CHEMISTRY

- the study of matter, its properties, and the changes that matter undergoes.

THE FIELD OF CHEMISTRY

Basically, chemists:
(1) make new types of matter: materials, substances, or combinations of substances
with desired properties;
(2) measure the properties of matter; and
(3) develop models that explain and/or predict the properties of matter.
Work opportunities:
(1) Research and Development
(2) Quality Control
(3) Sales and Services

MATTER
- is the physical material of the universe
- it is anything that has mass and occupies space
- property is any characteristic that allows us to recognize a particular type of matter and to
distinguish it from other types
- comprised of combinations of only about 100 substances called elements
o atoms - infinitesimally small building blocks of matter
o molecules - two or more atoms are joined in specific shapes

Classification Sub-classification Characteristics

• has both a definite shape and a definite
Solid
volume
• has a distinct volume independent of its
container but has no specific shape
Liquid
• assumes the shape of the portion of the
Physical State (States of container it occupies
Matter) • no fixed volume or shape
• conforms to the volume and shape of its
container
Gas
• can be compressed to occupy a smaller
volume
• can expand to occupy a larger one
*Element • substances that cannot be decomposed
Composition into simpler substances
• each element is composed of only one
kind of atom
 *Compound • substances composed of two or more
elements
• contains two or more kinds of
atoms
Mixture • combinations of two or more substances
in which each substance retains its chemical
identity
Note: Neither liquids nor solids can be compressed to any appreciable extent.
*Pure Substances - usually referred to simply as a substance
- matter that has distinct properties and a composition that does not vary from sample to
sample

PRACTICE QUESTION
Identify the kind of substances found in each box.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

element element compound mixture

ELEMENTS
- 118 elements at present
o New elements: nihonium, moscovium, tennessine, oganesson
- Relative abundances:

*measured in percent by mass

COMPOUNDS
- Cannot be separated by physical means
- Fundamental chemical laws:
o Law of Conservation of Mass - total mass of materials present after a chemical
reaction is the same as the total mass present before the reaction
 o Law of Constant Composition (Law of Definite Proportions) - elemental
composition of a compound is always the same
o Law of Multiple Proportions - If two elements A and B combine to form more than
one compound, the masses of B that can combine with a given mass of A are in the
ratio of small whole numbers

MIXTURE
- Made up of components; composition of a mixture can differ
- Types:
o Heterogeneous - mixtures that vary in texture and appearance in any typical sample
o Homogeneous - mixtures that are uniform throughout a sample; also called
solutions
(1) Colloid - substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout another
substance (ex. milk)
(2) Suspension – mixture of liquid and large particles of solid (ex. air)

Here’s a diagram to help you remember:

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
- Chemical Property vs Physical Property
o Chemical Property - describe the way a substance may change, or react, to form
other substances (ex. flammability)
o Physical Property - can be observed without changing the identity and composition
of the substance; include color, odor, density, melting point, boiling point, and
hardness
- Intensive vs Extensive
o Intensive - independent on the quantity of a sample (ex. temperature, density)
o Extensive - dependent on the amount of sample (ex. mass, volume)
CHANGES IN MATTER
- Chemical Change (chemical reaction) – a substance is transformed into a chemically
different substance
- Physical Change – a substance changes its physical appearance but not its composition
- Phase Changes

READING PHASE DIAGRAMS

- Phase diagram: graphical representation of the physical states of a substance under
different conditions of temperature and pressure
- two states of the substance coexist in equilibrium on the lines or curves
- Triple point
o the point on a phase diagram at which the three states of matter: gas, liquid, and
solid coexist
- Critical point
o the point on a phase diagram at which the substance is indistinguishable between
liquid and gaseous states
- Fusion(melting) (or freezing) curve
o the curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between liquid and
solid states
- Vaporization (or condensation) curve
o the curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between gaseous and
liquid states
- Sublimation (or deposition) curve
o the curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between gaseous and
solid states
 PRACTICE QUESTION
What change in matter occurs:
(1) when water vapor turns to frost? physical
(2) When a mixture is separated using chromatography? physical

Review Questions
1. Approximately how many elements are there?
2. What submicroscopic particles are the building blocks of matter?

ATOMS
JOHN DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
- Four postulates
(1) Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
(2) All atoms of a given element are identical, but the atoms of one element are
different from the atoms of all other elements.
(3) Atoms of one element cannot be changed into atoms of a different element by
chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions.
(4) Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine; a
given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms.

IMPORTANT EVENTS/DISCOVERIES
- Electrons
o Cathode rays - radiation produced between electrodes when a high voltage was
applied is applied; originated at the negative electrode and traveled to the positive
electrode
o Cathode rays are deflected by electric or magnetic fields in a way consistent with
there being a stream of negative electrical charge
o J. J. Thomson (1856–1940) - discovered the (cathode rays) electron;
▪ observed that cathode rays are the same regardless of the identity of the
cathode material
▪ cathode rays - streams of negatively charged particles

PRACTICE QUESTION
Which of the following is an implication of Thomson’s observation that the type of metal used
to make the cathode does not matter? answer: b
(a) The cathode rays do originate in the cathode.
(b) The particles that make up cathode rays must be present in all metals.

- Radioactivity – spontaneous emission of high-energy radiation

 o Notable people
(1) Henri Becquerel - discovered that a compound of uranium spontaneously emits
high-energy radiation
(2) Marie Curie - identified and isolated the source of radioactivity
(3) Pierre Curie in the compound: uranium atoms
(4) Ernest Rutherford - revealed three types of radiation: alpha (α), beta (β), and
gamma (γ)
- Models of the Atom
o Plum-pudding Model (J.J. Thompson) - atom consists of a uniform positive sphere of
matter in which the mass is evenly distributed and in which the electrons are
embedded like raisins in a pudding or seeds in a watermelon
▪ Debunked by Rutherford through Gold Foil Experiment
o Nuclear Model (Ernest Rutherford) - the mass of each gold atom and all of its
positive charge reside in a very small, extremely dense region that he called the
nucleus, and that most of the volume of an atom is empty space in which electrons
move around the nucleus

Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment

- Further Discoveries
o Proton - particles that are positively charged; discovered by Rutherford
o Neutron - particles that are neutrally charged; discovered by James Chadwick

ATOMIC NUMBER - number of protons in an atom of any particular element

MASS NUMBER - number of protons plus neutrons in the atom
PRACTICE QUESTION
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in an atom of:
(a) 197Au? 79 protons, 79 electrons, 118 neutrons
(b) strontium-90? 38 protons, 38 electrons, 52 neutrons

ISOTOPES - elements with the same atomic number but different mass weight

ISOBARS - atoms or nuclides of separate chemical elements having the same number of nucleons
(protons+ neutrons)

ISOTONES - any of two or more species of atoms or nuclei that have the same number of neutrons

Isotone Proton Neutron Electron

14 6 8 6
6C
15 7 8 7
7𝑁

ATOMIC WEIGHTS
- Unit of measure: atomic mass unit
- 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g and 1 g = 6.02214 x1023 amu
- atomic weight - average atomic mass of an element

PRACTICE QUESTION
Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78% 35Cl (atomic mass 34.969 amu) and 24.22% 37Cl (atomic
mass 36.966 amu). Calculate the atomic weight of chlorine. 35.45 amu

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
- Nuclear Equation Rules
o The sum of mass numbers must be the same on both sides.
o The sum of atomic numbers must be the same on both sides.
- Alpha (α) Decay
o Alpha particles are the nuclei of helium-4 atoms, ejected spontaneously from the
nuclei of certain radioactive atoms

- Beta (β) Decay

o the decay of a free neutron
o β particle has no atomic number but has a charge of -1; represented by −𝟏𝟎𝜷

- Positron Emission
o Β-decay but emits a positive particle (positron)

- Electron Capture
o an electron from an inner electron shell (usually the shell n=1) is absorbed by the
nucleus, where it converts a proton to a neutron.

- Gamma Decay
o yield or particles leave the nucleus in an excited state

THE PERIODIC TABLE

- arrangement of elements in order of increasing atomic number, with elements having

similar properties placed in vertical columns
- horizontal rows of the periodic table are called periods
- vertical columns are called groups
METALLIC ELEMENTS (METALS)
- all the elements on the left and in the middle of the table
- all are solid at room temperature except for mercury (Hg)

NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS (NONMETALS)

- either solid or gas at room temperature, only bromine (Br) is liquid

METALLOIDS
- have properties that fall between those of metals and nonmetals

TRENDS

Atomic radius, metallic Ionization energy,

property electron affinity,
electronegativity

WRITING MOLECULAR FORMULAS

- Structural Formula
o atoms are represented by their chemical symbols, and lines are used to represent
the bonds that hold the atoms together
o does not typically depict the actual geometry of the molecule

- Perspective drawings
o use wedges and dashed lines to depict bonds that are not in the plane of the paper
(3d)
- Ball-and-stick models
o show atoms as spheres and bonds as sticks
- Space-filling models
o depict what a molecule would look like if the atoms were scaled up in size
o show the relative sizes of the atoms
o useful for picturing how two molecules might fit together or pack in the solid state

Here’s a picture to help you visualize:

 STOICHIOMETRY
- area of study that examines the quantities of substances consumed and produced in
chemical reactions
- Tips:
o Make a rough calculation to check if the answers make sense.
o Practice on a regular basis.
- Strategy:
(1) Analyze the problem. Draw a diagram to help you visualize.
(2) Plan how to solve the problem. Some data might not be given explicitly.
(3) Solve the problem by using equations you derived from the data you’re given.
(4) Check if your answers make sense.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Sample Equation
(reactants) 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O (products)
- reactants
o starting substances; chemical formulas left of the arrow
- products
o produced in the reaction; chemical formulas right of the arrow

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS (TIPS)

(1) First, balance elements that occur in only one compound on each side.
(2) Balance free elements last.
(3) Balance unchanged polyatomics (or groups of atoms) as groups.
(4) Fractional coefficients are acceptable and can be cleared by multiplication.

THE MOLE
- 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
- Molar mass: mass of a mole of substance (unit: g/mol)
o used to convert grams of a substance to moles

PRACTICE QUESTION
1. How many moles of potassium (K) atoms are in 3.04 grams of pure potassium metal?
0.0778 mol K
2. How many grams are 10.78 moles of Calcium ( Ca )? 432.1g Ca
3. How many atoms are in a 3.5 g sample of sodium (Na)? 9.15 × 1022 atoms of Na
4. Balance the following equation: 2,6,2,3
__Al(s) + __HCl(aq) → __AlCl3(aq) + __H2(g)
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
- the representation of the arrangement of electrons distributed among the orbital shells and
subshells
- sed to describe the orbitals of an atom in its ground state, but it can also be used to
represent an atom that has ionized into a cation or anion
- most stable configuration: ground state

ASSIGNING ORBITALS
- Order:
o 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, and 7p
- To help you remember visually:

o Mnemonics: Si Sally Pumasok Sa Pinto Sa Door Pinto Sa Door Pinto Sa Front Door
Pinto Sa Front Door Pinto

GOVERNING PRINCIPLES
- Pauli Exclusion Principle
o there can be at most two electrons in any single orbital
o orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy, with no more than two electrons per
orbital
- Hund’s Rule
o for degenerate orbitals, the lowest energy is attained when the number of electrons
having the same spin is maximized
o electrons occupy orbitals singly to the maximum extent possible and that these
single electrons in a given subshell all have the same spin magnetic quantum
number
- Aufbau Principle
o orbitals of the lowest available energy levels are filled first before occupying higher
levels

APPLICATION
- Orbital diagrams – a representation of electron configuration where each orbital is denoted
by a box and each electron by a half arrow
 - Spins
o half arrow pointing up: positive spin (ms = + ½ )
o half arrow pointing down: negative spin (ms = - ½ )
- Pairing
o Paired – electrons with opposite spins in 2 orbital
o Unpaired – only one spin
- Condensed Electron Configuration
o the electron configuration of the nearest noble-gas element of lower atomic
number is represented by its chemical symbol in brackets
o Core electrons (noble-gas core): electrons represented by the bracketed symbol
o Outer-shell electrons: electrons written after the brackets; includes valence
electrons

PRACTICE QUESTION
Write the electron configuration for phosphorus, element 15, and draw its orbital diagram. How
many unpaired electrons does a phosphorus atom possess? 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 ; three

GASES
- Characteristics
o nonmetallic elements, simple molecular formulas and low molar masses
o expands spontaneously to fill its container
o volume equals the volume of its container
o applying pressure decreases volume
- Ideal gas law: PV = nRT
o P = pressure
o V = volume
o n = number of moles
o R = ideal gas constant (value depends on unit used)
o T = temperature (unit codepends on R)
- standard temperature and pressure (STP) = 0 °C at 1 atm

Law Derived from General Equation Equation

 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
General Equation =
𝑇1 𝑇2
Boyle’s Law (constant temperature) 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑉1 𝑉2
Charles’s Law (constant pressure) =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑃1 𝑃2
Gay-Lussac’s Law (constant volume) =
𝑇1 𝑇2

- Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures: the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the
sum of the partial pressures of the component gases
o Partial pressure - pressure exerted by an individual gas in a mixture

PRACTICE QUESTION
What happens to the density of a gas as (a) the gas is heated in a constant-volume container;
(b) the gas is compressed at constant temperature; (c) additional gas is added to a constant-
volume container? (a) no change, (b) increases, (c) increases

REFERENCES
Brown, T. L., Lemay Jr., H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., & Woodward, P. M. (2012). Chemistry: The
Central Science. Glenview, IL: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Petrucci, R. H., Herring, F. G., Madura, J. D., & Bissonnette, C. (2010). General Chemistry: Principles
and Modern Applications. Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Canada, Inc.