to sketch. However,
these should not be reasons to fail to determine a
limit.
In this lesson, we will learn how to compute the
limit of a function using the Limit Theorems. These will
enable us to directly evaluate limits, without need for
table or graph.
 LIMIT LAWS

Let c be a constant,
f and g are functions
which may or may not
have c in their
domains.
 LIMIT LAWS

1. The limit of a constant is the constant itself. If

k is any constant, then,
lim 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑥→𝑐

Example: lim 2 = 2
𝑥→1
lim −3 = −3
𝑥→0
lim 1000 = 1000
𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT LAWS

2. The limit of x as x approaches x is equal to

c. (This may be thought of as he substitution
law, because x is simply substituted by c.
lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
Example: lim 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0
lim 𝑥 = 3
𝑥→3
lim 𝑥 = 100
𝑥→100
 LIMIT LAWS

For the remaining theorems, we will

assume that the limits of f and g are
both exist as x approaches c and
that they are L and M, respectively.
In other words,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT LAWS

3. The Constant Multiple Theorem. The limit of a

multiple of a function is simply that multiple of the limit
of the function.
lim 𝑘 · 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 · lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 · 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
Example: a. Assume that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4, then
𝑥→𝑐
lim 8 · 𝑓(𝑥) = 8 · lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 8 · 4 = 32
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
b. Given lim 2 𝑥
𝑥→4
lim 3 · 2𝑥 = 3 · lim 2𝑥 = 3 · 8 = 24
𝑥→4 𝑥→4
(Note: If we evaluate lim 2𝑥, it is equals 8)
𝑥→4
 LIMIT LAWS

4. The Addition Theorem: This says that the

limit of a sum of functions is the sum of the
limits of the individual functions. Subtraction is
also included in this law, that is, the limit of a
difference of functions is the difference of
their limits.
lim (𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 + lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿 + 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim (𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 − lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿 − 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT LAWS

Example: If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = −5, then

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

a.
lim ( 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 + lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 4 + −5 = −1
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

b. lim (𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 − lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 4 − −5 = 9

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT LAWS

5. The Multiplication Theorem: This is similar to the Addition

Theorem, with multiplication replacing addition as the
operation involved. Thus, the limit of a product of functions
is equal to the product of their limits.
lim (𝑓 𝑥 × 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 × lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿 × 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
Let us use the previous example, If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and
𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑔 𝑥 = −5, then,
𝑥→𝑐
lim ( 𝑓 𝑥 × 𝑔 𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 × lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 4 −5 = −20
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
Note: the Addition and Multiplication Theorems may be
applied to sums, difference and products of more than
two functions.
 LIMIT LAWS

6. The Division Theorem: This says that the limit

of a quotient of functions is equal to the
quotient of the limits of the individual
functions, provided the denominator limit is
not equal to 0.
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐
lim = =
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
𝑀

provided that M≠ 0.
 LIMIT LAWS

Example: a. Let us use the previous example, If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and

𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑔 𝑥 = −5, then,
𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 4 4
lim = 𝑥→𝑐 = =−
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
−5 5

b. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = −5, then,

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐 0
lim = = =0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) −5
𝑥→𝑐
c. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 0, then,
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 3
lim = 𝑥→𝑐 =
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
0
*not possible to evaluate or we may say, the limit does not exist.
 LIMIT LAWS

8. The Radical/Root Theorem: This theorem states that

if n is a positive integer, the limit of the nth root of a
function is just the nth root of the limit of the function,
provided the nth root of the limit is a real number.
Thus, it is important to keep in mind that if n is even,
the limit of the function must be positive.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
 LIMIT LAWS

Example: a. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 9 , then

𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 9 = 3
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

b. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 8 , then

𝑥→𝑐
3 3 3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 8=2
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

c. If lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −9 , then it is not possible to evaluate

𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑓(𝑥) because lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −9 and the result is
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
not a real number.
 THE LIMITS OF ALGEBRAIC
FUNCTIONS

In the previous lesson, we presented

and illustrated the limit theorems.
In this lesson, we will show how
these limit theorems are used in
evaluating algebraic functions.
Particularly, we will illustrate how to use
them to evaluate the limits of
polynomial, rational and radical
functions.
Example 1. lim (2𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→1
Solution:
= lim 2𝑥 + lim 1 Addition
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
= 2 lim 𝑥 + lim 1 Constant Multiple
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
= 2(1) + 1
=3
Example 2. lim (2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑥→−1
Solution:
= lim 2𝑥 3 − lim 4𝑥 2 + lim 1 Addition
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
= 2 lim 𝑥 3 − 4 lim 𝑥 2 + lim 1 Constant Multiple
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
= 2(−1)3 −4 −1 + 1
2
Power
= 2 −1 − 4 1 + 1
= -2 -4 +1
= -5
 1
Example 3. Evaluate lim
𝑥→1 𝑥
Solution:
1 lim 1
Lim = 𝑥→1
Division
𝑥→1 𝑥 lim 𝑥
𝑥→1
1
=
1
=1
 𝑥
Example 4. Evaluate lim
𝑥→2 𝑥+1
𝑥 lim 𝑥
Solution: Lim = 𝑥→2
Division
𝑥→2 𝑥+1 lim 𝑥+1
𝑥→2
lim 𝑥
𝑥→2
=
lim 𝑥+lim 1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
2
=
2+1
2
=
3
Note: You may evaluate first the denominator (as a
polynomial function) to check if its limit is not zero.
Example 5. Evaluate lim 𝑥
𝑥→1
Solution:
Note that lim 𝑥 = 1 > 0. Therefore, by the radical/root
𝑥→1
rule,

lim 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = 1 = 1.
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
 3
Example 6. Evaluate lim 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6
𝑥→−2
Solution:
Note: since the index of the radical sign is odd, we do
not have to worry that the limit of the radicand is
negative. Therefore, the Radical/Root Rule implies
that
3 3
lim 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6 = lim 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
3 3 3
= (−2)2 +3 −2 − 6 = 4−6−6= −8 = −2
 LIMITS OF EXPONENTIAL,
LOGARITHMIC, AND
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
• Real-world situations can be expressed in
terms of functional relationships. These func-
tional relationships are called mathematical
models. In applications of calculus, it is quite
important that one can generate these
mathematical models. They sometimes use
functions that you encountered in
precalculus, like the exponential,
logarithmic, and trigonometric functions.
Hence, we start this lesson by recalling these
functions and their corresponding graphs.
If b> 0, b 6= 1, the exponential function
with base b is defined by
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏 ,𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
Let b > 0,𝑏 ≠ 1. If by = x then y is called the
logarithm of x to the base b, denoted
y = log b x.
 Example 7. Evaluate lim 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥→0
We will construct the table of values for f (x) = ex. We start by
approaching the number 0 from the left or through the values
less than but close to 0.

x f (x)
—1 0.36787944117
—0.5 0.60653065971
—0.1 0.90483741803
—0.01 0.99004983374
—0.001 0.99900049983
—0.0001 0.999900049983
—0.00001 0.99999000005
 Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through the values
greater than but close to 0.

From the table, as the values of x get closer and closer to 0, the values
of f (x) get closer and closer to 1.

x f (x)
1 2.71828182846
0.5 1.6487212707
0.1 1.10517091808
0.01 1.01005016708
0.001 1.00100050017
0.0001 1.000100005
0.00001 1.00001000005
Example 8. Evaluate lim ln 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→1
Solution:
We will construct the table of values for f (x) = ln x. We first
approach the number 1 from the left or through values less
than but close to 1.
X f (x)
0.1 —2.30258509299
0.5 —0.69314718056
0.9 —0.10536051565
0.99 —0.01005033585
0.999 —0.00100050033
0.9999 —0.000100005
0.99999 —0.00001000005
 Now we consider approaching 1 from the right or through the values greater
than but close to 1.
From the table, as the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get
closer and closer to 0. In symbols, lim ln 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→1

X f (x)
2 0.69314718056

1.5 0.4054651081
1.1 0.0953101798
1.01 0.00995033085
1.001 0.00099950033
1.0001 0.000099995
1.00001 0.00000999995
Example 9. Evaluate lim sin 𝑥
𝑥→0
Solution:
We will construct the table of values for f (x) = sin x. We first approach 0
from the left or through the values less than but close to 0.

x f (x)

—1 —0.8414709848
—0.5 —0.4794255386
—0.1 —0.09983341664
—0.01 —0.00999983333
—0.001 —0.00099999983
—0.0001 —0.00009999999
—0.00001 —0.00000999999
Now we consider approaching 0 from its right or through values greater than
but close to 0.
As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and

closer to 0. In symbols, lim sin 𝑥 = 0

𝑥→0
x f (x)
1 0.8414709848
0.5 0.4794255386
0.1 0.09983341664
0.01 0.00999983333
0.001 0.00099999983
0.0001 0.00009999999
0.00001 0.00000999999
 1−cos 𝑡
Example 10. Evaluate lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑡
Solution:
1−cos 𝑡
We will construct the table of values for 𝑔 𝑥 = = 0 We first approach the t
𝑡
number 1 from the left or through the values less than but close to 0.

t g(t)

—1 —0.4596976941
—0.5 —0.2448348762
—
—0.1 0.04995834722
—0.01 —0.0049999583
—0.001 —0.0004999999

—0.0001 —0.000005
Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through values
greater than but close to 0.
1−cos 𝑡 1−cos 𝑡
Since lim− = 0 and lim+ = 0, we can conclude that
𝑥→0 𝑡 𝑥→0 𝑡
1−cos 𝑡
lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑡 t g(t)
1 0.4596976941
0.5 0.2448348762

0.1 0.04995834722
0.01 0.0049999583
0.001 0.0004999999

0.0001 0.000005
 𝑒 𝑡 −1
Example 11. Evaluate lim
𝑡→0 𝑡
Solution:
𝑒 𝑡 −1
We will construct the table of 𝑓 𝑡 = . We first approach the number 0
𝑡
from the left or through the values of less than but close to 0.
t h(t)

—1 0.6321205588
—0.5 0.7869386806
—0.1 0.9516258196
—0.01 0.9950166251
—0.001 0.9995001666
—0.0001 0.9999500016
Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through values
greater than but close to 0.
𝑒 𝑡 −1 𝑒 𝑡 −1 𝑒 𝑡 −1
Since lim =1 and lim =1, we can conclude that lim =1.
𝑡→0− 𝑡 𝑡→0+ 𝑡 𝑡→0 𝑡
t h(t)
1 1.718281828

0.5 1.297442541

0.1 1.051709181

0.01 1.005016708

0.001 1.000500167

0.0001 1.000050002
You may also watch the video on
youtube. Here’s the link
https://youtu.be/HbtuSC_WOW0
 REFERENCE

• Balmaceda, Jose Maria P., et al.. Teaching Guide

for Senior High School Basic Calculus, 2016.