SHIP CONSTRUCTION AND STABILITY

1. brief about chain locker -location, purpose , pumping arrangement and need , safety
precaution to avoid flooding of chain locker. B) why cargo hold ventilation is required.

A chain locker is a small compartment or space located under the windlass. This is a place forward of
the collision bulkhead below the main deck storing or securing the anchor chain cables.
The chain locker is connected to the windlass with a Spurling pipe. In case it is located aft of the
collision bulkhead or in the forecastle it needs to be watertight with allowance for proper operation
without any damage to machinery or auxiliaries in case of accidental flooding.
In general chain locker are designed to go deep as possible with just enough breathing space.
Although the actual dimension being determined by the length/size of the actual chain cable.
They should be suitably designed to allow easy stowing of cables to the mouth of the chain pipe with
the ability to strip the chain from the outside. Even the manholes should be properly secured and
covered.
pumping arrangement and need
The chain moves through the chain pipe and the hawse pipe as the anchor is raised or lowered. The
chain pipe connects the chain locker to the deck and the hawse pipe runs from the deck through the
hull of the ship. When recovering the anchor, the anchor and chain are washed off with a fire hose
to remove mud, marine organisms, and other debris picked up during anchoring. Seawater from the
fire hose is directed either through the hawse pipe or directly over the side onto the chain while
recovering the anchor.
The top of the chain pipe has a canvas sleeve to keep water from entering the chain locker through
the chain pipe. Under rare circumstances, like heavy weather, rain or green water (seawater that
comes over the bow during heavy weather) gets under the chain pipe canvas cover and into the
chain locker.
Any fluid that accumulates in the chain locker sump is removed by either drainage eductor for
discharge directly overboard or by draining the chain locker effluent into the bilge.
As the fluid in the chain locker sump is being drained for overboard discharge, the locker is sprayed
with fire main water to flush out sediment, mud, or silt. An eductor is a pumping device that uses a
high velocity jet of seawater from the fire main system to create a suction to remove the
accumulated liquids and solids.

B) why cargo hold ventilation is required.

One of the important aspects of transporting cargo on ships is to prevent any kind of damage to the
cargo. It is important to take proper care of the cargo on board ships to avoid loss of property and
avert cargo claims.
Damage to cargo can happen because of several reasons such as accident, flooding, rain water, etc.
Of all the reasons, moisture is one of the most common causes of cargo damage and a source of
significant cargo claims.
In order to prevent damage of cargo because of moisture, ships are fitted with natural or forced
ventilation systems. Moisture responsible for cargo damage is also called “sweat” on ships. Sweat is
mainly of two types:

 Cargo sweat

Cargo sweat refers to the condensation that occurs on the exposed surface of the cargo as a
result of warm, moist air introduced in to holds containing substantially colder cargo. This
type of sweat generally occurs when the vessel is travelling from a colder to a warmer place
and the outside air has a dew point above the temperature of the cargo.
  Vessel sweat
Vessel sweat refers to the condensation that occurs on the surface of the vessel when the air inside
the hold is made moist and warm by the cargo, when the later comes in contact with the vessel
surface as the vessel moves from a hot to cold region. Vessel sweat leads to formation of overhead
drips inside the hold or accumulation of condensed water at the bottom of the hold, which may lead
to cargo damage. Thus, cargo ventilation systems are provided on ships
Cargo ventilation system helps in the following:

 Prevent cargo and ship sweat

 Supply fresh air to the cargo
 Prevent building up of poisonous gases
 Removing of smell of previous cargo
 Getting rid of heat and moisture given out by some types of cargo
Cargo ventilation on ships is important for both hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic cargoes.
Hygroscopic cargo has natural water/moisture content. This type of cargo is mainly plant products,
which absorb, retain, and release water within the cargo. This water leads to significant heating and
spreading of moisture in the cargo and result in caking or spoiling or cargo.
Non-hygroscopic cargo has no water content; however, they can get spoilt in moist environment.The
dew point of the air, both inside and outside the cargo hold plays an important role in determining
the quality of cargo. Here, the “Dewpoint Rule” is taken into consideration to provide ventilation and
keep the temperature within the favourable range.

2. Write briefly
a) effect of density on draught and displacement.
 b) effects of bilging ship compartment (considering midship end, side or intermediate
compartments.

3. Types of propeller and a brief notes on each.

A propeller is a rotating fan-like structure that is used to propel the ship by using the power
generated and transmitted by the main engine of the ship .The transmitted power is converted
from rotational motion to generate a thrust which imparts momentum to the water, resulting in
a force that acts on the ship and pushes it forward. A ship propels on the basis of Bernoulli’s
principle and Newton’s third law. A pressure difference is created on the forward and aft side of
the blade and water is accelerated behind the blades. The thrust from the propeller is
transmitted to move the ship through a transmission system which consists of a rotational
motion generated by the main engine crankshaft, intermediate shaft and its bearings, stern tube
shaft and its bearing and finally by the propeller itself.

Material and Construction of Propeller

Marine propellers are made from corrosion-resistant materials as they are made operational directly
in seawater which is a corrosion accelerator. The materials used for making marine propellers are an
alloy of aluminium and stainless steel.
Other popular materials used are alloys of nickel, aluminium and bronze which are 10~15 % lighter
than other materials and have higher strength.
Types of Propeller
A) Classification by Number of Blades Attached:
Propeller blades may vary from 3 blade propeller to 4 blade propeller and sometimes even 5 blade
propeller. However, the most commonly used are 3 blades and 4 blade propellers.

The propeller efficiency will be highest for a propeller with a minimum number of blades i.e. 2 blade
propeller. But to achieve strength factor and considering the heavy loads subjected by the ship, sea
and weather two-blade propellers are not used for merchant ships.

3 Blade Propeller
A 3 blade propeller has the following characteristics:

 The manufacturing cost is lower than other types.

 Are normally made up of aluminium alloy.
 Gives a good high-speed performance.
 The acceleration is better than other types.
 Low-speed handling is not much efficient.

4 Blade Propeller
Photo Credits: Capt. Sagar
A 4 blade propeller has the following characteristics:

 The manufacturing cost is higher than the 3 blade propellers.

 4 blade propellers are normally made up of stainless steel alloys.
 Have better strength and durability.
 Gives good low-speed handling and performance.
  Has a better holding power in rough seas.
 4 blade propeller provides a better fuel economy than all the other types.

5 blade propeller
A 5 blade propeller has the following characteristics:

 Manufacturing cost is higher of all.

 Vibration is minimal from all the other types.
 5 blade propellers have better holding power in rough seas.

6 blade propeller

 Manufacturing cost is high

 Vibration is minimal from all the other types.
 6 blade propellers have better holding power in rough seas.
 With a six-blade propeller, the induced pressure field over the propeller decreases

Large container ships are mainly fitted with 5 or 6-bladed propellers.

B) Classification By pitch of the blade:

Pitch of a propeller can be defined as the displacement that a propeller makes for every full
revolution of 360 ̊. The classification of the propellers on the basis of pitch is as follows.

Fixed Pitch Propeller

The blades in the fixed pitch propeller are permanently attached to the hub. The fixed pitch type
propellers are cast and the position of the blades and hence the position of the pitch is permanently
fixed and cannot be changed during the operation. They are normally made from copper alloy.

Fixed pitch propellers are robust and reliable as the system doesn’t incorporate any mechanical and
hydraulic connection as in Controlled Pitch Propeller (CPP). The manufacturing, installation and
operational costs are lower than the controlled pitch propeller (CPP) type. The manoeuvrability of
the fixed-pitch propeller is also not as good as CPP.

These types of propellers are fitted in a ship that does not have good manoeuvrability requirements.

Controllable Pitch Propeller

In a Controlled Pitch type propeller, it is possible to alter the pitch by rotating the blade about its
vertical axis by means of mechanical and hydraulic arrangement. This helps in driving the propulsion
machinery at constant load with no reversing mechanism required as the pitch can be altered to
match the required operating condition. Thus the manoeuvrability improves and the engine
efficiency also increases.

This drawback includes the possibility of oil pollution as the hydraulic oil in the boss which is used for
controlling the pitch may leak out. It is a complex and expensive system from both installation and
operational points. Moreover, the pitch can get stuck in one position, making it difficult to
manoeuvre the engine.
 4. Short notes on class A, B , C bulkheads. Regulation regarding them.

Class A division Bulkhead as per SOLAS

 A” class divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads and decks which comply with
the following criteria:
 They are constructed of steel or equivalent material.
 They are constructed to be capable of preventing the passage of smoke and flame to the
end of the one-hour standard fire test.
 They are suitably stiffened and made intact with the main structure of the vessel, such as
the shell, structural bulkheads, and decks.
 They are insulated with approved non-combustible materials such that the average
temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more than 140’C above the original
temperature nor will the temperature at any point including any joint rise more than
180’C above the original temperature with the time listed:

A-60— 60 Min A-30— 30 Min A-15 —15 Min A-0 —0 Min

Class B division Bulkhead as per SOLAS

‘‘B’’ class divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings or linings which comply
with the following criteria:

 They are constructed of approved non-combustible materials and all materials used in
the construction and erection of “B” class divisions are non-combustible, with the
exception that combustible veneers may be permitted provided they meet other
appropriate requirements.
 They are constructed so as to be capable of preventing the passage of flame to the end
of the first half-hour (30 mins) of the standard fire test.
 They have an insulation value such that the average temperature of the unexposed side
will not rise more than 140 degrees C above the original temperature, nor will the
temperature at any one point, including any joint, rise more than 225 degrees C above
the original temperature, within the time listed below:

Class “A-15” -15 Min Class “A-0”-0 Min

Class C division Bulkhead as per SOLAS

 C” class divisions are divisions constructed of approved non-combustible materials. They

need to meet neither requirements relative to the passage of smoke and flame nor
limitations relative to the temperature rise.
 Combustible veneers are permitted provided they meet the requirements.
 Main vertical zones Divided by Class A bulkheads and not exceeding 40m in length.

The Administration required a test of a prototype division in accordance with the Fire Test
Procedures Code to ensure that it meets the above requirements for integrity and temperature rise.
5. With simple sketch
a) Block coefficient

b) Co-efficient of water plane area.

 It is the ratio of the area of the waterplane taken at SLL or DWL and area of a circumscribing
rectangle whose sides are equal to the Length and the breadth.
 𝐂𝐖𝐏 =area of the waterplane taken at SLL or DWL/area of a circumscribing rectangle with
sides equal to L & B
 𝐂𝐖𝐏 = (𝐀𝐖𝐏/𝐋 ∗𝐁)
 The values of CWP at the DWL range from about 0.65 to 0.95, depending upon type of ship,
speed, and other factors.
 c) State Simpson’s first rule for the calculation of water area with brief explaination
aided by a sketch.

Simpson‘s First Rule is based on the assumption that the curved portion of a figure forms
part of a parabola (y = ax² + bx + c), and gives the area contained between three
consecutive, equally-spaced ordinates. Area ABCD = (h/3 ) x (1y1+ 4Y2 + 1y3)

This rule may be applied repeatedly to determine the area of a larger plane such as
EFGH (Fig.).
Area 1 = (h/3) x (1y1 + 4y2 +1y3 )
Area 2 = (h/3) x (ly3+4y4+ ly5)
Area 3 = (1y5 + 4y6 + 1y7)
Area EFGH = Area I + Area 2 + Area 3
={(h/3) x (1y1 + 4y2 +1y3 )} +{(h/3) x (ly3+4y4+ ly5)} +{(1y5 + 4Y6 + 1y7)}
= (h/3) x (1y1 + 4y2 +2y3 +4y4 +2y5 + 4Y6 + 1y7 )
It should be noted at this stage that it is necessary to apply the whole rule and thus an
odd number of equally-spaced ordinates is necessary.
Greater speed and accuracy is obtained if this rule is applied in the form of a table. The
distance h is termed the common interval and the numbers 1, 4, 2, 4, etc. are termed
Simpson‘s multipliers. When calculating the area of a waterplane it is usual to divide the
length of the ship into about 10 equal parts, giving 11 sections.
These sections are numbered from 0 at the after end to 10 at the fore end. Thus
amidships will be section number 5. It is convenient to measure distances from the
centreline to the ship side, giving half ordinates. These half ordinates are used in
conjunction with Simpson‘s Rule and the answer multiplied by2
d) A ship’s water plane area has half-ordinates from aft to forward as follows 0.6m,
1.5m, 1.6m, 1.4m and 0.9m . if the half-ordinates are equally speed at 4.0m apart ,
calculate water plane area.
6. A) Archimedes principle
If a solid body is immersed in a liquid there is an apparent loss in weight. This loss in weight
is the upthrust exerted by the liquid on the body and is equal to the weight of the volume of
liquid which the body displaces. If a solid body is suspended in fresh water, completely
immersed, the upthrust is the weight of fresh water having the same volume as the body.
b) Explain the principle of floatation with the aid of sketches.
A floating object displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats If a solid body,
having a relative density less than 1, is completely immersed in fresh water, the
upthrust exerted by the water on the body will exceed the weight of the body. The body
 will then rise until part of its volume emerges, i.e. it will float. The upthrust will then be
reduced to the weight of the body. Thus:
(a) A body of rd less than 1 will float in fresh water. A body of rd of less than 13.6 will
float in mercury whose rd is 13.6.
(b) The weight of a floating body is equal to the weight of the volume of liquid it
displaces, and since g is constant, the mass of a floating body is equal to the mass of the
volume of liquid it displaces.
(c) The percentage of volume of a floating body which remains immersed depends
upon the relative density of the body and the relative density of the liquid; e.g. a body
of rd 0.8 will float in fresh water with 80 per cent of its volume immersed, and in sea
water with (1.000/ 1.025) x 80 per cent of its volume immersed.

c) A box shaped barge length 2.2m and breadth 1.2m is floating in sea water with a
draught of 0.35 m. find it’s volume of displacement ,Cu , Cwp , TPC , Cm and
displacement.
7. A) draw a typical load line displayed at the side of a ship.briefly explain the features of
load line.

The fundamental purpose of a Load Line is to allow a maximum legal limit upto which a ship can be
loaded by cargo. By prescribing such limits, the risk of having the vessel sailing with inadequate
freeboard and buoyancy can be limited. A vessel should be having sufficient freeboard at all times,
any exceptions made will result in insufficient stability and excessive stress on the ship’s hull.
However, since the buoyancy and immersion of the vessel largely depend on the type of water and
its density, it is not practical to define a standard freeboard limit for the ship at all times. For this
reason, the load line convention has put regulations that divide the world into different geographical
zones each having a different prescribed load line.
These marks shall be punched on the surface of the hull, making it visible even if the ship side paint
fades out. The marks shall again be painted with white or yellow colour on a dark background/black
on a light background. The complete Load line markings consist of 3 vital parts.

1. Deck Line – It is a horizontal line measuring 300mm by 25mm. It passes through the upper
surface of the freeboard.
2. Load Line Disc – It is a 300mm diameter and 25mm thick round shaped disc. It is intersected
by a horizontal line. The upper edge of the horizontal line marks the ‘Summer saltwater line’
also known as ‘Plimsol Line’.
 3. Load Lines – Load lines are horizontal lines extending forward and aft from a vertical line
placed at a distance of 540mm from the centre of the disc. They measure 230mm by 23mm.
The upper surfaces of the load lines indicate the maximum depths to which the ships may be
submerged in different seasons and circumstances.

S – Summer:- It is the basic freeboard line at the same level as the Plimsoll Line. Other load lines are
marked based on this Summer freeboard line.

T – Tropical:- It is 1/48th of the summer draft marked above the Summer load line.

W – Winter:- It is 1/48th of the summer draft marked below the Summer load line.

WNA – Winter North Atlantic:- It is marked 50mm below the Winter load line. It applies to voyages
in North Atlantic ( above 36 degrees of latitude) during the winter months.

F – Fresh Water:- It is the summer freshwater load line. The distance between S and F is the Fresh
Water Allowance (FWA).

TF – Tropical Fresh Water:- It is the freshwater load line in Tropical. It is marked above the T at an
amount equal to FWA.

The letter marking of the timber loadline is different and are prefixed by ‘L’ meaning ‘Lumber’.
LS – Lumber Summer:- Its upper edge marks the summer saltwater timber loadline. It is situated at a
specified level above the Plimsol line.
LW – Lumber Winter:- It is 1/36th of the lumber summer draft below LS.
LT – Lumber Tropical:- It is 1/48th of the lumber summer draft above LS.
LWNA – Lumber Winter North Atlantic:- It is at the same level as WNA.
LF – Lumber Freshwater:- It is situated above the LS by an amount equal FWA.
LTF – Lumber Tropical Fresh Water:- It is positioned above LT by an amount equal to FWA.
 b) A box shaped vessel 20*6*4.5 floats in DDDDDDW of RD 1.010 at a draft of
2.4m.calculate the percentage reserve buoyancy in DW of RD 1.020.

8. A) admiralty coefficient.
 b) fuel coefficient and how they are used.

c) A ship has a daily fuel consumption of 30 tonnes at 15knots. The speed is reduced to
12knots and at this speed the consumption per unit power is 8% more than
15knots.calculate new consumption per day.

9. A) explain briefly with sketches

 Single hull tanker and Double hull tanker

b) why the single hull tankers are phased out.

Single-hulled tankers (SHT) are more likely to pollute the sea than double-hulled tankers when they
have accidents, as in the case of the latter, both hulls have to be penetrated before there is any
possibility of oil escaping. Due to the additional environmental risk involved in operating single-hulled
tankers, these vessels have been banned from carrying heavy grade oil to and from European ports.
Since 2005, at the request of the European Commission, EMSA has been involved in the monitoring of
SHTs in European waters. Initially this was undertaken through a pilot project, and since 2009, all SHTs
operating in European sea areas have been monitored. Warnings are sent to Member States in order
that they can verify the cargoes carried by SHTs entering their ports. Between December 2008 and
April 2011, the number of SHTs active in European waters dropped from 486 to 198.
c) Differentiate with sketches
Single bottom double bottom and double hull.

Single Bottom
Usually, all smaller ships are single bottomed, as they do not need a double bottom to withstand the
load of the cargo. In these ships, the plate floors (see the figure to understand the context of ‘Floors’
in shipbuilding) themselves act as the stiffening members of the bottom shell plating. Plate floors
constitute transversely running plates at every frame spacing.

Double Bottom
All seagoing ships are double-bottomed. In such a structural arrangement, a tank top is provided
above the plate and bracket floors. Bracket floors are a little different from plate floors, in as much
as they are not comprised of one single plate running athwartship, but only brackets at the port and
starboard end, with struts that support the tank top with the bottom shell.
Bracket floors are mostly placed at each frame, and plate floors are generally placed at every three
to four frame space. The space within the double bottom (that is, between the tank top, and outer
bottom shell) is used up for carrying ballast, fuel oil, dirty oil, freshwater, and other consumables.
Double hull
Double hull, are tanker ship hulls with double layers of the watertight hull surface. The inner and
outer layers of the hull are on the bottom as well as the sides of the tanker ships. The double-layer
construction helps in reducing the risks of marine pollution during a collision, grounding, and any
other form of ship’s hull damage. It also saves the ship from water ingress or flooding if the outer
layer fails.

10. A) Enumerate the regulation under SOLAS ch II-1 concerning water tight doors.
As per Solas regulation, SOLAS chapter II-1, watertight doors from regulation 14 to
regulation 25
Powered watertight doors can be operated either locally or remotely from the bridge. LOCAL
CONTROL is when the doors are both opened or closed using the door’s own controls. It should be
noted that when doors are operated using the BRIDGE CONTROL mode, doors can also be opened
using the local controls, however, the door will close immediately once the local control lever is
released.
1. All the power operated doors must be capable of closing simultaneously from bridge and Ship
Control Centre (SCC) is not more than 60 seconds when the ship is in an upright condition.

2. The door shall have an approximate uniform rate of closure under power. The closure time, from
the time the door begins to close to the time it closes completely, shall be in no case less than 20
seconds or more than 40 seconds with the ship in an upright condition.

3. In case of hand operation of the door, during a power failure, the door must be closed within 90
seconds.

4. Power-operated sliding doors shall be capable of closing with the ship listed to 15 degrees either
side.

5. Power-operated sliding doors should be provided with a local audible alarm distinct from any
other alarm in that area which shall sound for at least 5 seconds whenever the door is closed
remotely but not more than 10 seconds before the door begins to move. The sound should be
audible until the door is completely closed.

6. Controls for opening and closing the door should be provided on either side of the door as well as
on the central operating console at the bridge. The control handles are located at least 1.6m above
the floor on passenger ships.

7. Remote operating positions at the navigation bridge shall have means of visually indicating
whether the doors are open or closed. A red light indicates a door is fully open and a green light
indicates that the door is fully closed.

8. The direction of movement should be clearly indicated and displayed at all operating positions.

9. There is also a secondary control station, located above the bulkhead deck so that the powered
watertight doors can be closed in the event that a fire or flooding prevents someone reaching them
to operate the local controls.

B) with simple sketch show a water tight automatic with door operating gear.

Automatic operating gear allows the remote operation of watertight doors. These are fitted on many
vessels including passenger ships.
In the event of fire or flooding, operation of switches from bridge/fire control area sends a signal to
an oil diverter valve. Oil from a pressurised hydraulic system is sent to a ram moving the door. The
door may also be operated locally by a manual diverter valve. In addition, in the event of loss of
system pressure the door may be operated by a local manual hand pump
remote door position indicators are fitted as well as were appropriate alarms to indicate operation.

11. Write shorts notes on

a) Wash bulk head.
  To reduce the surge of liquid when ship rolls and pitches.
 To reduce dynamic impact of the liquid on surrounding structure.
 To reduce free surface effect on ship stability
 In tanker design, not only reduces dynamic cargo pressures, but also increases longitudinal
strength of structure.
b) cross ties.

c) Cofferdam
A cofferdam means an empty space provided in a ship so that compartments on each
side have no common boundary; a cofferdam may be located vertically or horizontally.
As a rule, a cofferdam shall be kept gas-tight and must be properly ventilated and of
sufficient size to allow proper inspection, maintenance and safe evacuation.
It can be said that the cofferdam is a void or an empty compartment, which is provided
between the tanks to prevent two different liquids from mixing with each other. This
empty space avoids intermixing of two different fluid when there is a leak from the
boundary separating the two liquids.

d) Corrugated bulkhead

12. Write briefly on rudder.

a rudder is a wooden or metallic flat structure that helps steer the ship. In other words, it can be
called a control device fitted on boats, ships, and submarines; that push the water on one side
producing required thrust in the steering direction.
They are not just big but large hollow masses; so they not only help steer but also give additional
buoyancy. They are coated with special anti-corrosive solutions from both sides with a drain plug
provided to remove water if any.

a) its purpose
A rudder is one of the most important components in any marine vessel. It enables the helmsman to
steer, control, and direct the ship in the sea.
A damaged rudder poses a high risk to the structural integrity of the ship. Without an efficient
rudder, a ship can’t operate properly, even with all other systems intact. The rudder’s function and
significance are quite similar to a propeller in that it converts rotational kinetic energy into power.
b) name 3 types of rudder
1.Balanced
These are the rudders that have 30-40% of its area forward to the rudder stock. Here the torque
required to turn / move is quite low as it lies on the centre of gravity.
2.Semi-Balanced
One of the most used and common rudder types. They have about 15-20% of its area forward of the
rudder stock. They are preferred as they provide low steering torque with less counterweight
required than the unbalanced types. Actually it is the economical option between the unbalanced
and balanced rudder.
3.UN-Balanced
These are the ones with rudder stock attached at the forward position of the rudder as per design.
They require the maximum torque to turn the ship but have the benefit of no counterweights
required as per design. Experience and experiments have shown that both UN-balanced and
balanced rudders are not suited for heavy running as in the case of merchant ships.

c) explain regarding the parts of the rudder system of a semi balanced type on the water
side.

The rudder used on most of the ships are semi-balanced in the modern industry. The name semi-
balanced itself implies, that the rudder is partly balanced and partly unbalanced. If we refer to the
figure above, we’ll see that a portion of the chord length from the top is unbalanced, and the
remaining chord length is balanced.
The top part being unbalanced will help in acting as structural support to the rudder from vertical
displacement. And the balanced part will render less torque in swinging the rudder. As a result, a
semi-balanced rudder returns to the centreline orientation on its own if the steering gear equipment
fails during a turn.
Note in the above figure the Rudder horn. Semi-balanced rudders are again of two types depending
upon the depth of the horn (which affects the response and torque characteristics of the rudder). A
shallow horn rudder will have a horn which extends hardly half the chord length of the rudder from
the top. Whereas, a deep horn rudder will feature a horn deeply extending up to more than 50 % of
its chord length from the top of the rudder.

13. Explain briefly with sketches

a) Shear force

b) Bending moment.
 c) Static force

A force acting on an object is said to be a static force if it does not change the size, position, or
direction of that particular object. The force applied to a structure act as a load to that particular
structure, which is why static force is also known as a static load.

d) Dynamic force
Dynamic force is a force acting on an object that causes it to vary or change its size, position, or
direction. Force and load are two distinct terms however, they are very much related to each other.
A force acting on an object becomes the load to that particular object

e) Loading manual
A Loading Manual is a document which describes: - the loading conditions on which the
design of the ship has been based, including permissible limits of still water bending
moment and shear force - the results of the calculations of still water bending moments,
shear forces and where applicable, limitations due to torsional and lateral loads - the
allowable local loading for the structure (hatch covers, decks, double bottom, etc.

14. A) Explain structural arrangement forward and aft to withstand panting and pounding.
Panting
If you have studied ships, you would have definitely come across this term. Panting refers to the
contiguous bellowing-in and bellowing-out nature of the ship’s hull plating due to variable water
pressure distribution caused as a result of waves. This effect is accentuated in the forward region
when the ship surges headway through. The ship bow region is the most affected area where the
entire vessel encounters the wave systems for the first time. The dynamic wave pattern have
variable hydrostatic pressure distribution point to point which unfortunately falls incongruous for a
solid hull plate. Although, panting is still said to exist throughout the entire length of the hull, the
effect dies away as the wave system at the bow starts losing its energy from the bow shoulder
onwards (towards the aft).

Pounding
This forces are induced due to the ‘Slamming’ motion of the ship triggered due to heaving or high
pitching motions .This situation is further aggravated in case of empty or light ballasted conditions of
ships. This intense pounding stresses incident on the plating spread over a large area extending a
considerable amount of length even behind the forward collision bulkhead. Slamming can be mostly
bow-flare slamming, stern slamming or bottom slamming.
B) define terms how these occur.
i) define bottom and flare slamming
Hull slamming or bottom slamming refers to the impact of the hull or a section of the hull as it re-
enters the water. It can be considered to be part of a larger class of water entry problems that
include the water landing of spacecraft and solid rocket boosters, the water landing and ditching of
aircraft, ballistic impacts on fuel tanks, and other applications. The problem involves the interaction
of a structure with a fluid that has a free surface. Significant simplifications can be achieved by
considering a two-dimensional cross section of simple shape (wedge, cone, sphere, and cylinder) and
by assuming that the structure is a rigid body. The water is generally modelled as an incompressible,
irrotational, inviscid fluid.

Slamming is a strong nonlinear response of ship-wave interaction problem which can result in critical
structural failure and onboard facilities damage. Slamming event occurs when the vessel motion
causes an impact between the structural body and the water surface, and it is more likely to happen
in case of high-speed vessels with flare-bow when sailing in harsh environment. On the other hand,
for large and high-speed ships, slamming events can result in global whipping loads that may reach
several times larger than the wave frequency loads. The whipping loads can also result in a
significant reduction of the fatigue life of a vessel. Therefore, a better understanding of slamming
and whipping responses of ships is of great importance for not only prototype design but also vessel
appropriate operational guidelines
ii) its effects on container vessel.
A ship sailing in rough waves may suffer large vertical motions and harsh slamming loads.
Slamming impact loads cause vibrations and damages to the hull structure. Frequent slamming
accumulates damage on the hull, and may result in fatigue fracture or cracking that might make the
ship sink. Slamming also causes injuries to passengers and to the hull structure. Therefore, slamming
loads should be predicted accurately and excessive slamming should be avoided in the design stage.
However, estimating the local slamming impact loads on the hull is difficult as slamming is a complex
fluid-structure interaction phenomenon. Slamming accompanies rapid deceleration of the hull at the
water entry, compressible flow behaviour of the trapped air, elastic vibration of the hull structure,
and shock propagation after the impact.

15. A) explain briefly with sketches on moments of static stability at small angle of heel, give
the factors responsible for the ship tender or stiff.
The Moment of Statical Stability at a Small Angle of Heel
At small angles of heel the force of buoyancy may be considered to act vertically upwards through a
fixed point called the initial metacenter (M). This is shown in Figure in which the ship is inclined to a
small angle (θ degrees).
From this formula it can be seen that for any particular displacement at small angles of heel, the
righting moments will vary directly as the initial metacentric height (GM). Hence, if the ship has a
comparatively large GM she will tend to be ‘stiff’, whilst a small GM will tend to make her ‘tender’. It
should also be noticed, however, that the stability of a ship depends not only upon the size of the
GM or GZ, but also upon the displacement. Thus, two similar ships may have identical GMs, but if
one is at the light displacement and the other at the load displacement, their respective states of
stability will be vastly different. The ship that is at the load displacement will be much more ‘stiff’
than the other.
factors responsible for the ship tender or stiff.
A stiff ship is one with a very large GM caused by KG being too small. This occurs if too much weight
is placed low down within the ship. The ship will be excessively stable, righting moments will be so
large as to cause the ship to return to the upright very quickly when heeled. Roll period will be short

A tender ship is one with a very small GM caused by KG being too large. This occurs if too much
weight is placed high up within the ship. The ship will have insufficient stability, righting moments
will be very small when heeled causing the ship to be sluggish and slow to return to the upright. Roll
period will be long. (A tender ship is still a stable ship i.e. M is above G.

Stiff ship tender ship

A ship displacement is 12400t and CG position from keel is 9.8m .A bulk cargo weighing 298t was
removed from the lower bottom (KG=1.85m) calculate final KG .
16. A ship of 180m long is floating at a draught of 7.80m forward and 8.50m aft. MCT cm of
the ship is 220t-m TPC is 28 and centre of floatation is 2.5m forward of midships .find the
new draught after the following masses have been loaded on board the ship.
40 tonnes, 65m forward of midship
180 tonnes, 45m forward of midship
100 tonnes,10m forward of midship
150 tonnes , 5m aft of midship
50 tonnes , 50m aft of midship