Table of Contents

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Section One
Communication Impairments of The School Age Population . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
What is a Language Impairment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
What is an Articulation Impairment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
Motor Speech Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
What is a Fluency Impairment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
What is a Voice Impairment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
What is a Hearing Impairment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7

Section Two
Pre-Referral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0
Pre-Referral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
How to Help the Child with a Language Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
How to Help the Child with an Articulation Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7
How to Help the Child who Stutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
How to Help the Child with a Voice Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8

Section Three
Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0
Classroom Strategies for Meeting Communication Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
How to Support Children Who Have Language Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2
Articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9
Augmentative and Alternative Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12
Autism/Pervasive Developmental Delays and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.18
Cognitive Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19
Fluency (Stuttering) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20
Gifted Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.21
Learning Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22
Oral Motor Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23
Physical Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25
Selective Mutism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25
Sensory Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.26
Traumatic Brain Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.31
Voice Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.35

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Section Four
Evaluation: Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1

Section Five
The Role of Individuals Who Support Children with Communication
Impairments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0
Model of Coordination of Services to Children and Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3
The Role of the Classroom Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
The Role of the Guidance Counselor and the Educational Psychologist . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
The Role of the Itinerant Teacher For the Blind/Visually Impaired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
The Role of the Itinerant Teacher For the Deaf/Hard of Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
The Role of the Parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
The Role of the Program Specialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7
The Role of the School Principal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7
The Role of the Special Education Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7
The Role of the Speech-Language Pathologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8
The Role of the Student Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.13

Section Six
Model of Speech and Language Service Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0
What are the Major Factors in Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1
What are the Common Service Delivery Models? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R.0

Appendices
Appendix A: Related Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.0
Appendix B: Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.0
Appendix C: Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.0
Appendix D: Assessment Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.0
Appendix E: Social Language Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.0
Appendix F: Speech and Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.0

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Acknowledgments
The Division of Student Support Services would like to thank the original
committee for their contribution to this handbook:

Dr. Janice Pyne, Consultant, Student Support Services

Department of Education

Ms. Kim Lawlor, Consultant, Student Support Services

Department of Education

Speech-Language Pathologists: Ms. Sheila Walsh, Corner Brook/Deer

Lake/St. Barbe School District; Ms. Stephanie Briggs, Stephenville/Port
aux Basques School District; Ms. Carolyn Forsey, Baie
Verte/Central/Connaigre School District; Ms. Margaret Dohan, Avalon
East School District; Mr. Mike Foley, Avalon East School District; Ms.
Kelly Harris, Avalon West School District.

The Division of Student Support Services would also like to thank the
following individuals for their contributions:

Ms. Brenda Kelleher-Flight, Director, Student Support Services

Department of Education

Mr. Donald Hayes, Coordinator (Interdepartmental Services)

Department of Education

Ms. Brenda Smith, Consultant, Student Support Services

Department of Education

Ms. Linda Coles, Program Development Specialist, Curriculum

Division, Department of Education

Dr. Lenora Perry-Fagan, Director, Evaluation, Testing, and

Certification, Department of Education

Ms. Joanne Rideout, Special Education Teacher, St. George’s

Elementary, Avalon East

Ms. Colleen Reid, Classroom Teacher, St. Edward’s, Avalon East

Ms. Joyce Bishop, Classroom Teacher, Holy Redeemer Elementary,

Avalon West

Ms. Suzette Strong, Special Education Teacher, Musgravetown High,

Vista

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Ms. Anita Noseworthy, Classroom Teacher, St. Anne’s Elementary,

Avalon West

Ms. Judy Wells, Speech-Language Pathologist, St. John’s Health Care

Corporation

Ms. Leona Lewis, Speech-Language Pathologist, St. John’s Health Care

Corporation

Appreciation is extended to the Durham District School Board in

Ontario, for their permission to use sections of their document,
Strategies, Techniques, Education Plans, Programming in the
Mainstream, 1994.

Appreciation is also extended to the speech-language pathologists

working in school districts in Newfoundland and Labrador. Thanks are
also due to Debbie Langdon and Diane Dalton for their contributions
to the typing and formatting of this document.

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Introduction

Background Communication skills are of vital importance in today’s society.

Anything that interferes with communication creates a serious
problem for a child (Day, 1985). Speech and language development
are the primary elements of communication. Children need good
speech and language skills to succeed in school and in life. This
book is designated to be used as a guide to understanding and
providing support for children with communication impairments.
The basis for developing this handbook is to provide guidelines on
how to help all children improve their speech and language skills and
use this to maximize their potential. With public education, some
speech and language problems can be prevented.

This communication handbook should be used in conjunction

with other Department of Education documents, namely:
_ Special Education Policy Manual (1992)
_ Profiling the Needs of Children/Youth (1997)
_ Programming for Individual Needs: Behavioral Challenges, A
Supportive Shared Approach (revised 1997)
_ Programming for Individual Needs: Individual Support Services
Plans (1997)
_ Programming for Individual Needs: Physical Disabilities (1996)
_ Programming for Individual Needs: Pre-referral Intervention
(revised 2000)
_ Programming for Individual Needs: Using Our Strengths
(1992)
_ Programming for Individual Needs: Using Technology to
Enhance Student’s Differing Abilities (1996)
_ Reading and Writing Difficulties: An Educators Handbook
(1990)
_ Spelling Handbook: Spelling in Context (1995)
_ Spelling in Context: Directions for Teaching and Learning
(1998)
_ Selecting Children’s Literature: An Annotated Bibliography
(1999)
_ Early Beginnings (July 1997)
_ Foundation for the Atlantic Canada English Language Arts
Curriculum (1996)
_ Primary English Language Arts Curriculum Guide (1999)

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_ Elementary English Language Arts Curriculum Guide (1998)

_ Pathways to Programming and Graduation (1998)
_ The Evaluation of Students in the Classroom (1990)
_ Technology in Learning Environments: Enabling Tomorrow’s
Learners Today (1995)

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Purpose of the The purpose of this handbook is to:

Handbook
! Define communication impairments and outline the needs
of children with communication impairments.

! Discuss the role of the individuals who work with

communicatively impaired children.

! Discuss how communication needs are met.

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An understanding of growth and development in the area of

communication is vital when determining if there is a discrepancy
between a child’s level of functioning and what would be expected.
To assist the ISSP team the stages of normal growth and
development are included in Appendix F. The term
“communication impairment” refers to delays/disorders that
interfere with the normal flow of speech/language in the day to day
communications of the child (for the purpose of this document this
refers to individuals between birth and the age at which they leave
school). Children with communication impairments are also at risk
for academic, social, and/or emotional impairments.
Communication impairments fall under the following categories:
language, articulation/phonology, fluency, voice, augmentative and
alternative communication, and hearing.

What is a Language impairment results from the delayed or disordered

development of the content, form, or use of spoken language. The
Language content of language refers to what individuals talk about or
Impairment? understand. The form of language refers to the shape and sound of
the units of language and their combinations such as word endings,
the words, or sentence structure. The use of language refers to the
reasons why individuals speak and the ways they construct
conversations depending upon what they know about the listener
and the context (Bloom, 1988). The child with a language
impairment may have difficulty in any or all of these areas.
Language impairment can be further broken down into receptive
and expressive language impairments. It may be helpful to
determine whether the child has a receptive or an expressive
impairment or both, prior to examining form, content, and use.
Reviewing the information below should help you in the pre-
referral process of screening and identification.

What is a Receptive A receptive language impairment is the difficulty in listening to

Language Impairment? and/or understanding language. The difficulty may be in the word
level [vocabulary/word knowledge] and/or the sentence level
[syntax/morphology] (Harris, 1994). The following characteristics
may indicate that the child is having difficulties understanding
language. The child has:
C an inadequate attention span, particularly during oral presentations.
C poor listening skills
C difficulty following directions
C poor memory for information presented verbally
C difficulty retaining concepts from one day to the next

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C limited receptive vocabulary

C difficulty understanding words with multiple meanings
C difficulty categorizing related words or concepts
C difficulty understanding figurative language
C difficulty with concepts of space, time, and quantity

Impairment in Language C difficulty comprehending simple sentences. e.g. Can the child
Form point to pictures or perform an action from a spoken target
sentence?
e.g. Do they understand Cat vs. Cats?

Impairment in Language C difficulty understanding vocabulary used in the grade level

Content curriculum. e.g. If the theme is The Sea, do they comprehend
words in this category?
C difficulty pointing to a picture or performing an action based on
a given target to display comprehension. e.g. Point to the
picture that shows “the whale is in the water”.

Impairment in Language C difficulty comprehending social language and react age

Use appropriately
i.e. - difficulty using appropriate eye contact
- difficulty using turn taking appropriately
- difficulty displaying comprehension of social greetings.

What is an An expressive language impairment is difficulty with the production

of language that adequately represents the child’s/youth’s intended
Expressive message and may include problems with word retrieval, word use,
Language sentence formulation, and/or conversational skills (Harris, 1994).
Impairment? The following characteristics may indicate difficulties in producing
language.

The child:
C speaks in words, phrases, incomplete or inaccurate sentences
C relies upon gesture to supplement or substitute for oral language
C uses pronouns, plurals, and possessives incorrectly
C has difficulty with the agreement of subjects and verbs
C has difficulty telling a story or describing an event or procedure in a
logical sequence
C uses run-on sentences
C has limited expressive vocabulary
C has difficulty finding the appropriate word (s) to express meaning
overuses filler words such as “ah” or “um”

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C avoids speaking in class

C has difficulty interacting with peers or adults

Impairment in Language English grammatical morphemes (e.g., plural-s, past-ed) develop in

Form a more or less predictable sequence. Present progressive usually
develops first and third person irregular is one of the last to develop.
The reason for this sequence of development lies in the linguistic
complexity of the morpheme. An impairment in language form
may show a child developing these morphemes in an unusual order
or an inability to use grammatical morphemes appropriately.

Impairment in Language Children who have expressive language disorders/delays in language

Content content often give grammatically correct responses that do not
make sense. They correctly use all the grammatical morphemes but
give inappropriate responses (Lahey, 1988).

These children are sometimes described as hyperverbal. They have

appropriate articulation, intonation and stress patterns but are weak
in content. (Lahey, 1988).

They may be the hardest to identify with the specific problem as

they sound like everyone else except they lack appropriate
vocabulary in their communication.

Impairment in Language Children who have expressive language use delays/disorders have
Use learned how to use language to code ideas but have not learned to
use it to communicate. (Lahey, 1988).
Ask whether the child:
C responds appropriately to social greetings?
C maintains the topic of conversation?
C initiates conversation with peers
C uses non-verbal communication appropriately?

Word Finding or Word Some children may have difficulty coming up with the word they
Retrieval wish to use. They often give the attributes of the item they are
trying to name, or frequently use words such as this, that, thing and
stuff. This may occur occasionally or constantly. In some children,
word finding problems can greatly affect their spoken and written
language as they have very few words that they can readily access.
The skill of retrieving words needs to be directly addressed with
these children.

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What is a Phonological awareness is the ability to think about the form of

language independent of its meaning (Rosner, 1993). It is the
Phonological awareness of the sounds and syllables of words. Research suggests
Awareness (Kahmi and Catts, 1989) this is a prerequisite for written language,
Impairment ? i.e., reading and spelling development.

The following characteristics may indicate that a child is having

difficulties with phonological awareness. The child has
difficulty:
C recognizing long and short words
C counting syllables or beats in words
C recognizing and producing rhymes
C identifying beginning, final and middle sounds of words
C segmenting words into their component sounds
C discriminating differences between sounds
C learning letter-sound correspondences
C learning decoding skills
C learning spelling patterns

The following is a developmental continuum for the acquisition

of phonological awareness skills.
C syllable awareness
C rhyme recognition
C rhyme production
C initial phoneme identification
C initial phoneme deletion
C final phoneme identification
C final phoneme deletion
C whole word segmentation

Although research has demonstrated a hierarchy in the development

of phonological awareness skills, individual children may vary in
their ability to master these skills. (Walsh, 1995, P.7).

What is a Pragmatics refers to the understanding and use of social language.

It may include eye contact, topic maintenance, turn taking, and/or
Pragmatic the appropriate use of social cues (Harris, 1994). The following
Language characteristics may indicate that a child is having difficulties with
Impairment? social language. The child:
C has difficulty interacting with peers and/or adults
C violates conversational rules
C has limited eye contact
C interrupts frequently
C makes odd, irrelevant comments

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C repeats content
C confuses listeners
C has poor topic maintenance
C dominates conversation
C violates personal space
C is unable to interpret and use non-verbal cues

Pragmatics refers to the use of language as was discussed briefly in

expressive and receptive language. It has been included as a separate
category as some children may have a distinct impairment in this
area of language.

What is an An articulation impairment refers to errors in the production of

speech sounds which are not consistent with the child’s
Articulation chronological and/or cognitive ability (Alberta Health, 1993). The
Impairment? following characteristics may indicate that a child is having
difficulty with articulation.

The child:
C is not understood by the teacher or unfamiliar listeners
C omits, substitutes or distorts sounds
C is in Grade 1 or higher and has difficulty with any sounds

Guidelines for articulation sound development.

Articulation Guidelines1
As a general guideline, children are expected to produce the following Most common error sounds at
sounds correctly at these ages: these ages:
By age 3 years p, b, m, w, h
By age 4 years n, t, d, k, g, ng k, g
By age 5 years f, y, sh, ch sh, ch, k, g, f,
By age 5 years, 6 months l, j, v l, sh, ch, j
By age 6 years s, z, th and blends s, l and blends
e.g., sm, gl, bl, ps
By age 6 years, 6 months r s, r

1
Adapted by speech language pathologists, Elk Island Public Schools from: Sander, E. K. (1972) “When are
speech sounds learned?” Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 37, 55-63. Reprinted by permission of the
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association.

This is a guide only. If a child is not correctly articulating a number

of sounds and is difficult to understand, a referral should be made to
a speech-language pathologist.

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There are many reasons why children may have articulation errors.
Following is a discussion of one of these reasons - motor speech
impairments.

Motor Speech Many diverse structures and systems combine together to produce
speech. They are all regulated by the nervous system. Any damage
Impairments or disease that affects this system will disrupt the ability to produce
speech, resulting in a motor speech impairment. Children with these
impairments are usually very difficult to understand and have many
articulation errors.

Children with physical disabilities such as cerebral palsy often have

motor speech disorders. However, children without physical
disabilities can also have a motor speech impairment. Some children
present with poor control of the muscles in the face and mouth.
This creates problems in articulating and combining sounds in the
rapid way necessary for speech.

Verbal Apraxia and dysarthria are types of motor speech

impairments. Verbal Apraxia is the inability to perform coordinated
movements with the tongue, lips and jaw. Dysarthria results from
impaired motor control of the throat, tongue or lips.

Children with these motor speech impairments need intervention

from a speech-language pathologist.

Children with any motor speech impairment may present with any
or all of the following characteristics:
C drooling
C imprecise consonant articulation
C distorted vowel sounds
C difficult to understand
C groping of the tongue when speaking
C inability to move the tongue and lips on command

What is a Fluency A fluency impairment is more commonly referred to as stuttering.

Stuttering is the disruption in the flow and rhythm of speech. These
Impairment? disruptions may be repetitions of words or parts of words,
prolongation of a sound, or unusually long hesitations between
words. A person who stutters may also exhibit behaviours such as
facial grimaces or unusual body movements (Alberta Health, 1993).
Stuttering often has a significant impact upon the child’s/youth’s
self-esteem and social success. The following characteristics may

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indicate that a child is having difficulties with fluency. The child:

C repeats sounds, syllables or words
C hesitates or blocks when speaking
C inserts sounds or fillers such as “um” or “ah”
C prolongs sounds within words
C exhibits frustration or embarrassment when speaking
C inserts the schwa vowel in repetitions
e.g. w wc wc want

Children who present with any of these characteristics should be

referred to a speech-language pathologist.

What is a Voice A voice impairment exists when a speaker’s voice differs significantly
along one or more of the dimensions of pitch, loudness, and quality
Impairment? in relation to the speaker’s age, and sex (Alberta Health, 1993). The
following characteristics may indicate that a child is experiencing
problems in the area of voice. The child:
C produces a pitch that is too high or too low
C sounds hyponasal (like you have a cold)
C has a harsh, hoarse or breathy sounding voice
C uses inappropriate volume when speaking, i.e., speaks too softly, too
loudly, or with too little loudness variation (monotone)
C talks through their nose (hypernasal)

If you notice any of the above characteristics the child should be

referred to the speech-language pathologist and/or family doctor.
They will then refer to an ear, nose, and throat doctor to rule out
medical causes.

What is a Hearing Children with hearing impairments can have mild, moderate, severe,
profound, or total hearing loss. The loss may be congenital or
Impairment? acquired during or after language acquisition. It may originate in the
middle ear, the inner ear, or both and may be fluctuating or
progressive. Any degree or type of hearing loss in childhood can
reduce exposure to spoken language, thus delaying the development
of speech and language skills. This has academic implications for
development of listening, speaking, reading, writing, and social skills.
The following characteristics may indicate that the child is having
difficulty hearing. The child:
C consistently speaks using inappropriate volume
C constantly asks for information to be repeated
C has a family history of hearing loss
C has “tubes” in the ears
C complains of earaches
C is inattentive or distractive

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If you suspect a child has a hearing loss he/she should be referred to

any one of the following; itinerant teacher for the deaf and hard of
hearing, the speech-language pathologist, public health nurse,
audiologist or family physician for a hearing screening.

What are Other There are a number of additional disorders that commonly have
speech/language impairments as secondary to other conditions.
Areas of Speech/ These include conditions such as attention deficit/hyperactivity
Language disorder, autism, emotional/behaviourial disabilities, cerebral palsy,
Concern? fetal alcohol syndrome, learning disabilities, or traumatic brain
injury. Descriptions of these and other related conditions are given
in Appendix A.

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Pre-Referral As an educator you may have a child in your classroom with a

communication impairment, if so you can try some of the strategies
outlined in this chapter. If these strategies do not help the child, a
referral should be made to the speech-language pathologist.

If you have concerns and are unsure how to address them with the
communicatively impaired child, you should discuss this with the
speech-language pathologist. He or she will be able to offer support
for the child. This support may take different forms depending on
the needs of the child and the existing caseload of the speech-
language pathologist. See Chapter 3.

It is important to remember that the ideas listed in this chapter are

only suggested guidelines and the list is not complete. As a teacher
you may have strategies of your own to try. Remember to record the
things you have tried and how the child responded. This will be
important to people working with the child in the future.

How to Help the

Child with a
Language
Impairment
Implementing All day, everyday:
Communication 1. Get down to the child’s physical level.
Strategies: General
- get face to face
Principles for Stimulation
(Printed with permission from the - sit on the floor
Durham District School Board)
- use a lower chair

2. Slow down your rate of speech.

- this allows time for the child to process your message
- keep this rhythm natural
- try inserting pauses at natural phrase breaks.
(e.g., “Good morning, John... pause ... How are you
today?” or “Today is Friday, ... pause ... November 18th.”)
- a recommended rate is 60 words per minute

3. Wait for the child to respond.

- children need time to process a message and to
generate an answer

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- count at least 10 seconds before providing prompts or

rephrasing a question

4. Take equal communication turns. We are already adept

communicators.
- simplify and shorten your language so that you are just
one step ahead of the child
i.e., if he/she is using one word phrases, your
instructions should be no longer than 3 words
- give the child opportunities to “break into”
conversations
- play games and sing songs that involve repetition and
participation

j These 4 principles are the core for stimulating communication

development.

j Try to brush up on your use of these techniques by focusing

on one area at a time until you become an expert.

j Even experts must continually monitor how they use these

techniques. Evaluate your performance from time to time.

LM/ak STEP/D10a/49 1994 05 17

Speech and Language: Durham District
School Board

C o m m u n i c a t i o n Technique: Questioning
Techniques
(printed with permission from the The adult uses questioning techniques throughout an activity to
Durham District School Board)
elicit a response from the student and maintain the conversation.
Asking interrogative type questions such as Who? What? When?
Where? Why? What will happen next? assist in encouraging a
response and modeling an answer.

Technique: Modeling

Modeling involves the teacher modeling appropriate language during

the conversation. If the student has difficulty pronouncing words,
the teacher models the appropriate way to pronounce the word. The

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

goal is to provide opportunities for the student to hear appropriate

language.

Technique: Expansion

Language expansion entails taking what the student has said and
expanding it to include more words. This method assists in
increasing the repertoire of words the student uses and to indicate
interest and maintain a conversation.

Purpose:
1. To reinforce a student’s attempt to communicate.
2. To give additional information on the topic to the student.

Technique: Self-Talk

Self-talk involves talking through the sequence of events in the

activity you are involved in with the student. The teacher speaks
about exactly what he/she is doing. Now I will ...; Then I will..;
Next ...

LM/ak STEP/D10b/97 1994 05 19

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

ONGOING OPPORTUNITIES FOR LANGUAGE DURING THE DAY

(printed with permission from the Durham District School Board)

Context Opportunity for Intervention

Arrival Pragmatics; initiating conversation; communication cycle;
intelligibility; handling transition

Homeroom Comprehension of and following directions; organization of day;

planning

Social Studies Using contexts of units for vocabulary expansion, word meaning;
intelligibility; thought organization
Math Categories; quantitative terms; synonyms; opposites; time; logic;
cause-effect; prediction; closure
Reading Listening; phonic comparisons; sound-symbol relationships;
retelling a story; prediction; “wh” concepts related to stories;
pronunciation

Language Arts Sentence construction; verb agreement; translating thoughts into

writing; making words say what you mean; topic selection;
description
Lunch Sequencing; organization; computation; quantity concepts;
communication cycle; requesting; listening
Science Prediction; cause-effect; attributes; categorization; sequencing;
questioning; quantitative-qualitative concepts
Hallway transitions Managing time; conversation; organization; social skills
Dismissal Sequencing; planning; organization; social discourse rules

LM/ak STEP/D10b/99 1994 05 19

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School Board

2.4 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Receptive Language If it is suspected that a child has a receptive language impairment

Strategies (difficulty listening to or understanding language), some of the
strategies below can be used. The strategies are not specific to form,
content, or use. They are more general. As you work through them
you may be able to determine the specific areas of strength and need
of the child in question.

C Has the child had a hearing test in the last twelve months?
C Give the child a visual cue with verbal directions.
C Say the child’s name or touch them on the shoulder to cue them
when directions are being given.
C Teach listening rules in the classroom, i.e. look at the person who
is talking, keep your body still and quiet while someone else is
talking, ask for clarification when you do not understand, and
summarize the directions for the teacher when he/she finishes
talking. Summarizing the directions can be done privately
between one child and the teacher as a practice exercise until the
child can do it independently and silently.
C Give one direction at a time, i.e. go to the story corner, when the
children get there then give the next direction; look at page 5 in
your reader and Sarah will read. This can be difficult to interpret
if all three steps are given at once while students move around.
C Teach the meaning of words. Talk about what words mean if you
suspect some students do not know. This can be done in the
context of the lesson. ie. The focus is on simplifying fractions in
math class. The teacher tells the students that if you end up with
a prime number as the denominator when simplifying fractions,
you can’t simplify any further. To apply this, the student needs to
know the meaning of denominator, prime, and simplify. Within
the math lesson these words should be defined many times. It
may not be sufficient to only define the words the first time they
are presented. The student with a receptive language impairment
will need to hear the definitions over and over.

It is important to consider the match between child language and

teacher talk when teaching the child with a receptive language
impairment. Consider the language we use within the classroom and
how different this is from language used elsewhere in the child’s
world. Oral and written language are the primary media by which
we attempt to educate and some children struggle with the
comprehension and interpretation of these modalities.

Expressive Language If you suspect a child in your class has an expressive language
Strategies impairment (difficulty producing language), you can try some of the
strategies below. The strategies are not specific to form, content, or

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

use. As you work through them you may be able to determine the
specific areas of strength and need of the child in question.

C Has the child had a hearing test in the past twelve months?
C Create opportunities for the child to verbally interact with peers.
Pair children to share stories of what they did on the week-end
and then have the children report to the class what they have
learned from their peer. If this is very difficult for the child who
has weaknesses in expressive language, accept a short phrase
response and model elaborating for the child. Praise them for
offering the information. Accept all child responses.
C Model full sentence responses for the child when conferencing one
to one. If the child responds in an incomplete sentence,
acknowledge their response and offer a full sentence.
C Plan activities or lessons that focus on talking about what things
are. This is referred to as oral vocabulary. This may be difficult
for expressively impaired children. Begin with items familiar to
the child. i.e. Tell me what a book is, a car, or a pet.
C Encourage the child to speak in class, create an accepting
environment where everyone’s opinions are valued.

Pragmatics Pragmatics or the understanding and use of social language involves

both receptive and expressive language. Some children will need
direct instruction in the social aspects of language. Try the following
activities.
C Practice appropriate body language. Make facial expressions and
ask students to tell you how they think you feel. e.g., mad, happy,
sad, angry, or excited.
C Teach conversational skills in the classroom.

j Components
- turn-taking
- recognizing and responding to a topic
- ensuring clarity of your part of the conversation
- requesting clarification
- topic transitions and time factors
- terminating a topic

j Strategies for Teaching Conversation Skills

- Start with short conversations on one topic.
- Provide additional cues if the student does not
respond (gestures, clarification).
- Provide the student with time to process
information when beginning a conversation.

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

- Allow the student time to spontaneously initiate a

conversation.
- If the student does not initiate a topic, choose a
topic which is of interest to him/her.
- Encourage the student to listen to others as they
speak.
- Do not ask questions which require only a yes/no
response.
- Keep the conversation going by asking questions,
responding to questions and acknowledging
statements. Confirm statements by repeating
them.
- Use other people in the environment to keep the
conversation going.
- Give the student indicators that the topic is going
to change.
- Clarify unfamiliar topics.
- Help the student develop strategies to fix a
conversation that is not going well.

C Practice accepting criticism and compliments. Do this by giving

examples and showing how to appropriately respond. e.g. Model
how to respond to a friend who says, “I really like your coat”.
C Practice initiating conversation. Have students practice this with
a peer using role playing. e.g. What do you do if you need help in
a store? One person is the store clerk and the other student is the
one looking for information.

(printed with permission from the Durham District School Board)

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For more information on pragmatics or social language activities see

Appendix E.

How to Help the If the child is intelligible (understandable):

C Try to identify the sounds the child is having difficulty with.
Child With an C Model a word beginning with a sound he is having difficulty with.
Articulation Ask the child to repeat it after you. i.e. If you identified /k/ as a
sound the child has difficulty with say “kite”. If the child repeats
Impairment “kite” correctly then continue to remind him/her, on an individual
basis, to use the /k/ sound. Also tell the parents to remind the
child. Monitor this child’s speech and if there are no
improvements in 6-8 weeks refer the child to the speech-language

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pathologist. If the child is unable to repeat “kite” correctly

then a referral to the speech language pathologist is necessary.

The speech-language pathologist may provide suggestions for home

and school and work directly with the child or they may provide
home and school ideas and monitor the child.

If the child is unintelligible a referral to the speech language

pathologist should be made as soon as possible. The speech-language
pathologist will provide suggestions for all members of the ISSP
team.

How to Help the Tips for talking with the child who stutters:
Use a relatively slow, relaxed rate in your own conversational
Child who Stutters C speech.
C Listen to what the child is saying. Respond to that, rather than
the stuttering.
C Give appropriate responses to what the child is saying such as head
nods, smiles, and “uh-huhs”.
C Keep natural eye contact when the child is talking.
C Don’t rush the child by interrupting or finishing words for him.
Don’t let others rush or tease the child.
C Be a good listener and maintain normal eye contact with the child.
C Reduce speed and tension in the environment.
C Don’t make too many demands on the child in general.
C Don’t tell the child to slow down or “relax”.
C Don’t complete words for the child or talk for him or her.
C Be generous with praise and positive encouragement to build up
the child’s self-image.
C If you have questions or concerns, contact the school speech
language pathologist.

(Taken from Therapy in Action: The School-age Child Who

Stutters. Stuttering Foundation of America.)

How to Help the Due to the possibility of a medical cause of a voice problem, all
children with voice impairments, as described in chapter one, should
Child With a Voice be referred to the speech-language pathologist or the child’s family
Impairment doctor for referral to an ear, nose and throat specialist.

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

How to Help the Helping the child with a hearing or visual impairment requires
collaboration with the itinerant teacher for the deaf and hard of
Child With a hearing and/or the itinerant teacher for the blind and visually
Sensory impaired and the speech language pathologist. Refer to chapter three
for programming suggestions.
Impairment

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Classroom How does speech/language programming support children in

meeting the outcomes of the language arts curriculum?
Strategies for
Meeting The Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum
Communication recognizes the interdependence of listening, speaking, reading,
viewing, writing and representing skills.
Needs
Language is learned most easily when the various language
processes are integrated and when skills and strategies are kept
within meaningful language contexts. The curriculum specifies
that English language arts be taught in an integrated manner so
that the interrelationship between and among the language
processes will be understood and applied by children. This
integrated approach should be based on children’s prior experience
with language and on meaningful activities involving speaking,
listening, reading, viewing, writing, and other ways of representing
(Atlantic Provinces Education Foundation Language Arts
Committee, 1997). Although listening and speaking will be
referred to separately for the purpose of describing classroom
strategies, it is understood that development of any one process is
dependent on and will affect the development of the other
processes.

The general curriculum outcomes of the Atlantic Canada English

Language Arts Curriculum identify what children are expected to
know upon completion of the language arts curriculum. There are
three general curriculum outcomes for speaking and listening.

Children will be expected to:

C speak and listen to explore, extend, clarify, and reflect on
their thoughts, ideas, feelings, and experiences
C communicate information and ideas effectively and clearly,
and to respond personally and critically
C interact with sensitivity and respect considering the situation,
audience, and purpose (Atlantic Provinces Education
Foundation Language Arts, 1997).

Listening and speaking form the basis for developing reading and
writing skills. For most children, the development of listening
and speaking skills in the preschool years progresses naturally to
the learning of early literacy skills in the primary years. However,
this is frequently not the case for children who have
speech/language impairments. Teachers and SLPs support
children with communication impairments in meeting the

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outcomes of the language arts curriculum by facilitating their

speech/language development. They also support these children
by making all of the curriculum more accessible to them.

How Can Teachers The implementation of classroom strategies enable a child’s more
Support Children Who general communication goals to be met in the regular classroom
Have Communication by addressing communication needs while capitalizing on the
Impairments? child’s strengths. Depending upon the child’s needs, strategies can
also be used at home to promote consistent modelling of
appropriate communication (Programming for individual needs:
Pre-referral intervention, 2000).

The teaching of strategies for improving communication and

learning in the classroom is based on several assumptions:
C learning of strategies is more effective than learning content
alone
C children and teachers can learn strategies to aid classroom
communication
C children and teachers can apply strategies across content and
tasks (Florida Department of Education, 1995).

The following section lists strategies for use by children who have
communication impairments. At support services planning
meetings, team members select strategies that help meet child
needs. These strategies are then used by children and personnel
in all environments. When used consistently, classroom strategies
and interventions contribute to increased academic and social
success. Many strategies listed below are appropriate for any
communicative environment: school, home, or community. For
a comprehensive listing of classroom strategies and interventions
for children who have communication impairments, see The Pre-
Referral Intervention Manual (Hawthorne, 1993) and The Speech
and Language Classroom Intervention Manual (Hawthorne,
1990).

How to Support Impairments of language include varying degrees of difficulty in

receiving, processing, interpreting, organizing, formulating and/or
Children Who Have expressing symbolic information. One or more of the following
Language areas of language may be involved morphology, syntax or
Impairments semantics. Language impairments may result from a congenital
disorder or syndrome (see Appendix A for a list of conditions
associated with communication impairments) or an acquired
disorder or condition. There are many cases of delayed language
acquisition in the absence of any known disorder. In these cases

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

the cause of the language impairment is difficult to determine

(Health and Welfare Canada, 1982).

Many different programs for language intervention are available

commercially and in the professional literature. Programs, which
range from naturalistic to structured may have a global language
emphasis or focus on a specific linguistic area such as language
form or content. When required, programs are adapted by the
SLP to meet the needs of the child. The SLP may choose to adopt
a developmental sequence based on the information available
about normally acquired language or choose to work on specific
structures related to the major area of need. The words and
structures taught enable the child to talk about objects, people,
and events in the academic, home and community setting. Many
language stimulation methods help the SLP address the child’s
language needs. Examples of methods commonly used are
imitation, modelling, expansion, parallel talk, self talk, sentence
completion, word substitution, combination of words and
sentences, and question formulation (Health and Welfare Canada,
1982).

Receptive Language Children can use strategies to help themselves comprehend and
(Listening) Strategies retain verbally presented information. Some strategies that can be
taught to children who have receptive language impairments are
to:
C rehearse the teacher’s information internally after the teacher
finishes speaking
C signal the teacher when directions have not been understood
C ask for repetition of directions
C ask for clarification of directions by focusing on the specific
part of the direction that was not understood
C know the teacher’s cues for classroom routines
C watch faces and body language for cues to meaning
C sit close to the speaker and/or as far from distractions as
possible
C request seating in a quiet place (Florida Department of
Education, 1995).

Some strategies that teachers can use to support children who have
receptive language impairments are to:
C provide seating close to the teacher and the chalkboard away
from the window and door

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

C reduce visual distractions

C eliminate auditory and visual distractions before giving
directions or instruction
C gain attention before giving directions or instruction
C use a phrase or visual prompt before giving directions or
instruction
C establish eye contact before giving directions or instruction
C speak more slowly
C speak clearly
• stress key words in a sentence
• vary loudness to increase attention
C give directions in several small steps
C give directions in a time-ordered sequence (e.g.,
“first...next...finally”)
C pair directions with gestures or visual cue (picture, object)
C repeat or paraphrase directions
C ask the child to repeat the speaker’s message to ensure
comprehension
C use direct requests (e.g., “Please close the window” rather than
“It’s cold in here”)
C modify the oral vocabulary and language structures used
C pre-teach specific vocabulary needed
C review previously learned material
C connect new vocabulary or information with that previously
learned
C avoid idiomatic or figurative language
C provide more response time
C use visual aids, such as pictures, diagrams, graphs, or written
key words
C avoid asking the child to listen and write simultaneously
C emphasize instructional transitions
C summarize the lesson at the end
C ask a peer to repeat or clarify instructions for the child
C ask a peer to take notes for the child
C prompt the child to use receptive language strategies and skills,
following the specific recommendations of the SLP.

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Teachers can also evaluate and modify the classroom environment

to all children, not only children who have receptive language
impairments. Teachers can:
C establish a bare wall that children can face to limit distractions
C establish several quiet areas
C reduce noise through carpets or wall coverings
C enhance classroom acoustics though an amplication system
C evaluate and modify their own voices (rate, clarity, and volume
of speech) (Florida Department of Education, 1995).

Expressive Language Children with expressive language impairments can use strategies
(Speaking) Strategies to help themselves produce elaborated verbal information, such as:
C use the information given in a question to help form a response
Teacher: What is the capital city of Newfoundland?
Student: The capital city of Newfoundland is St. John’s.
C expand on statements of fact, belief, or feelings (e.g., add
descriptive terms such as adjectives and adverbs to sentences)
C use meaningful vocabulary within the curriculum content
(Florida Department of Education, 1995).

Some classroom strategies that teachers can use to support the

child who has expressive language impairments are to:
C allow time for the child to process the question and
formulate an answer
C ask questions beginning with wh-words (i.e., who, when,
where, why, how) rather than questions that require a “yes” or
“no” answer
C ask clarifying questions if the child’s message is not clear
C model sentences by repeating the child’s message in a correct
sentence form
Student: She runned fast
Teacher: Yes, she ran fast.
C ask the child to imitate the sentence in correct form,
emphasizing target words when appropriate
C break the sentence down for imitation purposes
Teacher: “In the box”, you say it
Student: In the box.
Teacher: “The ball is in the box” you say it.
Student: The ball is in the box.

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C expand on the child’s use of words, phrases, or incomplete

sentences by repeating the child’s message and adding to it
Student: Went to the park.
Teacher: You went to the park and played on the swings.
C add to the child’s message by paraphrasing and expanding on
it Student: It’s cold.
Teacher: Cold air is coming in because the window is open.
C prompt answers by presenting choices (“Was it X or was it Y?”)
C use question cues to elicit target structures
Student: Him going to school.
Teacher: Where is he going? Who is going to school?
C repeat the child’s sentence with a question intonation to
encourage the child to restate it in another way
C facilitate word retrieval by using meaning cues (“A knife and a
____”: “It’s a type of animal”)
C facilitate word retrieval by providing the first sound of the
intended word (e.g.,” Another word for small is “_____”)
C prompt the child to use expressive language strategies and skills
following the specific recommendations of the SLP.

Phonological Awareness To support the child with phonological awareness impairments

Strategies teachers can provide activities to develop skills in (listed in order
of difficulty):
C identifying, deleting and manipulating syllables within words
C recognizing and producing rhymes
C identification of initial and final consonant sounds in words
C segmentation of initial and final consonant sounds in words
C segmentation of all sounds in words (e.g., “c-a-t”)
C manipulation of sounds in words

Phonological awareness activities can be part of the regular

classroom program before formal exposure to print. In teaching
phonological awareness, teachers can use the following classroom
strategies:
C model the target (i.e. sound or word) frequently
C stress the target in speech
C give children having difficulty a response choice
C reward approximations of success

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Examples of activities that will benefit all children in hierarchical

order include:
C counting syllables in words by clapping hands, stamping feet,
or moving one token for each syllable of a word
C listening to stories or poems with many rhyming words
C judging whether words rhyme
C categorizing on the basis of rhyme
C generating real and nonsense rhyming words
C listening to stories or poems with many words beginning with
the same sound
C categorizing pictures, objects, or words according to the sound
C begin or end with moving blocks or tokens which represent
each sound in a word while producing the sounds slowly then
blending the sounds together to make the word (Walsh, 1996)

How to Support Children With their training in the sound structure of language, SLPs play
who Have Phonological a central role in the design and implementation of phonological
Awareness Impairments awareness programs. Many children with speech/language
impairments have difficulty learning to read partly because of their
needs in the area of phonological awareness and concomitant
decoding difficulties (Catts, 1991). Because SLPs provide services
to these children, SLPs have the opportunity to incorporate
phonological awareness activities into the children’s classroom
small group or individual programming. With early identification
by the SLP and/or the teacher, intensive programming may begin
as early as Kindergarten, thus reducing the children’s risk of
encountering reading difficulty.

Pragmatics (Language Children can use strategies to help themselves interact in a more
Use) Strategies appropriate manner following the social rules of conversation.
Strategies that can be taught to the child who has pragmatic
impairments are to:
C communicate from an appropriate distance
C face the speaker when listening or the listener when speaking
C use appropriate eye contact
C match body language to message
C use intonation to reflect meaning
C enter and exit conversations appropriately
C use standard scripts to acknowledging or to give criticism or
praise

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C self monitor the volume and pitch of speech

C monitor the listener’s reaction and body language
C use different styles of communication with teachers, peers,
family, and authority figures (Dodge, 1994: Florida
Department of Education, 1995).

Some strategies that can be used to support the child who has
pragmatic impairments are to:
C allow the child to initiate a conversation
C choose a topic of interest to the child
C provide the child with time to process information at the start
of a conversation
C encourage the child to listen to others
C encourage the child to use words rather than actions to
achieve needs
C maintain the conversation by asking questions that begin with
wh-words (i.e., who, what , when, where, why, how) rather
than questions that require a “yes” or “no” response
C acknowledge statements by repeating them
C engage third parties in the conversation
C use direct requests (e.g..”Please close the window” rather than
“It’s cold in here”)
C indicate to the child when the topic is going to change
C clarify unfamiliar topics
C emphasize the rules of conversation such as eye contact,
listening, and turn-taking
C provide explicit verbal feedback when the child breaks a
conversational rule
C model an appropriate response when the child breaks a
conversational rule
C encourage strategies to initiate, interrupt, join, maintain, repair,
and terminate a conversation (Ontario Ministry of Education,
1994)
C prompt the child to use pragmatic language strategies and skills,
following the specific recommendations of the SLP

How to support children The SLP takes advantage of activities that enhance the use of
who have pragmatic language for communication with different types of people in
impairments different situational contexts and for different purposes. The
communication situations can be natural or contrived (e.g., role

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

play). However, preference is given to natural situations such as

those occurring in the classroom, school, home, and community
environments (Health and Welfare Canada, 1982). In some cases
children with pragmatic impairments need direct teaching of the
skills required to participate successfully in a conversation.

Articulation Articulation is the movement of the speech mechanism to

produce speech sounds. A phonological disorder is a speech
sound disorder but different from an articulation disorder.
Phonology is the sound system of a language, and the rules that
govern sound systems. Children with Phonological impairments
are usually quite difficult to understand. While children with
articulation impairments may not have reduced intelligibility, or
if it is it may
be only slightly reduced. Individuals with phonological disorders
are usually more severely impaired than those with articulation
disorders. They are also more likely to have reading and spelling
difficulties than children with articulation impairments.

SLPs teach children how to position the articulators to reproduce

oral movements that result in accurate speech sound production.
Generally, programming proceeds from discrimination and
practice of speech sounds in isolation to practice in syllables,
words, phrases, and sentences. Generalization to reading and
conversational use occurs when a child is able to self-monitor and
self-correct continuous speech.

How to help the child with When an articulation impairment has been identified the
an articulation impairment following things need to be considered.

Where do I start?
! Obtain a list of the sounds the child is working on.
! Find out which sounds are currently the focus of therapy.
! Can the child produce the sound in isolation? If yes then
the sound can be practiced at the beginning of the word.
If not the speech-language pathologist will work on the
sound until it can be produced in isolation.

How to practice.
In all of the below activities picture cards can be used with the
appropriate target words on them. If you do not have access to
these, call your speech-language pathologist. She/he will be able to
supply these for you.

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What position of the word is being targeted?

e.g., the beginning of the word is the easiest place to start.
From here the medial position and then the final position of
the word is targeted.

Practice the sound consistently for short periods of time.

e.g., ten minutes a day is better than thirty minutes twice a
week.

When the child has mastered the word level then practice in short
phrases.
e.g., for working on /k/ you could use phrases with words
that begin with /k/ such as “fly a kite”, “talk to Kim”, “I have
a cat”.

The next step is to use the target sound in sentences.

i.e. again use the picture cards to indicate the word to put in
a sentence.

Finally the child is required to use the target sound in

conversational speech.

Some classroom ! say the misarticulated word, phrase, or sentence back to

strategies that teachers the student using accurate articulation and exaggerating
can use to support the target word, phrase, or sentence
children who have ! say the misarticulated word, phrase, or sentence back to
articulation impairments the student using accurate articulation and exaggerating
the target word, phrase, or sentence, and ask for repetition
! provide a choice between the inaccurate production given
by the student and the accurate production (“Did you say
dipper or zipper?)
! provide a visual cue to encourage self-correction ( a
questioning look or a hand cupped behind the ear as if to
indicate “I didn’t quite hear you”)
! repeat the student’s production with a question intonation
to encourage the student to say it in another form
! prompt the student to use articulation skills, following the
specific recommendations of the speech-language
pathologist

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Some classroom ! ask the student to repeat the word, phrase, or sentence
strategies that teachers (“Tell me again”)
can use when they have ! repeat the portion of the phrase or sentence that has been
not understood the child understood and add a question word to indicate to the
student what has not been understood (“Matthew said
what?”, “You went where?”)
! request the student to rephrase or elaborate on the
sentence by asking for more information (“Tell me more
about it”)
! ask the student a question that can be answered with a
“yes” or “no” to narrow down the content (“Is it at
home?”)
! request the student to give a visual or gestural clue (“Show
me”)
! when the content has been understood, repeat the phrase or
sentence to the student (“Oh, you went to a movie on
Saturday”) to give positive feedback and provide an accurate
model

Initially these activities may be done in the classroom or in the

individual session room with the speech-language pathologist.
These steps also need to be done at home. Practicing in different
environments allows the child to transfer what he/she has learned
to everyday life activities.

How to help the child Children with phonological disorders have created new rules for
with a phonological sound production. They may produce sounds in the front of the
disorder mouth that are supposed to be produced in the back of the
mouth. (e.g., instead of saying “car” and “good” they say “tar” and
“dood”). This process is called fronting. Children with
phonological disorders may have many processes that change the
rule system normally in place for English speech sounds. These
processes will be identified by the speech-language pathologist.
Then suggestions for the sounds to work on will be provided for
home and school.

How to practice The same principles that were outlined above for articulation
errors will apply unless otherwise indicated by the speech-language
pathologist. It is important to remember that children with
phonological disorders will probably make slower progress than
children with articulation delays. The involvement and direction
from the speech-languagepathologist is imperative in these cases
as their speech patterns are often complicated and require analysis.
STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 3.11
COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Augmentative and
Alternative
Communication

What is Augmentative Augmentative and alternative communications (AAC) are used

and Alternative with children who may have some language skills but have needs
Communication (AAC)? which preclude the exclusive use of oral expressive language (Cook
& Hussey, in press). Such systems are either complimentary to
oral communication (augmentative) or used solely (alternative).
The use of an augmentative communication system may be used
in conjunction with traditional oral language intervention. In
general, exclusively non-oral approaches are used only when oral
approaches have been unsuccessfully attempted (Health and
Welfare Canada, 1982). The following characteristics may
indicate that a child could benefit from an AAC. The child:
C has no speech
C seems unwilling to communicate
C has a particular diagnosis such as spastic cerebral palsy,
pervasive developmental delay, or brain injury which
makes the child’s/youth’s communication difficult to
understand.

Decisions about AAC should always be made with the ISSP team.
The speech-language pathologist should be involved in the
programming for children with AAC. If you do not have access
to a speech-language pathologist the child should be referred to
their family doctor to rule out any medical concerns.

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

How to Help the ! Use the communicative behaviours that have been
identified.
Student Who Uses - respond to the child as though his/her behaviour is
an Augmentative communicative
and/or Alternative - repeat the activity that stimulated the behaviour
Form of - reinforce the behaviour by providing the desired
Communication reaction
(printed with permission from the - shape the response so that it occurs consistently
Durham District School Board)
- provide the symbolic referent for the communication
you have identified (i.e., say the words, model the
signs, or point to the picture symbol)

! Establish an interactive environment.

- show interest in what the child is interested in
- provide choices of activities or rewards
- generate peer interaction through play or group
activities
- encourage students to communicate with each other
through turn-taking and role-playing
- use non-disabled peers as role models

! Develop opportunities and motivation to communicate.

- provide choices
- don’t give away desired items for “free”; insist on
communication
- phrase instructions so that the student must respond
e.g., instead of “Go get your coat” try “We’re going
outside. What do you need?”

! Be predictable.
All children thrive on consistency and repetition. Building
repetition into classroom routines helps the student to realize
that certain events are followed by predictable results.

! Be consistent.
Any task is easier to learn when the expectation is the same in
similar situations. Ensure that all caregivers, teachers,
assistants, parents and volunteers provide the same demands
for communication.

LM/ak STEP/D10a/49 1994 05 17

Speech and Language: Durham
District School Board

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 3.13

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

What AAC should The ability to communicate wants and needs to other
individuals in their environment.
provide for the
child.
The opportunity to share information with others through the
use of AAC. An augmentative and alternative communication
device may be used during the following classroom activities.
Journal writing Story writing
Messages from home Choosing recess or
or school lunch items
Morning weather routines Sharing news
Morning prayer or other Calendar time
repeatable phrases

The opportunity to establish and maintain personal

relationships.

The ability to conform to social conventions and be polite.

Remember the AAC system should help the child to

communicate more effectively. While you may think it is
cumbersome or awkward it is not nearly as awkward as not
being able to communicate. Also always try a low tech device
before going to a high tech expensive system.

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Things to consider Is the child currently able to communicate wants and needs?
when choosing an
AAC system for a Is the child able to develop and maintain personal relationships?
child?
Is the child able to participate in classroom activities?

Does the child have intentional communication?

Can the child choose between two things?

What things does the child need to be able to communicate?

Have you tried a simple picture board?

Can the child combine words to make phrases or sentences?

After considering these things you may want to discuss the

possible AAC systems available with a speech-language
pathologist.

What is available for children who need AAC?

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Augmentative and Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems

Alternative may require a low or high degree of technology. Examples of
Communication low technology systems are signing and gestural systems, symbol
Strategies systems (e.g., PIC, rebus, Blissymbolics) or pictoral and
traditional orthography (spelling). In addition to these
traditional methods, high technology electronic and mechanical
aids are available. Many communication aids have printed
and/or speech output (e.g., a word processor or a voice output
communication aid such as an Alpha Talker). There is a
hierarchy of abstractness of systems and the symbols they utilize
(i.e., from least to most abstract: real objects, miniature real
objects, colour photographs, black and white photographs,
drawings, symbolic drawings, written words). The specific
configuration of the communication system(s) and the
complexity of the vocabulary needs to be custom designed for
the individual child (Health and Welfare Canada, 1982:
Newfoundland Department of Education, 1996c: 1996d).
Further information on the use of technology for
communication is available in Programming for individual
needs: Using technology to enhance students’ differing abilities
(Newfoundland Department of Education 1996d).

How to support children Augmentative and alternative communication systems are developed
who use AAC systems when appropriate by the SLP and other support services planning
team members. The SLP suggests ways to maximize a child’s speech
language and communication during natural interaction and formal
classroom activities. They help develop vocabularies, design overlays,
suggest strategies to facilitate integration of children into
communication exchanges and incorporate speech/language
development into the ISSP. Other support services planning team
members who may be involved in assessment, selection, and
evaluation are the child, family, occupational therapist, physical
therapist, itinerant teacher for the visually impaired, challenging
needs teacher, special education teacher, classroom teacher, and
technical aids specialist (Newfoundland Department of Education,
1996d: Trefler, 1992).

Training the child to use the system may be long term if the child is
in the process of acquiring language. The emphasis is on
maximizing functional communication, the transmission of messages
and the generation of spontaneous utterances. To increase the
probability of the child’s functional use of the communication
device. SLPs can demonstrate its effective use to all individuals who
have contact with the child (Health and Welfare Canada, 1982).
3.16 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)
 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

In teaching children to use AAC, the SLP focuses on everyday

functional communication and the generation of spontaneous words,
phrases, and sentences. The system is regularly reviewed by the SLP
and other support services planning team members to determine
system adaptations that are appropriate to changes in linguistic
development or in the child’s home or school environment. In
addition, ongoing advances in technology continue to increase the
range of communication aids that are available. The SLP is involved
with children who use AAC systems on a long-term basis (Health
and Welfare Canada, 1982).

Some strategies that can be used for the child who uses AAC systems
are:
C acknowledge and support the child’s natural forms of verbal
and gestural communication
C encourage the use of naturally occurring communication such
as a head nod or shake rather than directing a child to use
output or a symbol
C integrate all of the child’s communication systems (natural,
augmentative, or alternative ) into all activities
throughout the school day
C continue to speak when communicating with a child using an
AAC system
C encourage frequent use of the AAC system, particularly during
the initial training period
C indicate clearly and consistently that a response is expected from
the child
C avoid anticipating childs needs and wants
C encourage interactive use of the AAC system rather than
practice or drill
C structure the classroom environment so that it facilitates natural
use of the AAC system
C provide meaningful classroom situations that facilitate
communication
C provide communication boards specific to classroom activities
(e.g., storytelling)
C replicate communication symbols around the classroom and
throughout the school so that the environment becomes a
communication board
• role play to practice communication appropriate to school,
home, and community
• encourage use of the AAC system in the school, home and
community

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

• demonstrate effective use of the AAC system to other support

services planning team members and to everyone who has
contact with the child
• designate a support services planning team member(s) in the
child’s immediate environment to facilitate day-to-day use in
functional communication situations at school, at home, and in
the community (Florida Department of Education, 1996c:
1996d)

Autism/Pervasive Children with autism and/or pervasive developmental delays

(P.D.D.) have communication difficulties that should be one of the
Developmental main focuses of programming. “The characteristics included in the
Delays and criteria for diagnosis of autism fall into three major categories of
Communication communication, social interaction, and unusual behaviours and
interests” (Saskatchewan Education, 1998, p.9). Although the
development of speech may vary, all individuals with autism display
some degree of difficulty in communication. Some may be non-
verbal while others may have extensive vocabularies with deficits in
pragmatics. Pragmatics is the social use of language and is a
common area of difficulty for children with autism and/or P.D.D.

Approximately 50 percent of autistic individuals do not develop

spoken language skills. Those that develop language skills have
difficulty engaging in extended conversations (Society for Treatment
of Autism, pamphlet).

Common language C The child is primarily echolalic, repeating everything

characteristics in children heard, or mute, saying nothing.
with autism C Faulty prosody resulting in robot sounding speech,
inappropriate pitch, rhythm, inflection, intonation, pace,
and/or articulation.
C Difficulty in developing normal pronoun reference.
C Word retrieval problems in the absence of visual cues.
C Impaired ability to read nonverbal cues or body language.
C Impaired pragmatic skills (e.g., topic maintenance, eye
contact, social greetings, proximity and body contact).
C Impairments in language comprehension.

Things to try with the Have a picture and/or word representation of the daily schedule in
child who has autism or the classroom. Begin the day by reviewing the days events with the
PDD child. Allow him/her to feel secure and in control of their
environment.

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

If the child is non-verbal have picture communication symbols to

allow effective communication. See the section on augmentative and
alternative communication. Always accompany the picture symbol
with the verbal response.

Depending on the child’s cognitive ability language suggestions

under receptive and expressive language may be appropriate.

Social language activities may also be appropriate. See section on

pragmatics in appendix E.

When working on communication with the child who has autism or

PDD remember to make the activities functional and as close to real
life as possible. Involve significant others and focus on the child’s
interests whether he/she is non-verbal and using picture
communication or producing complex sentences but pragmatically
incorrect.

Cognitive Delay The American Psychiatric Association definition of mental

retardation, as published in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
(DSM IV 1994) is used to define cognitive delay in the Definitions
of Exceptionalities by the Division of Student Support Services,
February 1998 (see page 22). Communication is one of the domains
listed as a possible area of difficulty for this population.

Children with cognitive delays will have communication

impairments. They may present with speech and/or language
delays/disorders. The degree of severity and the type of
communication impairment may be different with every child with
a cognitive impairment. All children with cognitive delay will
exhibit some communicative impairment whether mild or severe.
This is because the development of speech and understanding of
language are dependent upon intellectual functioning. The language
age of a child can not exceed their mental age.

Common speech and C Articulation development may be normal but delayed.

language characteristics Depending on cognitive level they may never “catch up”
in individuals with with correct speech production.
cognitive delay C Speech problems may be a result of other physical
difficulties or motor programming problems (apraxia).
C Stuttering is more prevalent in this population.
C Probably understand more than they can say.

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

C Language skills vary greatly with the degree of severity of

the cognitive impairment.
C Most children who have cognitive delay will produce
meaningful language but with the following
characteristics:
- reduced content
- low vocabulary
- short utterances
- omission of function words
C Incidence of articulation errors are higher in this
population.
C Intelligibility of speech is reduced.
C Most affected sounds are /s/,/sh/, /ch/,/f/,/z/,/th/ and /r/.

Things to remember C Activities must be meaningful to the child.

when working on C Communication intervention should involve significant
communication with the people.
child who is cognitively
C Activities promoting communication should cross
delayed
multiple environments.
C Social interaction is imperative for communication
development.
C Teach normal developmental milestones (see appendix F).
C Some of these children may need an augmentative and
alternative communication system. See the section on
augmentative and alternative communication.

Listening Skills Listening skills need to be taught to all children. This is especially
true for the cognitively delayed population. See section on receptive
language.

Fluency
(Stuttering)

How to support children Some strategies that can be used to support children who have
who have fluency fluency impairments are to:
impairments
C avoid asking questions that require lengthy or complex oral
responses but do not excuse the child from oral participation

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

C reduce the pressure to respond to questions immediately

C maintain eye contact with the child while listening or speaking
C respond to what the child is saying rather than how it is being
said
C maintain a schedule that fosters a calm, unhurried atmosphere
C model and use a slow rate of speech (e.g., like Mr. Rogers in
Mr. Rogers’ Neighbourhood) when speaking individually with
the child
C speak in short sentences with younger children
C pause between phrases and sentences
C prompt the child to use fluency skills following the specific
recommendations of the SLP.
C in junior and senior high ask the child what you can do to help
him/her with their speech.
C if everyone in the class is going to answer a question, call on the
child who stutters fairly early. Tension and worry can build up
the longer he/she has to wait.
C ensure all children have a fair turn to speak with lots of time.
C for more information call the Stuttering Foundation of America
at 1-800-992-9392.

Programming for children who have fluency impairments involves

teaching and reinforcing fluent speech and encouraging a positive
attitude toward speaking. Fluency is facilitated by the SLP through
teaching one or more of the following skills; rate control, relaxed
breathing, gentle starts to phrases, soft articulatory contacts, and
smooth blending between words. Skills are taught using a hierarchy
of gradually increasing speech rate (from slow to faster), length (from
syllables to conversation) and spontaneity (from highly structured to
more natural exchanges) (Boberg & Kully, 1985).

Gifted Children See the Definitions of Exceptionality, Division of Student

Support Services, for a definition of gifted children. Individuals
who are gifted in art or music may have a delay or disorder in
speech and/or language. e.g. A child who is a gifted musician able
to read and compose music but stutters. This child would need
intervention to address his/her stuttering. There is also a
possibility of having a child who is gifted mathematically but has
an expressive language delay. In this case the child would need
intervention to address his/her language concerns. Conversely
there will be children who are gifted in speech and/or language.

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Individuals who excel in public speaking or have a talent in

writing. This too requires appropriate programming to ensure the
child reaches their full potential.

All children have strengths and gifts and should be given the
opportunities to demonstrate their highest potential. “Giftedness
may appear in conjunction with other educational or emotional
needs such as learning disabilities, behaviour disorders, attention
deficits or motor difficulties (Alberta Education, Special
Education Branch, p. 49, 1995) When working with a student
you suspect has a language delay and/or disorder remember they
may be gifted in another area and it may be an area you can focus
on while addressing the area of difficulty.

Learning Disabilities When children are suspected of having a learning disability they
should receive a speech and language assessment as part of their
comprehensive assessment. Early identification is vital to children
identified as “at-risk” or “high-risk”. Children in this category
include those from neonatal intensive care units, diagnosed
medical conditions, chronic ear infections, fetal alcohol syndrome,
genetic defects, neurological defects, or developmental disorders.
Children who are not “at-risk” but have speech and/or language
that is different from their peers should also be evaluated.

There are two main reasons to assess the speech and language of
young children who are suspected of having a learning disability.

It is necessary to determine if the child has a speech and/or

language disorder/delay. Secondly is this disorder/delay a function
of the learning disability or is it just a speech and/or language
disorder/delay without a learning disability? Some would say that
all learning disabilities have a language component. It is
important to answer as many questions as possible when trying to
determine appropriate programming for children. Therefore,
determining whether the primary concern is a learning disability
or not, is crucial to appropriate intervention.

See the document Programming for Individual Needs Teaching:

Students With Learning Disabilities, (Department of Education
1999). Page 1 of this document defines learning disability and
discusses the continuum from mild to severe disabilities. The
section that follows focuses on the speech and language issues
associated with learning disabilities. Refer to page 13 for
information on the communication needs of children with
learning disabilities.
3.22 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)
 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Oral Motor Many children who have speech disorders will need to do oral
motor exercises. This means exercises of the mouth and tongue.
Activities This helps to increase the range of motion of the mouth and
tongue and improve precision and coordination of the
movements. In doing this, speech sounds usually become more
clearly articulated. Oral motor activities are usually designed by
the speech-language pathologist and then may be carried out by
any member of the ISSP team.

Typical Oral Motor These are usually carried out for 10-15 minutes a day. This is
Exercises especially important for children with apraxia. This is a motor
programming disorder. These children are often difficult to
understand. Practicing the exercises on the following page may
help these children. Check with the speech-language pathologist
for the most appropriate exercises to try with the child in
question.

There are a number of other speech disorders that have motor

speech components besides Apraxia. Dysarthria is a disorder due
to the impaired motor control of the throat, tongue or lips.
Children with Cerebral Palsy may present with Dysarthric speech.
Children with articulation disorders or phonological disorders
may also have oral motor weaknesses.

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Oral Motor Activities

Exercise Approximates Accurately

produces
Open and close your mouth slowly
(Be sure lips are all the way closed)

Pucker your lips, as for a kiss, hold then relax.

Spread your lips into a big smile, hold then relax.

Pucker, hold, smile hold. Repeat this alternating

movement.

Close your lips tightly and press together and then relax.

Open your mouth and stick out your tongue. Be sure

your tongue comes straight out of your mouth an does
not go off to the side. Hold and then relax. Work
toward sticking your tongue out farther everyday but
keeping it straight.

Stick out your tongue and move it from corner to

corner of your lips. Hold in each corner and then relax.
Be sure your tongue actually touches each corner each
time.

Stick out your tongue and try to reach your chin with
the tip of your tongue. Hold at farthest point and then
relax.

Stick out your tongue and try to reach your nose with
the tip of your tongue. Don’t use your bottom lip or
fingers as helpers. Hold as far as you can reach and then
relax. Stick your tongue out and pull it back , then
repeat as many times as you can and as quickly as you
can.

Move tongue all around your lips in a circle as quickly

as you can, but as completely as you can. Be sure to
touch all of both upper lip, corner, lower lip, and corner
in your circle and then rest.

Open and close mouth as quickly as you can and then

rest. Be sure lips close completely each time

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Physical Disabilities Children with physical disabilities may also have speech and/or
language impairments. They will need specific intervention to
address these impairments. See the document Programming for
Individual Needs: Physical Disabilities (Department of Education
1996). On page 16 is the beginning of a discussion on
communication and language in the physically disabled population.
This can then be used in conjunction with the information on
speech and language contained in this handbook.

Some children who have physical disabilities may require the use of
an Augmentative Alternative Communication device. In addition
to the information in this handbook, and in Physical Disabilities
(1996) the reader is also referred to Using Technology to Enhance
Students’ Differing Abilities (1996), beginning on page 57. There
are several examples of augmentative communication devices
presented in Section IV of that document.

Frequently, children who have Cerebral Palsy present with motor

speech disorders. Refer to page 1.6 of this handbook for further
discussion of this area.

Children who have Spina Bifida may have language deficits despite
the initial appearance of apparently adequate language skills. Upon
closer observation, it may be noted that the child frequently makes
comments that are not related to the conversation, may overuse
certain expressions, or engage in conversations where the content is
superficial. An in-depth assessment of subtle language processes
would be needed to clarify particular areas of weakness and to
develop programming to address these. The reader is referred to
Teaching the Student with Spina Bifida (Rowley-Kelly and Reigel,
1993, Chapter 7) to supplement the sections of this document on
programming for children who have language impairments.

Selective Mutism Selective mutism has also been referred to as “voluntary silence”
(House, 1999 p.121). The child in question is able to talk but
chooses not to in some situations. Some of these children have other
communication impairments. The DSM-IV Diagnosis in the
Schools (1999) indicated that selective mutism is primarily a
behavioral disturbance rather than a communication difficulty.
Children who you suspect or know are selective mutes, should be
referred to the school guidance counselor.

This does not refer to children who choose not to speak on an

occasional basis or even those that rarely speak. A child who may be

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

a selective mute is one that you have probably never heard speak, or
perhaps have heard or been informed that the child does speak in
certain situations (e.g., the child speaks at home but nowhere else,
the child speaks to stuffed animals only, or they have not spoken to
anyone since a traumatic life event).

You may see one or two selective mute children in your teaching
career. You will teach lots of children who are shy and do not talk
often. There is a distinct difference in the two. If you are unsure
contact the speech-language pathologist or guidance counselor in
your school for more information.

Sensory
Impairments
Language of the Blind Children who are blind or visually impaired are more dependent on
and/or Visually Impaired speech to develop language. They develop concepts from words
child because they often will lack the visual experiences which accompany
the words. Therefore, concepts may be distorted or not fully
understood. For example, the concept of color will not be learned
by seeing, but from the word itself and an explanation. Another
example of this would be in teaching concepts of size. Obviously,
there are many concepts where this method of learning will prove
difficult.

Children who are blind or visually impaired may have difficulty with
concept development because they hear and use vocabulary and
descriptions, but often do not have concrete examples and
experiences on which to pin them. Therefore, they may have
difficulty understanding that which is abstract, or that which they
haven’t directly experienced before. Young children who are blind
or visually impaired need to be exposed to language continually, and
given concrete and tangible examples, where possible, to ensure that
they have an understanding of what they are talking about. Talk to
the child during activities such as dressing or lunch. Label items
which they wear, eat, or use to eat. Do not take for granted that the
child fully understands the meaning of all of the words they are
using.

Children who are blind or visually impaired often experience

difficulties with pragmatics of language. Since so much of
pragmatics is dependent on a wide range of social experiences and on

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

understanding visual cues from others around us, children with visual
impairments will often need direct instruction in pragmatics instead
of relying on incidental learning. They may need direct instruction
in areas of making introductions, topic maintenance, turn taking and
other social skills. These children will often have difficulty talking
about external events or objects because their language is largely
centered around their own actions. Children who are blind or
visually impaired also often have difficulty acquiring the use of
pronouns, again, because this is an abstract concept. These
pragmatic skills will need to be practiced regularly with children who
are blind or visually impaired.

If you have a child who is blind/visually impaired in your class,

consider the following:

! Auditory comprehension or verbal comprehension may be

delayed in children who are blind or visually impaired.
This is, again, due to concept development difficulties.

! The use of standardized tools for assessing language is often

inappropriate for children who are blind or visually impaired
because those tools rely on visual stimuli. Informal language
sampling in the child’s natural environment may prove more
helpful in determining the child’s communicative
development.

! Blind and visually impaired students often have difficult with

pragmatics of language. See appendix E for suggestions.

! Direct instruction may be required in the areas of

introductions, topic maintenance and turn taking in
conversation.

! These pragmatic skills will need to be practiced regularly

with the blind/visually impaired child.

! Young children who are blind/visually impaired need to be

exposed to language continually. Talk to the child during
activities such as dressing or lunch. Labeling items they are
wearing or the things they are eating and using to eat.

! These children are more dependent on speech to develop

language. From words they develop concepts as they may
not be able to see. i.e. colors will not be learned by seeing
but from the word itself and an explanation.

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

! They often have difficulty talking about external events or

objects as their language is centered on their own actions.

! Auditory comprehension or verbal comprehension may be

delayed in the blind/visually impaired child.

! A tactile or kinesthetic approach/ or braille may be needed

for blind/visually impaired children to learn letters and then
spelling.

! The acquisition of concepts will be difficult for blind/visually

impaired children.

! Blind/ visually impaired children often have difficulty

acquiring the use of pronouns.

Language of the Deaf Specific effects of hearing loss may include difficulty with: listening
and/or Hearing Impaired in noise, perception of speech in noise and quiet, retaining verbally
Child presented material, vocabulary learning, learning of morphological
endings (e.g., “s”,”-ed”, and “-ing”) and delayed or different
speech/language development (Health and Welfare Canada, 1982:
Newfoundland Department of Education, 1996d).

A child with a hearing loss may use a hearing aid or another

amplification system and receive training in the use of residual
hearing, speechreading, speech, language, communication, sign
language and personal-social skills. The support services planning
team may consist of a number of professionals, including an
audiologist, an itinerant teacher for the hearing impaired, an SLP,
and an educational psychologist (Health and Welfare Canada, 1982).
Further information on the technologies available to help
compensate for hearing loss is provided in Programming for
individual needs: Using technology to enhance student’s abilities
(Newfoundland Department of Education, 1996d).

The itinerant teacher for the hearing impaired plays a central role in
programming for children who have hearing impairments. SLPs
may collaborate with the itinerant teacher for the hearing impaired
to evaluate the communication skills of the child. The SLP may
provide programming using collaborative consultation, classroom-
based, or direct service with children who have speech/language
impairments concomitant to hearing impairments (Health and
Welfare Canada, 1982).

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

If you have a child with a hearing loss in your class consider the
following:
C The hard of hearing student should be seated near the front of the
classroom, and with the window to his/her back as much as
possible. Take care to avoid seating the hard of hearing student
near any “noisy” areas such as heating ducts, portable walls, etc.

C Be aware that the hard of hearing student will rely heavily on

visual cues. Try to stand still and face the hard of hearing student
when giving important information.

C Walking while talking makes speechreading difficult for the hard

of hearing student.

C Be sure that you have the attention of the hard of hearing student
before speaking to him/her. Calling his/her name may not be
sufficient, and you may need to touch his/her shoulder, or use
some other small gesture.

C Try to write as much information as possible on the black board

or on hand-outs. Where possible, give written outlines of courses,
reminders of tests and assignments

C Introduce a new topic by writing the title on the black board, as

well as new or difficult vocabulary. This alerts the hard of hearing
student that change is forthcoming.

C Use brief instructions, or else the child with a hearing loss may be
confused.

C Don’t assume that all information has been understood by the

hard of hearing student, even if they nod often. Obtain feedback
frequently by asking questions which requires them to
demonstrate their knowledge. For example, do not ask “Do you
understand?” but ask a question like “How do you know this is an
octagon?”

C Control the pace of group discussions and presentations as much

as possible. It is frequently difficult for the hard of hearing
student to keep up with fast moving speechreading situations.

C If the hard of hearing student does not understand something

which was said, try rephrasing instead of repeating. Many times,
the misunderstanding may be due to a language usage rather than
“not hearing”.

C The hard of hearing students may need longer amounts of time to

complete tests or in-class work. They are usually working with a

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

language deficit, and time should be allowed for them to adequately work
their way through the material.

C Many words look alike or very similar when speechreading. In

situations where you are asking the hard of hearing student to
identify one word (i.e., spelling tests), use the word in a sentence
so that the student can use contextual clues to help him/her.

C Avoid exaggerated lip movement when speaking, and speak at a

“normal” rate. Speaking excessively fast or slow will cause the hard
of hearing student difficultly in speechreading.

C Avoid covering your mouth when speaking. An unobstructed

view of your face is crucial to speechreading, as facial expressions
and natural gestures give extra information.

C Talking while writing on the chalkboard should be avoided. The

hard of hearing student will be unable to know what you are
saying because they cannot see your face.

C Don’t stand in front of a window when speaking. Glare from the

window behind puts your face in shadow, and makes
speechreading difficult.

• It is not necessary to shout or speak more loudly to the hard of

hearing student. This may, in fact, distort what you are saying.
The student’s amplification devices will make your voice louder.

C Hard of hearing students frequently have difficulty hearing P.A.

announcements. A buddy system may be useful for the student.

C Set up a buddy system through a classmate who is willing and able

to pass along pertinent information and explanations when
necessary.

C A student’s ability to hear may fluctuate. The strain of watching

intently in order to understand through speechreading as well as
the strain to listen may make the student tire quickly. It may be
difficult to hold attention if she/he isn’t given periodic time to rest
and take a break.

C If you wear an FM transmitter, do not wear jewelry which will

come into contact with the microphone. This creates unnecessary,
distracting noise.

C Oral tests and timed tests put the hard of hearing student at a
disadvantage. They may be testing hearing ability and test-taking
ability rather than the child’s knowledge of content.

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

C Wearing hearing aids does not “correct” the student’s hearing

problem.

C Be aware that hearing aids amplify everything, not just specific

sounds.

C Don’t make hard of hearing students feel inferior by automatically

protecting them from speaking assignments. Some hard of hearing
students are willing and eager to participate in these kinds of
activities, despite the fact that they may have problems with their
speech. Check with individual students to see how they feel about
this issue.

C If situations arise where you are unsure what to do to

accommodate the hard of hearing student, ask the itinerant teacher
for advice. Often, asking the student will help you as well.

Traumatic Brain
Injury
What is Traumatic Brain
The National Head Injury Foundation defines traumatic brain injury
Injury?
as “an insult to the brain, not of a degenerative or congenital nature,
but caused by an external physical force that may produce a
diminished or altered state of consciousness which results in
impairment of cognitive abilities” (National Head Injury Foundation
Task Force, 1988 p.2). These injuries may result from car accidents,
falls, or abuse. Boys are 2 to 4 times more likely to sustain brain
injuries than girls and incidence of brain injury increases drastically
during the adolescent years.

Children with head trauma are different from children who are
cognitively delayed or have learning disabilities in one important
way. Their disabilities are acquired suddenly and result from
neurological damage to specific areas of the brain. These children
need to relearn how to learn. Often the difficulty lies in the ability
to draw on their skills and memory deficits. Rapid gains are often
made in the beginning of the recovery process and then things slow
down. Because these children may change so quickly goals should be
written for 4-6 weeks at a time.

Why do educators need to C To prevent these accidents through education.

know about Traumatic C To assist in undiagnosed cases of traumatic brain injury
Brain Injury?
C To develop effective programs for teaching children with
traumatic brain injury.

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

C Create more accepting attitudes towards children with

traumatic brain injury
C Provide emotional support for the child and family
C Schools are the largest provider of service to children with
traumatic brain injury (Pieper, 1991)

Common Problems Children with traumatic brain injury are all unique.
Associated with C Memory deficits are common. Most have difficulty
Traumatic Brain Injury remembering events after the injury.
C Attention problems are common, inability to focus attention,
to concentrate and to maintain vigilance for the task at hand.
C Confusion, disorientation and hesitancy in finding the right
words may occur.
C Behavioural problems are not necessarily a part of traumatic
brain injury. If they exist they may be a result of the physical
injury or social or emotional problems in reaction to their
disability.

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Variables to Is the environmental noise or activity level distracting for the child?
Consider when Is the schedule appropriate for the child?
Programming for a Length of the session
Child with Time of the day
Traumatic Brain Variable versus fixed schedule
Injury
Do cuing systems work with the child?
Which ones work?

Which modifications have been made?

Larger print
Take home assignments
Longer time to complete a task

Does the child do better when things are presented verbally, visually,
kinesthetically or a combination?

Does a calculator improve proficiency and accuracy?

Does a word processor help improve proficiency and accuracy in

writing?

Is an alternative communication system needed?

Is the child motivated?

What reinforcement should be given and when?

What pathway supports are needed for the childs program?

Is there an ISSP for the child?

Is the family coping with their child’s brain injury?

Has the ISSP team addressed the issue of personality changes in

the brain injured child?

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Teaching techniques to C Develop active learning situations. Allow the child to learn
Try With the Brain Injured by doing things.
Child
C Allow extra time to complete tasks.
C Be sure that lessons address the appropriate deficit.
C Teach the process of an activity, i.e. learn to read a
schedule not memorize one.
C Teach independence. Brain injured children tend to be
unsure of themselves and what they know.
C Develop strategies that can be used in various situations.
C Be creative and flexible as children with traumatic brain
injuries will change a lot over the first few months.

Major Cognitive Changes C Memory deficits

Associated with
Moderate to Severe Brain C Difficulty with abstract concepts
Injury C Slow in processing information
C Poor concentration
C Deficits in processing and sequencing information
C Slowed reaction time
C Dysarthria- speech which is disrupted due to physical
weakness
C Anomia- difficulty recalling names of words for objects,
people, or actions
C Impaired auditory comprehension- inability to understand
and process a verbal message
C Decreased verbal fluency
C General intellectual deficits
C Planning and organizational problems
C Perseveration- continuation or repetition of something
after the stimulus has been removed

Major Emotional and Anxiety Depression

Behavioural Changes
Commonly Observed Loss of interpersonal skills Disinhibition
after a Traumatic Brain Aspontaniety Aggressive
Injury
Single focus behaviour Impulsivity

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Irritability Lack of emotion

Child like dependence Egocentricity
Impaired judgement Lack of goal
directed behaviour

Voice Strategies SLPs programming for children with voice impairments involves
counselling children and families in good voice use and the effects of
voice abuse. Appropriate voice use may be facilitated through the
teaching of one or more of the following techniques: gentle onset of
the voice, breath control for voice projection: muscular relaxation,
particularly of the head and neck region: and orally directed airflow
for speech production.

Voice Disorders In children you will commonly see harsh or hoarse vocal quality or
different nasality, either nasal or denasal. These children need to be
seen by a speech-language pathologist who will refer them to their
family doctor to determine the cause of the voice disorder. If no
speech-language pathologist is available the ISSP team should make
a referral to the child’s health care provider.

One cause of a harsh or hoarse sounding voice in children is vocal

nodules. This is not life threatening and can even go away if the
child practices good vocal hygiene. Vocal nodules can also be
removed in surgery as a last resort, they will often grow back if the
manner of speaking is not changed. Caring for the voice is still
important.

Teachers are the number one referral to speech-language pathologists

for voice problems. Most teachers talk for the five hour school day.
They often have to project their voices in noisy environments or
large rooms. The most common problem is hoarseness and
sometimes losing the voice completely. Losing your voice regularly
can be a frustrating and result in not being able to participate in
everyday activities. The list on the following page is important for
everyone to consider but especially for people who have voice
problems as mentioned above.

How to care for your If you have a voice problem, as indicated above, go to your family
voice doctor to determine the cause of your problem. He/she will be
able to advise you whether you need to see a speech-language
pathologist and/or an ear nose and throat specialist.
C Drink plenty of water every day. Eight 8oz. glasses per day.

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Even though the water does not go to the vocal cords it helps to
hydrate the body.
C Avoid cigarette smoke, caffeine, and alcohol as they all
dehydrate the body.
C Do not shout, scream, sing or talk for long periods of time.
C Do not clear your throat or cough unnecessarily.
C Do not imitate different sounding voices such as Donald
Duck or Mickey Mouse. This is harmful to the voice.
C If you are hoarse give your voice a rest everyday. Take 30
minutes a day, or longer if you can to be silent. If you need
to communicate write a note. When you are hoarse for a
prolonged period of time you need to rest your voice for
most of the day.

Some classroom C encourage good voice use in the classroom, in the gym,
strategies that teachers and on the playground
can use to support C allow the child to refrain from singing in music class
children who have voice
impairments C allow frequent drinks of water
C provide a daily quiet time to enable voice rest
C prompt the child to use a good voice, following the
specific recommendations of the SLP

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Evaluation and Evaluation refers to the systematic process of collecting, analyzing,

and interpreting data. The term evaluation should not be confused
Assessment with assessment which refers only to the act of collecting the data
without any interpretation.

This chapter will focus only on the evaluation and assessment of

communication impairments.

What is the Purpose of a The purpose of a communication evaluation is twofold: to evaluate

Communication a child’s speech/language needs for programming purposes and to
Evaluation? monitor progress or changes in a child’s communication skills.

Components of the communication evaluation may be done by

different members of the ISSP team. The special education teacher
may do developmental checklists with the child, the classroom
teacher may keep anecdotal notes on the child’s performance in the
classroom and the speech-language pathologist may administer
standardized speech and/or language assessments.

Once the communication evaluation has been completed the ISSP

team members develop strengths and needs based on the
information they have gathered. Individuals who will work with the
child then develop programming for the child.

What is a A comprehensive communication evaluation is an evaluation of a

Comprehensive child’s functional communication skills that are required for
Communication academic and social development, which is ongoing over time and
Evaluation? conducted in as many contexts as possible (e.g., classroom,
playground, and home). It involves collaboration between the SLP,
teacher, parents, and other members of the ISSP team.

ASSESSMENT An ISSP team considers the child’s overall communication strengths

and needs by using both curriculum-based and functional
What Evaluation Methods communication evaluations. The curriculum-based component of
are Used to Assess the the evaluation considers the child’s communication strengths and
Child’s Communication? needs within the context of the language and communication
demands of the curriculum and the educational environment. The
functional communication component of the evaluation is
concerned with the demands of the child’s social and nonacademic
environments.

To complete an evaluation, the ISSP team members may gather

information. The parent and teacher reports may contain
information specific to the child’s performance in the area of

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

concern, about a related disorder with which the child has been
diagnosed, or how the communication impairment is affecting the
child academically and functionally.

Formal evaluation may take the form of standardized tests or

developmental scales. A standardized test is a decontextualized test
that allows specific comparisons to be made between children.
These tests have clear administration and scoring criteria with known
statistical measurements. Developmental scales use interview
and/or observation and usually provide age- or grade-equivalent
scores. Developmental scales do not provide standard comparison
scores needed to make the judgement of a degree of need.

Informal evaluations are either non-standardized tests or behaviourial

observation. Non-standardized tests (e.g., criterion-referenced tests)
compare the child’s level of performance to a predetermined
criterion. This form of assessment allows the examiner to “look at
specific communicative behaviours in depth and to individualize the
assessment for a particular” child (Paul, 1995). Three of the most
common non-standardized tests used by an SLP to assess
communication are a language sample, an oral peripheral
examination, and diadochokinetic rates. A language sample refers
to a recording of the child’s language in conversation, storytelling,
and/or reading. An oral peripheral examination refers to the
evaluation of the child’s mouth and face to determine if the structure
and function are adequate for correct speech production.

Diadochokinetic rates which give the rate at which the child can
alternate same or different speech sounds and still maintain the
correct production of the sounds. Behaviourial observation
describes a child’s performance by determining if the behaviour
occurs, how often it occurs, and the context within which it occurs
(Paul, 1995). This involves no comparison between children.
Observation may occur in the classroom by a team member or by a
videotape of the child in various contexts, such as at home or with
peers outside of school hours, that may be viewed by the person
doing the assessment at another time.

What are the Common Common components of a communication evaluation are outlined
Components of a in Table 4-1.
Communication
Evaluation?

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

What are the Standardized and formal assessment tools that may be used to assess
Assessment Tools Used a child’s communication skills are listed in Appendix D. Formal
to Assess Speech and/or tests, which include standardized tests, have specific criteria
Language? regarding the administration and administrator’s qualifications
which are usually stated in the test manual.

When is the Child Informal evaluation is ongoing while programming for the child. A
Re-evaluated? formal communication re-evaluation is usually completed every 2
years at the discretion of the support services planning team. Speech
evaluation may be done more frequently to determine target sounds
or areas in speech that may need to be addressed and to document
progress. Informal evaluation should be on-going by all individuals
involved with the child. Re-evaluation, formal or otherwise, occurs
within each year when the child’s ISSP is being reviewed.

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Table 4-1. Common components of a communication evaluation

Formal or Parental Teacher Observation Language Oral-Peripheral Diadochokinetic ENT Hearing

Standardized Report Report e.g. classroom Sample Examination Rate Evaluation Screening
Test

Receptive Language X X X X X

Expressive Language X X X X X X

Phonological Awareness X X X X X

Pragmatics X X X X X

Articulation X X X X X X X X

Fluency X X X X X X X

Voice1 X X X X X X X X

Augmentative/Alternative X X X X X
Communication

Swallowing2 X X X X X X X

Hearing3 X X X X X X X X

*At the time of the evaluation, only the areas of concern for which the child was referred are evaluated unless there are indications, during contact
with the child, that further assessment is warranted.
1
An evaluation by an ear-nose-throat doctor is essential to complete the voice evaluation.
2
Formal assessment (e.g., modified barium swallow- an X-ray of the swallowing process) takes place in a hospital where there is access to a
radiologist and an ear-nose-throat doctor. This evaluation is only done in conjunction with health care professionals.
3
Detailed information from the audiologist regarding the degree and type of hearing loss is essential to the communication evaluation.

4.4 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
Model for the Under the Model for the Coordination of Services to Children and
Youth, personnel from four government departments collaborate to
Coordination of provide services to children and youth through the Individual
Services to Support Services Planning Process (ISSP). Peoples’ roles within the
ISSP process should be outlined in the ISSP team meeting. The
Children and following diagram illustrates the components of the model.
Youth
Components for the Model for the Coordination of Services to Children and Youth
Model for the Coordination of Services to Children and Youth with special needs in Newfoundland
and Labrador (1995)

There can be numerous people that play a role in the delivery of services to children with
communication impairments. The diagram below illustrates the coordination of service within the
education system and outside the education system.

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 5.1

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Coordination of Services Outside the Education System

Coordination of Services Within the Education System

5.2 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

There are many partners involved in programming to meet the child’s needs. One must never lose
sight that team building is crucial and the child is at the center of it all.

Profiling Under the Model for the Coordination of Services to Children and
Youth, children are profiled. Profiling refers to the process by which
the special needs of children are documented to ensure the most
effective planning and delivery of programs. Following the support
service planning process, profiles are completed for all students
requiring support services to identify student needs and overall needs
of schools, school districts, and regions of the province. Profiles are
developed following completion of an Individual Support Services
Plan (ISSP) in which the strengths, needs, goals, and service
requirements of a student are identified. The profile is intended to
identify all students at risk in an effort to:
- identify the needs of each community in the region
- identify barriers to service delivery and problem solve around
those issues
- accurately represent the needs of the region to the regional boards
and provincial departments of government
- identify enhancers and facilitators of good professional practice
- evaluate with consumer input the effectiveness and efficiency of
current policies and practice (Newfoundland, Departments of
Education, Health, Human Resources & Employment and
Justice, 1997).

For Whom is a Profile In the document Profiling the Needs of Children and Youth (1997),
Completed? the Departments of Education, Health and Community Services,
Human Resources and Employment and Justice indicated that the
students who would be profiled included those:
- identified at risk by a professional or parent/guardian
- receiving support services from an employee/agency of the Departments
of Education, Health and Community Services, Human Resources and
Employment or Justice.

Profiles are completed for students receiving programming as a result

of a speech and/or language delay/disorder.

When are Profiles Profiles are completed as soon as a child is identified as at risk and
Completed? once yearly after that point until support services is completed.
Profiles, submitted to the Regional Child Services Coordinator,
identify needs of the child for one year.

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Who Completes the The Individual Support Services Manager (ISSM), completes the
Profile? profile in consultation with the support services planning team
providing services to the child. The team may involve only one
special services provider along with the child, parent and teacher, or
it may involve many professionals working with the child and
parents. For more information on profiling see the document
Profiling the Needs of Children and Youth (1997).

The Role of the The classroom teacher plays an important role in programming and
service delivery to the communicatively impaired child. The
Classroom classroom teacher is often the first person to notice the child’s
Teacher difficulty in the area of communication. They are responsible for
knowing the difference between normal and abnormal or delayed
speech and language development in children. Teachers may also
note difficulties students are experiencing in other areas of language
arts. This should be recorded along with difficulties in speech and
language development. Having noted these concerns, the classroom
teacher should inform the parents or guardians and obtain a family
history. Once areas of need have been identified, the classroom
teacher should try different strategies to assist the communicatively
impaired student in the classroom. Suggestions are provided in the
pre-referral chapter (chapter 2). The teacher should be consulting
with the SLP and/or the special education teacher once
accommodations have been made in the classroom.

Making a Referral The classroom teacher is often the person who refers the child to the
SLP. If the child does not have an ISSP, the referral is completed by
the classroom teacher after discussing it with the parent or guardian.
If the child already has an ISSP, the teacher may be the one who fills
out the referral form and discusses it with the ISSP team. Once the
child has been seen by the SLP, the classroom teacher and ISSP team
members will be informed of the findings and may be requested to
do specific things with the child. The classroom teacher should be
an active participant in the child’s speech and language goals.
He/she can plan group activities that accommodate the
communicatively impaired child and evaluation procedures that are
appropriate. The classroom teacher should also adapt their teaching
or testing styles or format to accommodate the child with a
communication impairment based on the recommendations of the
SLP and the ISSP team. The classroom teacher should clearly
understand the strengths and needs of communicatively impaired
students in the classroom.

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

The Role of the The guidance counselor and/or the educational psychologist may
be a member of the ISSP team for the communicatively impaired
Guidance child if there are concerns other than communication. In some
Counselor and the cases, the guidance counselor or the educational psychologist may
be referring the child to the SLP, based on needs established
Educational during sessions with a child who was not previously identified as
Psychologist having a communication impairment. If the guidance counselor
or the educational psychologist is working with a child who has a
communication impairment, he/she is responsible for
understanding the student’s communication impairment and the
implications of this on assessment.

The Role Of the The itinerant teacher for the visually impaired may be involved with
children who have communication impairments. A child may have
Itinerant Teacher a visual impairment or blindness along with a communication
For the Blind and impairment. In these cases, the itinerant teacher for the visually
impaired should be a member of the ISSP team.
Visually Impaired
The itinerant teacher may determine the size of print or symbols
needed by a child with a visual impairment. In the case of a blind
child who has a communication impairment, the itinerant teacher
for the visually impaired may be the direct service provider and the
SLP may monitor the child.
Example:
Ø An 8 year old blind student who has articulation errors
consisting of a frontal lisp on s and z.
The SLP would be responsible for identifying the specific
articulation errors and in-servicing the members of the ISSP
team on how to work on this. The SLP would monitor the
student, re-checking the progress regularly. The itinerant
teacher may be an active participant in working on the
students speech.

Ù A fifteen year old student who has a visual impairment and

wears glasses to compensate for low vision. This student also
stutters and is receiving direct services from the SLP. In this
case the itinerant teacher for the visually impaired would be a
member of the ISSP team but act as a consultant. He or she
may offer suggestions about the size of print for materials
given to the student and low vision aides to access print
material. The SLP may work directly with this student to
improve fluency.

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

The Role of the The itinerant teacher for the deaf and hard of hearing is involved
with children who have communication impairments. All children
Itinerant Teacher receiving support from the teacher for the deaf or hard of hearing,
For the Deaf and have a communication impairment. The itinerant teacher may work
with the SLP in programming for children. The SLP is a member
Hard of Hearing of the ISSP team and consults on speech and language concerns. In
some situations the speech-language pathologist may work directly
with the child who is deaf or hard of hearing.

Example:
A student with a moderate/severe hearing loss who also stutters. The
SLP would work directly with the student in the area of stuttering.
The itinerant teacher would address other communication concerns
related to the hearing impairment such as difficulties with complex
sentences, articulation of “s” and the use of wh - questions.

The itinerant teacher for the deaf and hard of hearing also;
C helps all members of ISSP team to understand the childs/youths
hearing loss
C inform the team of the impact of the hearing loss on speech and
language
C makes sure the child’s amplification is working properly on the day
of assessment
C shares knowledge of assessment tools appropriate for hearing
impaired children’s speech and language
C is a member of the ISSP team

The Role of the The parent of the communicatively impaired child should be an
active member of the ISSP team and may be the case manager. The
Parent of the parent will need to sign a consent for assessment form before their
Communicatively child can be evaluated by the SLP. The parent will also be asked to
sign a common consent form granting permission for the sharing of
Impaired Child information in the team meeting, release of information as in a
report, and for permission to profile. It is the parent’s responsibility
to ask questions if they do not understand what the consent form
means. The parent is responsible for providing the relevant family
and medical history to the appropriate ISSP team members, as well
provide their observations about strength and needs. This
information is vital in providing appropriate programming for their
child. It is also the responsibility of the parent to follow-up on
suggestions provided by the ISSP team. Most speech and language
activities will need practice at home to be successful.

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 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Example:
The child is able to produce 14 sounds at the beginning of words
in isolation. He/she forgets to use it in sentences. The SLP meets
with the parent and describes the activity to practice at home. The
task involves saying short phrases with initial /k/ words in them.
The parent is to model the phrase and then let the child try one. If
the child is unable to produce the /k/ sound, the parent asks the
child to try the word in isolation and then try it in a phrase after the
parent models it. The SLP continues to send home activities and
meet with the parent regularly.

In this case, the parents play an obvious and important role in their
child’s speech and language development. There may be cases that
are not as obvious, but the parent’s role is still of great importance.
The parents may have the role of reading to their child or playing
language stimulating games. They may simply support the activities
of their teenage child who stutters and is working on public
speaking. The parent is always an important part of the ISSP team.

The Role of the The program specialist for Student Support Services also has an
important role in the service delivery of students who are
Program Specialist communicatively impaired. He/she should ensure that:

C a continuum of support and services are available across the district

C there is access to professional development, materials and/or
resources required to meet the needs of students with
communication disorders/delays
C there is consistency of service and practice for students across the
district
C every effort is being made to recruit speech and language pathologist
required to meet the needs of students who are communicatively
impaired.

The Role of the The principal plays an important role in the service delivery to
students who are communicatively impaired. He/she should
School Principal ensure that;
C the referral and consent forms for speech and language services are
available to school personnel
C school personnel are aware of the SLPs schedule
C all children with communication disorders are on file with the school
for annual general return records
C there is adequate space for the SLP to work with children

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

C he/she understands the role of all school personnel in working with

communicatively impaired students and,
C the SLP is notified of school activities that interfere with his/her
duties

The Role of the The special education teacher’s role includes all of the classroom
teacher’s roles. The special education teacher may have more direct
Special Education instruction with the communicatively impaired child than the
Teacher classroom teacher. He/she may be working on specific areas of
speech and/or language in consultation with the SLP.

Example
A child with a severe articulation impairment who is being seen by
the SLP once a week. The special education teacher may work on

articulation with the child twice a week when the SLP is not in that
school. The SLP would meet with the special education teacher and
the classroom teacher discuss the items to be practiced and how to
do them each week.

This is only one of the many possible situations in which the special
education teacher, classroom teacher, and the SLP collaborate to
help communicatively impaired students.

The special education teacher would also be involved with the

modification of courses for students and the development of
alternate courses and programs for students requiring Pathway 3, 4,
or 5 supports. This may be done in consultation with the classroom
teacher and the SLP. The special education teacher may be involved
in the documentation of children for additional teacher support and
the assessment of children who have or may have exceptionalities.

The special education teacher should work closely with the SLP and
the classroom teacher as a member of the ISSP team in providing
support for the communicatively impaired student.

The Role of the “Speech-Language Pathologists (SLPs) are specialists in human

communication, its normal development, and its disorders and
Speech-Language delays. They provide services aimed at preventing and lessening the
Pathologist impact of communication difficulties, including impairments of
language, articulation, fluency, swallowing, and voice. Their services
include standardized and non-standardized assessment in addition
to intervention appropriate to the individuals needs, abilities and
limitations” (Canadian Association of Speech Language Pathologists
and Audiologists., n.d.a).
5.8 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)
 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

SLPs provide consultation, classroom based, and direct services to

children with communication needs. Programming may include
developing classroom activities to enhance skills of children with
communication impairments, direct intervention, and home
programming. The SLPs are involved in the development and
implementation of the Individual Support Services Plan (ISSP),
coordinate assistive technology support services, and provide
inservice education for school personnel. SLPs have a Masters degree
and a minimum of 350 hours of practical experience prior to
obtaining certification from the Canadian or American Professional
Association of Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists.
They are also required to obtain continuing education hours.

How does the SLP The SLP is a member of the support services planning team for any
Coordinate Services child who clearly shows any of the characteristics of a speech/
Through the Support language impairment as indicated in Chapter 1. The ISSP is a long-
Services Planning term planning tool which over time becomes a record of the child’s
Process? accomplishments. It is one of the most important records kept on
an individual child. The ISSP can be developed at the early
identification stage (birth) during the pre-school years, or when the
child enters school (Programming for individual needs: Individual
support services plans, 1996).

The ISSP identifies a child’s strengths and needs, with the needs
representing possible target areas that may translate into goals.
Through the support services planning team the SLP coordinates
with a variety of people within the education system namely:
C children
C families
C special criteria teachers
C classroom teachers
C special education teachers
C principals
C program specialists
C itinerant teachers for the deaf and hard of hearing
C itinerant teachers for the visually impaired
C educational psychologist
C guidance counselors
COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

The SLP may also coordinate with service providers from the other
agencies under the model of coordination of services (Justice,
Education, Health and Community Services, Human Resources and
Employment).

The SLP may work with the child in any of the five pathways as
described in Pathways to Programming and Graduation :
(Newfoundland Department of Education, 1998)
Pathway I: Provincially prescribed programs
Pathway II: Provincially prescribed programs with support /
accommodations.
Pathway III: Modified programs
Pathway IV: Alternate programs
Pathway V: Alternate curriculum

The SLP’s Role During During the “Screening and Identification” stage, teachers are
the Screening and encouraged to liaise with educational support services personnel and
Identification Stage other service providers. During this stage, the SLP’s input is
particularly helpful in discriminating developmentally appropriate
and delayed speech and/or language.

The SLP’s Role During The “Assessment and Exploration” stage is a time when the teacher
the Assessment and focuses efforts on investigating the child’s strengths and needs.
Exploration Stage During this stage, the teacher tries different strategies to meet the
identified needs of the child. Support services personnel , such as the
SLP, are involved in suggesting techniques or resources, reacting to
ideas, or accessing information (Newfoundland Department of
Education, 1977). The SLP suggests instructional strategies related
to presentation, organization, resources, environment, motivation,
evaluation, and the pacing of the curriculum. For further
information, see programming strategies in Chapter 3.

The SLP’s Role in Referral If a child’s/youth’s teacher and parents have been consulting with the
to the Individual Support SLP as part of the pre-referral process, the individual support services
Services Planning Team planning team has essentially been established. However, there may
Stage be a need for a formal evaluation of speech/language development
and the support services planning team may need to include new
members for additional input. An ISSP outlining strengths, needs
and goals is developed.

In some cases, the SLP is not brought into the process until the
“Referral to Support Services Planning Team” stage. A formal
assessment is completed to further identify strengths and needs for
presentation at the Support Services Planning Team meeting.
5.10 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)
 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Referral Referral to the speech-language pathologist (SLP) is one step in the

communication evaluation. Referrals received by the SLP are
accompanied by a consent form signed by the child or their parent
or guardian. Coordination between the Department of Education
upon school entry ensures that information on the child’s preschool
years is easily accessible. After school entry, background information
is concerned with the child’s academic history, family environment,
related medical conditions, and other areas of need as identified
during the individual support services planning process.

From Whom are Referrals Referrals for speech/language services may be received from a variety
for Speech/Language of sources both within and outside the school system. Referrals are
Services Received? initiated for any child who is experiencing difficulty acquiring age-
appropriate speech/language skills or who is experiencing difficulty
with the language arts curriculum. The referral form identifies
examples of inappropriate speech/language development which may

be seen in the classroom or in the home. Once the referral is

received, the SLP may collaborate with the teacher, child, and parent
to identify specific areas of strengths and needs and to determine
programming strategies (prior to formal evaluation) as part of the
pre-referral process (Programming for Individual Needs: Pre-referral
Intervention, 2000).

When Should a Referral be It is important that a referral be initiated as soon as a child exhibits
Completed? communication differences or difficulties so that an informed
decision can be made as to what is and what is not developmentally
appropriate. Early identification is critical. Some children enter
Kindergarten with speech/language needs already identified during
the preschool years. These needs are recorded as part of the ISSP and
forwarded to the school as part of the transition process. Children
may be identified at any point during their school years as it becomes
apparent that they are not able to meet the objectives of the language
arts curriculum without support, or they exhibit communication
difficulties that interfere with their social and/or emotional
development.

The SLP’s Role During “Ongoing Evaluation and Monitoring” is a process whereby
the Ongoing Evaluation strategies are revised, child successes noted, and various solutions to
and Monitoring Stage problems tried as needed. An important part of this process is record
keeping.

REPORTING The final component of the evaluation process is reporting the

findings, specifying and interpreting the results, identifying strengths
and needs, and providing recommendations.

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 5.11

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

What Types of Reports There is one basic type of report which an SLP uses. An evaluation
Document Students’ report is written when the child is evaluated. From this report
Speech/Language strengths and needs are outlined for the ISSP team. A progress
Needs? report may be written at the end of a programming period to outline
the goals targeted, the programming methods used, and the progress
made toward each of these goals. A progress report may include
results of a re-evaluation (formal and/or informal). To keep in line
with the ISSP process, goals are reviewed twice annually. The
progress report may indicate program discontinuation. Blank sample
report forms are included in Appendix C. Note that any sections of
the report which are not applicable to the child may be omitted.
The speech-language report will be filed according to school board
policy.

How do the In the summary, strengths and needs are outlined. These are
Speech/Language required for the child’s ISSP. At the ISSP team meeting, these
Evaluation Reports strengths and needs are pooled together through consensus with
Coordinate With the other strengths and needs as determined by the support services
ISSP? planning team. The team then decides upon the goals to be
implemented, the supports and services required to meet the child’s
needs, as well as, areas of responsibility for each team member. As
part of the SLP’s recommendations within a report, goals for
speech/language programming are outlined. These are tentatively
identified prior to the support services planning team meeting and
are finalized during the meeting once they are identified as priorities.
These goals are taken directly from the child’s strengths and needs.
The ISSP process ensures the coordination and continuation of
services to meet the ongoing needs of the child by involving those
professionals deemed necessary.

What is the Role of the The Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum (K-3, 4-6,
SLP in the Language Arts 7-9, 10-12) specify outcomes for the language arts program. When
Curriculum? the SLP receives a referral because of concerns around receptive
and/or expressive language development, he/she completes an
evaluation, and helps to determine the level of support required for
the child to meet the outcomes of the language arts program. The
ISSP team then determines how these outcomes will be met and
what supports are needed. The following components of spoken
language relate to the development of reading and writing skills.

Semantics Semantics refers to meanings of words and combinations of words.

It is one of the most obvious links between written and spoken
language. The knowledge children use to give meaning to spoken
language is the same knowledge used to derive meaning from written
language. This can be referred to as content.

5.12 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Syntax Syntax refers to combining words to make phrases, clauses or

sentences. Children who are unable to combine words orally are
likely to have difficulty when attempting to read or write sentence
forms.

Morphology Morphology refers to word endings such as: “s”, “ing”, and “ed”.
Children who have difficulty using word endings in spoken language
are likely to have the same difficulty when learning how to read and
write. Syntax and morphology can be combined to be called
language form. Language content and form are aspects of language
arts that the speech-language pathologist can support for the child.

Phonological Awareness Phonological awareness is an area of language arts in which the SLP
can support the child. “Phonological awareness is the conscious
awareness of the sounds of language. The development of
phonological awareness appears to be related to both early literacy
experiences and cognitive-linguistic development” (Catts and
Vartiainen, 1993).

The Role of the The role of the student assistant is to reinforce goals that are
established by the ISSP team. The student assistant is not
Student Assistant responsible for teaching specific items. The classroom teacher,
in Supporting the special education teacher, or the SLP will inform the student
assistant of the child’s communication goals. It will then be decided
Student With a which goals could be reinforced within the context of what the
Communication student assistant does.
Impairment
Example
A 12 year old child with cerebral palsy who has been identified as
having a language delay. The ISSP team has developed a plan for
this child and the speech language pathologist has developed goals
for the child.

One of the goals involves increasing the child’s receptive and oral
vocabulary of things in the school environment. Categories have
been identified, and they include.

1. Furniture
chair
table
filing cabinet

2. Meals
fork
knife
STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 5.13
COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

spoon
cup
plate
bowl
drink
eat
childs favourite foods

3. Clothing
hat
coat
mittens
boots
sweater
shoes
pants
scarf
socks
snowsuit

These vocabulary items are taught to the child by the special

education teacher and the classroom teacher with the SLP acting as
a consultant. The student assistant is required to reinforce the
vocabulary words during activities that he/she assists the child with
(e.g., if the child needs help feeding, the student assistant would
discuss the words related to meals). The student assistant may request
the child to name the items they have for lunch.

5.14 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Models of Speech
and Language
Service Delivery

What are the Major The needs of the child, as determined through the support services
planning process determine whether the child receives speech
Factors in language programming and the type(s) of service delivery model
Programming? to be used. General child variables to consider include the child’s
needs in the areas of language, articulation, fluency, voice, or other
areas of communication, as described in Chapter 1. Specific
consideration in determining need and type(s) of service delivery
model are:
C the severity of the communication impairment
C the effect of the communication impairment on the child’s
classroom performance and social integration
C the presence of confounding difficulties such as learning
disability or hearing impairment
C the age and stage of the child’s communicative development
(ASHA. 1984)
C current level of support available to the child

A number of factors related to setting, teachers, and speech-

language pathologists affect the organization and management of
speech/language services and the selection of a service delivery
model(s) for programming (Cirrin & Penner.1995). Examples
are:
C opportunities for harmonizing intervention goals with
curriculum goals
C the number of schools in a district
C the distance between schools, the number of SLPs in a district
C teacher, parent, and administrative support for
speech/language services
C teachers’ and SLP’s collaborative and consultative skills,
educational background, and professional experience.

The SLP is not the only person to address communication goals

with a child in school. Some children will receive service from a
low ratio special education teacher or the non-categorical special
education teacher. The SLP may evaluate the child and assist in
the development of goals and then support these above mentioned

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 6.1

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

school personnel as they work directly with the communicatively

impaired child.

What are the Common The needs of the children with communication impairments can
Service Delivery Models? be programmed through the use of one or more service delivery
model options. Choice of a service delivery model is dependent
on the needs of the child and other factors listed above and may
change according to the changing needs of the child. It is not
necessary to adhere to only one service delivery model during
programming.

Consultation Collaborative consultation is a service delivery option in which

teachers, SLPs, other professionals, parents, and child (as
appropriate) collaborate to determine programming. This model
can be used throughout all or some of a child’s speech/language
programming either alone or in conjunction with another model.
It can be used to make pre-referral adaptations to instruction, to
obtain pre-referral information, to monitor a child’s needs prior to
programming, as a transition to discontinuation of direct service,
or after discontinuation of direct service (ASHA, 1993: Ontario
Association of Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists
[OSLA]. 1996c).

A major assumption of the collaborative consultation model is

shared decision-making involving input from all ISSP team
members on issues such as planning, implementing, evaluating,
and pathways supports. See Pathways to Programming and
Graduation (1998). Using a consultative model the SLP’s role on
the support services team includes but is not limited to:
C making recommendations to teaching and support staff
regarding integration of communication enhancement strategies
throughout the curriculum
C demonstrating the teaching of alternative instructional
approaches
C assisting the classroom teacher in providing the appropriate
pathway supports that relate to communication in the areas
specified by the ISSP team
C recommending and providing supplemental material to
reinforce speech language goals within course content
C collecting data within the classroom on children who have
communication impairments.
C facilitating functional communication skills
C facilitating socialization goals within the classroom

6.2 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

C designing home programming strategies and activities for use by

parents and/or caregivers.

It should be noted that the use of consultation increases the range

of programming activities for children who have communication
impairments. Although routine program delivery may be done by
someone other than the SLP, consultation does not decrease the
SLP’s involvement with these children. The collaborators need to
have a regularly scheduled meeting time throughout the duration
of programming. The SLP as part of the support services planning
team meets at least twice annually with other team members to
review the support services plan with brief informal meetings
scheduled as necessary ( Newfoundland Department of Education,
1996c: OSLA.1996c: OSLA, 1996c). For example, the SLP and
the parent may meet to discuss the child’s progress in
communication skills, or the SLP, the special education teacher,
and the classroom teacher may meet to jointly plan the sections of
the ISSP pertaining to communication skills or the language arts
program. The SLP may be unable to attend all ISSP meetings due
to large caseloads and the itinerant nature of the work. In cases
where they can not attend, provisions are made to forward
information. This is outlined in the Individual Support Services
Plan (1997) document.

Consultation Case Study Jesse is a Grade 4 child who has cerebral palsy. The SLP meets
with Jesse’s special education teacher once a month throughout
the school year. Discussions are held regarding Jesse’s vocabulary
inserts on his voice output communication aid and his progress in
subject areas. Jesse practices breath control that helps him use
some verbalization to express himself. He is now able to say
several words. Jesse’s teacher uses the classroom strategies for
communicating with children who use an augmentative or
alternative communication (AAC) device as suggested by the SLP.
The SLP and Jesse’s mother as members of the ISSP team
communicate regularly to exchange information on his
programming needs and to share communication strategies for use
at home.

Consultation Case Study 2 David is a Grade 1 student whose social behaviours and oral
language impairments are characteristic of Pervasive
Developmental Disorder. He continues to make gains in all areas.
His receptive and expressive language skills although increasing,
remain severely delayed. David frequently exhibits echolalia
(repetition of others’ sentences) and perseveration (continuing to

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 6.3

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

talk about a previous topic long after the topic of conversation has
changed) in his language.

David has received the services of a low ratio teacher since he

entered school. This year, he receives two periods of direct
instruction from the low ratio teacher daily. During the
remainder of the day David receives programming in the regular
Grade 1 class with periodic support of the special education
teacher and a student assistant.

David’s oral language skills are evaluated annually through a

classroom-based and individualized assessment which David’s
teacher attends. Monitoring of David’s progress by the SLP and
the teacher occur regularly throughout the school year and by the
support services planning team semi-annually. Oral language and
communication goals which form a large part of David’s program
are developed collaboratively by the SLP and the special education
teacher at the beginning of each school year and shared with other
members of David’s support services planning team. Classroom
strategies and materials to achieve these goals are regularly
provided by the SLP. The use of classroom-based communication
programming delivered by the low ratio teacher in consultation
with the SLP allows for continuous reinforcement of goals.

Classroom-based Service Classroom-based service delivery also referred to as integrated

Delivery services, curriculum-based, transdisciplinary, or interdisciplinary
programming involves programming directly within the classroom
environment or other naturalistic settings. It has many features in
common with consultation but the emphasis is on providing
direct SLP services to meet student’s communication needs within
the classroom setting. These needs can be met, for example,
through team teaching oral and/or written language with the
regular or special education teacher (Dohan,1997). “Classroom-
based services may allow the SLP to better address the language
skills the child needs for understanding and responding to
instructional content and for participating in teacher-student and
student-student interactions that support learning” (OSLA,.
1996c. Pg.56).

Classroom-based delivery of speech/language services involves

meeting students’ needs through consideration of curriculum
content, particularly as described in Atlantic Canada English
Language Arts Curriculum. SLPs, classroom and special education
teachers work together as part of the ISSP team to determine

6.4 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

students’ needs, to devise objectives, to design programs, and to

monitor progress toward outcomes that integrate curriculum and
speech/language goals. There is an exchange of knowledge and
skills between SLPs and teachers. Programming for students with
communication impairments is a responsibility shared among all
involved with the students as specified in the ISSP (Dohan, 1997:
Holzhauser-Peters,L & Husemann. D.S., 1988: Programming for
individual needs: Pre-referral intervention, 2000).

Classroom-based programming may involve grouping students

based on common desired goals, curriculum contexts, or grade
levels. It may also involve teaching a strategy or skill outside the
classroom and reinforcing it in the classroom once learned either
through team teaching with the teacher or through direct service
provision by the SLP within the classroom. A classroom-based
model is particularly effective when there are several students with
similar speech/language needs in the same classroom. It is also
appropriate for students who have difficulty generalizing new skills
to old environments (ASHA, 1993; Dohan,1997). Programming
involves services on a continuing basis until SLP service is no
longer indicated, as determined by the support services planning
team (Programming for individual needs: Pre-referral intervention,
2000).

Classroom-Based Service Adam, Ashley, and Trevor

Case Study Adam, Ashley, and Trevor are three Grade 1 students who have
similar needs in oral language development. Their ability to
follow their teacher’s instructions and respond to questions is
affected by delays in following directions and comprehending
question words (e.g., where, when). The students’ needs in the
area of expressive language affect their ability to describe ideas,
experiences, and feelings in class. They have difficulty formulating
oral sentences (for example, using pronouns, verb tenses, and
complete sentences) and understanding and using oral vocabulary.
Because major components of the Grade 1 Language Arts program
are listening and speaking, all three students are experiencing
moderate difficulty with the program. Their needs in oral
language and phonological awareness also place them at risk for
reading and writing disabilities.

Adam, Ashley, and Trevor receive oral language programming

from the SLP in a small group session. They also receive the
services of the special education teacher for two periods daily in a
small group. The special education program focuses on the

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 6.5

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

development of early literacy skills with an emphasis on building

sight vocabulary and phonological awareness skills. The SLP has
provided the special education teacher with supplemental
phonological awareness development since the beginning of the
school year.

At support services planning meetings, the SLP, the special

education teacher, the classroom teacher, and the parents of the
three students determined that an area of need to be addressed by
SLP and special education programming was vocabulary
development. It was decided that the SLP and the special
education teacher in consultation with the classroom teacher
would jointly plan and deliver lessons to build vocabulary and
concept knowledge thus maximizing the opportunity to
harmonize oral and written language activities. These weekly
classroom lessons are comprised of activities based on curriculum
texts and materials. Examples of activities are identifying and
using antonyms and synonyms, using concept words to describe
pictures, talking about word meanings, and classifying similar
objects. During the week, the special education teacher reinforces
the words introduced and reteaches them from a written language
perspective using the same curriculum texts and materials. All
three students have shown improvements in receptive and
expressive vocabulary knowledge.

Classroom-Based Service Jessica and Stewart

Case Study 2 Jessica and Stewart are junior high level students who have a
cognitive delay. They are integrated with their age peers for
homeroom, silent reading period, gym and music. They share
communication needs in the areas of auditory comprehension,
vocabulary, and concept development, and sentence formulation
and articulation. Jessica and Stewart receive direct programming
with the SLP once weekly.

A more general area of need for Jessica and Stewart is pragmatics,

or communication in social and situational contexts. All five
students served by the low ratio teacher have pragmatic needs as
detailed in the communication and social domain areas of their
ISSPs. Because social and functional communication are most
meaningfully learned, practiced, and reinforced in a group context,
programming for the development of pragmatic skills takes place
in the challenging needs classroom. Lessons are collaboratively
developed and taught by the SLP and challenging needs teacher.

6.6 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Lessons include such conversational rules as communicating from

an appropriate distance facing the speaker or listener, using
appropriate eye contact, taking turns, maintaining the topic and
changing the topic. Specific skills taught include, for speakers;
using manners and sharing relevant information and, for listeners;
paying attention, making eye contact and not interrupting.
Recent roleplaying activities in class were for each student to
introduce themselves to someone and to introduce two people
who did not know each other.

The teacher posts guidelines for the use of these pragmatic skills.
He regularly reminds students to practice the rules of conversation
in the classroom as well as encouraging the use of pragmatic skills
through classroom strategies suggested by the SLP. Parents receive
copies of the lessons so that they know which skills are being
taught. Parents who encourage daily use of conversation skills
have noted an increase in students social interaction with extended
family members and in the community.

Direct Service Outside Direct service delivery involves small-group or individual

the Classroom programming by SLPs for children whose needs range from mild
to severe. Decisions regarding grouping, the number and duration
of programming sessions, and the length of programming vary
according to the needs of the child and are decided during the
support services planning process. The direct service program
incorporates the Language Arts curriculum content to meet the
goals specified in the ISSP. As a member of the support services
planning team the SLP is primarily responsible for planning,
implementing, and monitoring the child’s communication
program. The SLP also consults and collaborates with parents,
teachers, and other professionals on communication issues (ASHA,
1993: Newfoundland Department of Education. 1996c:
OSLA.1996).

The direct service model is also appropriate when a child needs to

master a new skill in the context of intensive instruction and
practice. For example, a child who needs to learn how to
accurately produce a speech sound or a child who needs to develop
fluency skills (e.g., reduce stuttering) benefits from individual or
small group sessions outside the classroom. Use of this model is
indicated when classroom opportunities for a child to practice a
new skill are limited. The direct service model of service delivery
need not be used exclusively during the course of programming.

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 6.7

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

Following a period of intensive programming, a collaborative

consultation or classroom-based model may be used, either instead
of or in combination with the direct service model as indicated by
the child’s needs and determined by the support services planning
team (ASHA, 1993; Nelson, 1990; Newfoundland Department of
Education, 1996c).

Direct Service Case April is a Grade 6 student who excels academically and has an
Study outgoing personality. She is involved in many activities, one of
which is basketball. Following a weekend tournament at her
school when she cheered loudly, April’s voice was hoarse. April’s
mother was concerned because April had a hoarse voice on several
occasions and the duration of hoarseness was increasing with each
episode. April visited the SLP, who referred her to the ear-nose-
throat doctor. The doctor diagnosed April with vocal fold
nodules.

As decided at a recent support services planning meeting the SLP

is providing programming for April to teach her good voice use
and to encourage her to monitor vocal abuses, such as talking
excessively and cheering. April’s teachers reinforce good voice use
at school, as do her parents at home. At the SLP’s request, the
music teacher allows April to remain silent during music class until
the nodules disappear. The classroom teacher finds that some of
the SLP’s suggested strategies for the children’s good voice use are
helpful in using her own voice wisely while teaching.

Direct Service Case John is a Level I student who has a long-standing but mild
Study 2 dysfluency (i.e., stutter). John was not referred for a speech
evaluation as a primary or elementary child because his parents and
teachers believed that he would outgrow his stutter. John is
currently taking courses that require him to do public speaking.
A referral to the SLP was made after John spoke with a teacher
about his difficulty speaking in front of the class and his anxiety
over his fluency impairment.

Direct programming aimed at increasing John’s fluency of oral

presentations was begun by the SLP following a support services
planning meeting that John attended. Discussion at the meeting
revealed that John is interested in pursuing a career in business.

John’s degree of motivation to learn and use fluency-facilitating

skills is high. As well as beginning to master these skills in sessions
with the SLP, John is now in the initial stages of transferring use

6.8 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000)

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

of his skills to the classroom. John reports that he is developing a

positive attitude toward speaking experiences.

Summary In summary, collaborative consultation, classroom-based service,

and direct service programming are options that are chosen in
collaboration with all members of the support services planning
team. These models can be used exclusively or in combination,
depending on the needs of the child. Speech/language needs and
other factors that affect programming listed at the beginning of
this chapter may change over time. Therefore, the SLP’s use of a
given model or a given combination of models with any one child
is subject to change. The SLP is a member of the support services
planning team for children with communication needs, involved
directly or indirectly at all stages of the support services planning
process.

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (2000) 6.9

 COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

References

Alabama Department of Education. (1993). Speech/ language impaired resource manual.

Alabama State Department of Education: Division of Special Education Services (Bulletin 1993,
No. 56).

Alberta Health. (1993). Speech language pathology information for teachers [ Brochure].
Calgary, AB: Author.

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental

disorders (4th edition). Washington, DC: Author.

American Speech- Language- Hearing Association Committee on Language, Speech, and

Hearing in the Schools. (1984). Guidelines for caseload size for speech-language services in the
schools. Asha, 26, 53-58.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (1993). Guidelines for caseload size and

speech-language service delivery in the schools. Asha, 35 (Suppl.), 33-39.

Atlantic Provinces Education Foundation Arts Committee. (1997). Atlantic Canada English
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Batten’s Disease Support and Research Association. Batten’s disease neuronal ceroid
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Bishop, V. E., (1971). Teaching the visually limited child. Springfield, IL: Charles C.
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Bloom, L. (1988). What is language?. In M. Lahey (Ed.), Language disorders and language
development (pp.1-19). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

Boberg, E. & Kully, D. (1985). Comprehensive stuttering program. San Diego, CA:
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Catts, H.W. (1991) Facilitating phonological awareness: Role of speech-language

pathologists. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 22, 196-203.

Cirran, F.M., & Penner, S.G. (1995). Classroom-based and consultative service delivery
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intervention preschool through elementary years. ( pp. 333-362). Toronto: Paul H. Brookes.

Catts, H. W., & Vartiainen, T. (1993). Sounds abound. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems.

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Cook, A.M., & Hussey, S.M. (in press). Assistive technologies: Principles and practices.
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Dodge, E.P. (1994). Communication lab profile: Assessing your students’ classroom
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Dohan, M. (1997). The speech-language pathologist’s changing role: collaboration within

the classroom (Unpublished master’s thesis). Memorial University of Newfoundland, NF.

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Edwards, C. (1990). Otitis media and the forgotten hearing impaired child, (Unpublished
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Hagan, J.S., McDannold, S.B., & Meyer, J. (1990). The speech and language classroom
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Physical disabilities. St. John’s, NF: Author.

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referral intervention. St. John’s, NF: Author.

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Using technology to enhance students’ differing abilities. St John’s, NF: Author.

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Alternate courses . St. John’s, NF: Author.

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to Children and Youth with Special Needs in Newfoundland and Labrador. St. John’s, NF: Author.

Newfoundland Department of Education . (1992). Using our strengths: Programming for

individual needs: A resource book for educators. St. John’s, NF: Author.

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Justice. (1997). Coordination of services to children and youth in

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Ontario Ministry of Education. (1994). Speech and language. Toronto, ON: Author.

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Van Riper, Charles, & Erickson, Robert L. (1996) Speech Correction: An Introduction to
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Lippincott Company.

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RELATED CONDITIONS

Anoxia: Absence or deficiency of oxygen in body tissues below physiologic levels. The condition is
accompanied by deep respirations, cyanosis, increased pulse rate and impairment of coordination.
Predisposing factors for anoxia include laborious labors, heavy maternal sedation, obstruction of
respiratory passages with mucus, incomplete development of lungs, and congenital circulatory and
cardiac defects (Miller & Keane, 1972; Travis, 1971).

Apert Syndrome: Characterized by microcephaly, i.e., small head, bony sutures closed so head appears
flat, webbed hands and feet, frequent mental retardation (Newfoundland Department of Education,
1992).

Aphasia: Disturbance or loss of ability to comprehend, elaborate or express speech concepts (Love &
Webb, 1992). Related conditions include:

Acquired Aphasia: Present in an individual who has begun to develop normally

and then sustains a language disturbance as the result of cerebral insult, i.e.,
infarct, tumor, abscess, infection or trauma.

Childhood Aphasia with Abnormal EEG Findings or Landau-Kleffner Syndrome:

Subgroup of acquired aphasia composed of children whose language disturbance
is associated with convulsive seizure and abnormal electroencephalographic
(EEG) findings.

Developmental Language Disability or Childhood Aphasia: Those children who

have never developed language appropriately. The gross language impairment
typically has been associated with a peripheral hearing loss, a generalized deficit
of cognitive function or childhood autism.

Apraxia of Speech: An impaired ability to execute voluntarily the appropriate movements for
articulation of speech in the absence of paralysis, weakness or incoordination of the speech musculature
(Love & Webb, 1992).

Asperger’s Disorder: Characterized by severe sustained impairment in social interaction and the
development of restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests, and activities. It must cause
clinically significant impairments in social, occupational, or other important areas of function. In
contrast, there are no clinically significant delays in language or cognitive development or in the
development of age appropriate self-help skills, adaptive behaviour, and curiosity about the environment
in childhood. The diagnosis is not given if the criteria are met for any other specific Pervasive
Developmental Disorder or for Schizophrenia (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Disturbance of at least 6 months duration during which at
least 8 of the following are present (American Psychiatric Association, 1994):
a) fidgets with hands and feet or squirms in seat
b) difficulty remaining seated when required to do so

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c) easily distracted by extraneous stimuli

d) difficulty awaiting turn in games or group situation
e) blurts out answers to questions before they have been completed
f) difficulty following through on instructions from others
g) difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities
h) shifts from one uncompleted activity to another
i) difficulty in playing quietly
j) talks excessively
k) interrupts and intrudes on others
l) does not seem to listen to what is being said
m) loses things necessary for tasks or activities
n) engages in dangerous physical activities without considering possible consequences.

Autism: Abnormality in interpersonal relationships exhibited in early childhood and characterized by

morbid self-absorption to the detriment of influence by external reality characterized by (Nicolosi,
Harryman and Kresheck, 1989):
a) onset before 30 months of age
b) pervasive lack of responsiveness to others
c) gross deficits in language development
d) if speech present, peculiar speech patterns such as immediate and delayed echolalia
and pronominal reversal
e) bizarre responses to various aspects of the environment
f) absence of delusions, hallucinations loosening of associations and incoherence as in
schizophrenia

Bardet Biedl Syndrome, also called Lawrence-Moon-Biedl Syndrome: Characterized by abnormalities

of the retina, often leading to blindness, mental retardation, delayed or absent sexual maturation, obesity
and the presence of extra fingers and toes. Additional anomalies, especially that of the kidney may
accompany these features. It is a hereditary condition, more common in boys (National Organization
of Rare Disorders, Inc., 1990).

Batten’s Disease (Ceroid Lipofuscinosis): A progressive nervous system disease of the gray matter
whereby child develops normally until 6 months to 2 years of age and then starts to lose skills.
Eventually, seizures, mental retardation and blindness occur with fatal outcome (Newfoundland
Department of Education, 1992).

Bell’s Palsy: Inflammation or lesion of the facial nerve, resulting in paralysis of the muscles of the face,
usually of one side. It is often a temporary condition lasting a few days or weeks. Occasionally, the
paralysis results from a tumor pressing on the nerve or from physical trauma to the nerve. In this event,
recovery will depend upon the success in treating the tumor or injury. Most often, the cause is
unknown (Miller & Keane, 1972; Love & Webb, 1992).

Cerebral Palsy: A neurological condition caused by injury to the immature brain characterized by a
nonprogressive disturbance of the motor system. Associated problems may include mental retardation,
hearing and/or visual impairments and perceptual problems produced by infantile cerebral injury. The

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largest majority of cerebral palsy cases are of three forms (Love & Webb, 1992);
1) spastic type in which there are exaggerated stretch reflexes, muscle spasm and
increased deep tendon reflexes

2) athetoid with purposeless, uncontrollable movements and muscle tension

3) ataxic, in which the child has poor balance, poor coordination and a staggering gait.

Childhood Disintegrative Disorder: One of the disorders under Pervasive Developmental Disorder with
a marked regression in at least two of the following areas of functioning following a period of at least
two years of apparently normal development:
1) expressive or receptive development
2) social skills or adaptive behaviour
3) bowel or bladder control
4) play
5) motor skills

In addition, there are abnormalities of functioning in at least two of the following areas:
1) qualitative impairment of social interaction
2) qualitative impairment in communication
3) restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests, and activities,
including motor stereotypes and mannerisms (DSMIV, 1994).

Cleft Lip and Palate: A congenital split of the lip or of the roof of the mouth with an incidence
occurring in about one birth per thousand, sometimes associated with other anatomic defects. Clefts
are unrelated to mental retardation. Cleft lip and palate result from failure of the two sides of the face
to unite properly at an early stage of prenatal development (McWilliams, Morris & Shelton, 1990).

Crouzon Disease: Much like Apert Syndrome but less severe and no involvement of hands and feet.
upper lip is short, lower lip tends to droop and the nose is sometimes beak-like. Hypertelorism is very
common. Approximately 80% of cases have optic nerve defects and other eye anomalies (McWilliams,
Morris, and Shelton, 1990).

Cri du Chat Syndrome: Characterized by small-for-dates, growth retardation, cat-like cry in infancy,
mental retardation, congenital heart defects and microcephaly. It is caused by partial deletion of the
short arm of chromosome #5 (Newfoundland Department of Education, 1992).

Down Syndrome: A congenital condition characterized by physical malformations and some degree of
mental retardation. This disorder is concerned with a defect in the twenty-first chromosome. The term
trisomy refers to the presence of three representative chromosomes in a cell instead of the usual pair
(Miller & Keane, 1972).

Dysphagia: Difficulty with swallowing (Love & Webb, 1992). Difficulties may occur at any point in
the swallowing action.

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Edward’s Syndrome (Trisomy 18): Characterized by being small for dates, mental retardation, low set
ears, clenched hands with overriding fingers, and congenital heart defects. There is limited survival and
90% die by age one. Incidence is 1 in 1000 births (Newfoundland Department of Education, 1992).

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Characterized by small-for-dates, mild-moderate mental retardation,

congenital heart defects, droopy eyelids, microcephaly and joint abnormalities. It is caused by excessive
alcohol intake during pregnancy (Newfoundland Department of Education, 1992).

Fragile X Syndrome: The name given to the combination of mental retardation or learning disabilities,
behaviours, and physical features seen in some people who have the fragile X gene (Finucane, 1988).

Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome: Facial and vocal tics beginning in early childhood usually in boys, and
progressing to generalized jerking of other parts of the body. Initially, there are articulate expiratory
laryngeal noises progressing to loud exclamations and coprolalia, echolalia, and pallila may also develop
(Nicolosi, Harryman, and Kresheck (1989).

Hydrocephalus: A condition characterized by enlargement of the cranium caused by abnormal

accumulation of fluid; also called “water on the brain”. It is usually associated with a congenital defect
in infants. When the regular flow of absorption of the cerebrospinal fluid is impaired by a congenital
malformation of the internal skull, the fluid accumulates in the brain and enlarges the ventricles (Miller
& Keane, 1972).

Learning Disabilities: General term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by
significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or
mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central
nervous system dysfunction and may continue across the lifespan (Hammill, 1990).

Muscular Dystrophy: A group of related muscle diseases that are progressively crippling because muscles
are gradually weakened and eventually atrophy. The cause is not known and at present there is no
specific cure. The disease can sometimes be arrested temporally; not all forms of it are totally disabling.
Speech muscles lose strength and show disturbances of muscle bulk. Related conditions include
Duchenne type progressive muscular dystrophy or pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy (Miller &
Keane, 1972; Love & Webb, 1992).

Otitis Media: Fluid in the middle ear caused by an ear infection. Fluctuating hearing loss during this
time also interferes with learning speech and language skills because children may not be able to hear
a full range of sounds and voices.

For a child with Otitis Media, hearing is similar to what is experienced when you put ear plugs in your
ears. As a result, the child experiences difficulty with final consonants, past tenses and word endings.
When children with Otitis Media do not hear these sounds when others talk, they do not learn how to
say them properly.

Common symptoms of Otitis Media are: earaches or draining of the ears, fever, partial loss of hearing,
different response to speech and everyday sounds, changes in sleeping or eating habits, irritability,

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rubbing or pulling at the ears, having difficulty keeping balance, running, or jumping, turning the
television or radio up much louder than usual, frequent need to have directions and information
repeated, talking less than usual, unclear speech, using gestures rather than talking, and delayed speech
and language development.

Pierre Robin Syndrome: A syndrome characterized by micrognathia, i.e., small jaw, occurring in
association with cleft palate, glossoptosis and absent gag reflex (Dorland, 1989).

Prader - Willi Syndrome: Characterized by severe obesity, small testes and penis, mental retardation,
and floppiness in infancy. In half the cases, it is caused by partial deletion of chromosome #15
(Newfoundland Department of Education, 1992).

Rhett’s Disease: One of the disorders under Pervasive Developmental Disorder. It is a disorder
affecting females. The onset of symptoms begin as early as five months of age. There is characteristic
head growth deceleration, loss of previously acquired hand skills with subsequent development of
stereotyped hand movements (hand-writing/washing), and the appearance of poorly coordinated gait
or trunk movements. In addition, there is a loss of social engagement early in development. Expressive
and receptive language skills are severely impaired as are psychomotor skills (DSMIV, p. 72, 1994).

Specific Learning Disability: A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved
in understanding or in using language, spoken or written which may present as imperfect ability to
listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. It includes such conditions
as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia.
The term does not apply to children whose learning problems primarily result from visual, hearing and
motor handicaps, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or environmental, cultural or economic
disadvantage (Federal Registar, December 29, 1977, p. 65083).

Spina Bifida: A defect of the vertebral column due to imperfect union of the paired vertebral arches at
the midline. It may be so extensive as to allow herniation of the spinal cord and meninges, or it may
be covered by intact skin and evident only on radiologic examination (Miller & Keane, 1972).

Swallowing Impairment: Most often seen in students with physical disabilities, paralysis, or weakness
of the mouth and digestive canal. The following characteristics may indicate that a student has
difficulties with swallowing. The student:

C may have a particular diagnosis involving neurological impairment

C drools often
C gags or is otherwise having difficulty with eating or drinking
C has been placed on a special diet for reasons related to an inability to digest certain
foods
C has a feeding tube

Tourette’s Syndrome, refer to Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome.

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Traumatic Brain Injury or Closed Head Injury: Any injury to the head region resulting from external
forces. Individuals usually display a serious and pervasive language deficit termed a cognitive-
communicative disorder (Love & Webb, 1992).

Treacher Collins Syndrome: Characterized by unusual facial appearance with malformed ears and
conductive hearing loss, absence of lower eyelashes, cleft palate. Intelligence is usually normal
(Newfoundland Department of Education, 1992).

Turner’s Syndrome: A form of gonadal dygenisus affecting females marked by short stature,
undifferentiated gonads and variable abnormal webbing of the neck, low posterior hairline, increased
carrying angle of the elbow, and cardiac defects (Dorland, p. 579, 1989).

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Additions: Articulatory errors in which a sound is added, e.g., “puh-lane” for plane (Peel Memorial
Hospital, pamphlet).

Affricate: Sound produced when a sound begins as a “stop” but is “finished” as a fricative, e.g., “t” +
“sh” becomes “ch” as in chew (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet).

Apraxia: Inability to voluntarily execute muscle movements in the absence of sensory or motor deficits,
though involuntary movements remain intact (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet).

Articulation: The process of producing speech sounds by appropriate movements of the oral
musculature.

Articulation Disorders: Results when incorrect productions of speech sounds and/or the application
of inappropriate phonological processes are evident. Speech sound errors are categorized under the four
headings of additions, substitutions, omissions, and distortions (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet).

Auditory Comprehension: Understanding of the spoken language of others.

Automatic Speech: Over-practiced familiar speech such as the alphabet, days of the week, common
greetings (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet).

Blend (consonant cluster): Two or more consonant sounds produced without vowel separating
them, e.g., fry, string.

Block: An abrupt stop in the smooth flow of speech associated with difficulty moving forward. The
mouth may be held in one position without sound coming out (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet).

Collaboration: The process by which people of different areas of expertise are brought together to meet
the needs of an individual in the most effective manner (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet).

Communication: The process of exchanging information, ideas, and feeling. It is usually an active
process that requires the sender who formulates the message and a receiver who understands the
message. Communication is essentially a social act, the primary function of which is interaction with
another living being (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet).

Concomitant/Secondary Behaviours: Accessory behaviors which may include such non-speech

behaviours as alteration of posture, eye-blinking, and facial movements. (Peel Memorial Hospital,
pamphlet)

Context: The characteristics of the environment in which a situation occurs.

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Diadochokinetic Rate: The speed of execution of rapid repetitive movements of the articulators. It is
usually measured with a single sound. e.g., puh, puh, puh, or alternating sounds, e.g., puh, tuh, kuh
(Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Direct Intervention: Intervention administered to the student directly by the speech-language

pathologist. (Alberta Health, 1993)

Discourse: Communication in the form of conversation, narration (story telling), exposition (explaining
information).

Distortion: A speech sound which is identifiable as an attempt at a sound, but is not accurate enough
to be considered correct. Articulatory errors in which the standard phoneme is modified so that it is
approximated, although incorrect and not acceptable. e.g., lateral lisp (Peel Memorial Hospital,
pamphlet)

Dysarthria: A group of speech disorders which are the result of difficulties with muscle control, caused
by impairment to the central or peripheral nervous systems. It is characterized by altered muscle tone,
incoordination, slowness, and weakness. Both involuntary and voluntary movements are affected. (Peel
Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Dysphagia: Difficulty with swallowing.

Dysphonia: Partial loss of phonation.

Easy Onset: A therapy technique used to avoid hard articulatory contacts and blocking of the airstream.
Speech is then produced without tension in the oral musculature.

Fluent Aphasia: Verbal output may be characterized as flowing, with a variety of grammatical forms
present. Articulation is generally good. Associated with posterior damage to the temporal, occipital or
parietal lobes. It includes Wernicke’s aphasia. (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Fluency: The process whereby syllables, words, and phrases are joined together orally with appropriate
smoothness and rate.

Fluency/Stuttering Disorder: Results when a student exhibits frequent and/or noticeable disruptions
in the smooth flow of speech as a result of behaviors such as hesitations, repetitions, prolongations,
interjections, revisions, pauses, and incomplete phrases. Avoidance of words or speaking situations and
secondary characteristics suggested of speech related struggle/tension may also be evidence of a fluency
disorder.

Functional: A level of performance in any particular area which is sufficient to convey the meaning of
the message even when the form of the message is reduced in precision and/or quality. (Alberta Health,
1993)

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Glide: A sound produced during the movement of an articulator (in contrast to those produced when
the articulators are in a static position). e.g., /w/,/l/, and /r/ (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Glottal Attack/Hard Onset of Voice: A build-up of air pressure beneath closed vocal folds which is
suddenly released to produce phonation.

Imitation/Modelling: Reproduction of an exhibited behaviour, either immediately or in a deferred

manner.

Language: The process of communicating ideas through an arbitrary code of symbols and the rules
governing the combination of those symbols. Language includes rules that govern the following sub-
systems: syntax, semantics, morphology, phonology, and pragmatics. (Peel Memorial Hospital,
pamphlet)

Language Disorder: Significant impairment in a student’s expressive and/or receptive language skills.

Monitoring: A method of periodic observation to evaluate the needs of an individual for speech-
language service. (Alberta Health, 1993)

Morphology: The rule system that governs the structure of words. e.g., plurals ‘-s’, and past tense ‘-ed’

Narrative: Written or verbal account of an event.

Nasal: A sound produced with the mouth closed and a free movement of air through the nose. e.g.,
/m/, /n/, and /ng/

Normal Dysfluency: Typically a young child will hesitate, repeat words, and pause when producing
speech. It is usually observed in a child between three and five years of age, and there is no
accompanying physical and emotional tension. (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Omission: Articulatory errors in which a sound is not produced at a place where one should occur, e.g.,
cat becomes ‘at’. (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Oral Motor Examination: Assessment of the oral structures to determine the structural and functional
adequacy for speech production.

Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound which can be heard to be distinct from other sounds of that given
language.

Phonology: The sound system of a language which can be defined as the study of sounds that comprise
the language and the rules for using them.
Pragmatics: The use of language in social context (meaning and context are interdependent).

Semantics: The content or meaning of words and utterances.

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Speech/Language Impairment: A communication disorder in one or more of the following areas:

articulation, voice, language or fluency, which adversely affect a student’s performance.

Stimulability: The degree to which an error sound can be produced “correctly” under ideal
circumstances.

Stop: Sound produced when the vocal tract is closed completely then opened suddenly to release the
sound. e.g., /p/, /d/, or /g/

Substitution: Replacement of one sound by another. e.g., “dod” for dog

Syntax: The structure of language, including word order, and the relationship between elements in a
sentence.

Target Vocabulary: The predetermined set of words in student instruction.

Velo-Pharyngeal Incompetence: Inability to separate the nose from the mouth via normal velar and
pharyngeal action. This leads to a nasal sound in the voice and is often associated with cleft palate.
(Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Vocal Hygiene: Guidelines for voice use to protect a healthy voice or aid a misused voice. (Peel
Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Voice: The process of producing sound through the vibration of the vocal folds. The elements of voice
include pitch, loudness, quality, inflection, and resonance. (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Voice Disorders: Results from the habitual use of pitch, loudness, quality, inflection, and/or resonance
that is inappropriate for the student’s age, sex, size, or the speaking situation. It may be the result of
a functional or an organic condition and may draw on favorable attention adversely affecting the listener
or the speaker. (Peel Memorial Hospital, pamphlet)

Voiced: A sound produced using vocal fold vibration. e.g., /b/, /d/, or /g/

Voiceless: A sound produced without vocal fold vibration. e.g., /p/, /t/, or /k/

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LANGUAGE: ASSET Assessing Semantic Skills Through Everyday

Language
BLT-2 Bankson Language Test-2
BBCS Bracken Basic Concept Scale
BTBC-R Boehm Test of Basic Concepts-Revised
CELF-3 Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-
Third Edition
CREVT Comprehensive Receptive and Expressive
Vocabulary Test
EOWPVT-R Expressive One Word Vocabulary Test-Revised
LPT-R Language Processing Test-Revised
PLS-3 Preschool Language Scale-3
PPVT-R Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised
RDLS Reynell Developmental Language Scales
ROWPVT Receptive One Word Picture Vocabulary Test
SPELT-II Structured Photographic Expressive Language
Test-II
TACL-R Test for Auditory Comprehension of Language-
Revised
TEEM Test for Examining Expressive Morphology
TELD-2 Test of Early Language Development-2
TLC-Exp. Test of Language Competence-Expanded Edition
TOAL-3 Test of Adolescent and Adult Language-Third
Edition
Token Token Test for Children
TOLD-P:2 Test of Language Development-Primary: Second
Edition
TOLD-I:2 Test of Language Development-
Intermediate:Second Edition
TOPS Test of Problem Solving-Elementary or Adolescent
TOWK Test of Word Knowledge
TWF Test of Word Finding
The Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery-
Revised
Word The Word Test

PHONOLOGICAL LAC Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test

AWARENESS: TAAS Test of Auditory Analysis Skills
TALS Test of Awareness of Language Segments
TOPA Test of Phonological Awareness

PRAGMATICS: Let’s Talk Inventory for Adolescents (9-young adulthood;

administrators should have experience with administering

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educational, clinical, or psychological tests and be familiar with the

manual, inventory items, and administration and scoring procedures.

TOPL Test of Pragmatic Language

Test of Pragmatic Skills-Revised

ARTICULATION: The assessment should be done by a speech-language pathologist.

APP-R Assessment of Phonological Processes-Revised

Deep Test of Articulation
F-LTOAC Fisher-Logemann Test of Articulation
Competence
G-FTA Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation
IPAT Iowa Pressure Articulation Test
KLPA Khan-Lewis Phonological Analysis
PAT-3 Photo Articulation Test-Third Edition
T-MAC Test of Minimal Articulation Competence
WCAT Weiss Comprehensive Articulation Test

FLUENCY: Assessment of Fluency in School-Age Children

CASS Cooper Assessment for Stuttering Syndromes
SPI Stuttering Prediction Instrument for Young
Children
SSI-3 Stuttering Severity Instrument for Children and
Adults-Third Edition

VOICE: These assessments should be done by a speech-language

pathologist.
Boone Voice Program for Children
Easy Does It for Voice
VAP Voice Assessment Protocol for Children and
Adults

AUGMENTATIVE/ALTER Assessment for Non-Oral Communication

NATIVE Comprehensive Screening Tool for Determining
COMMUNICATION: Optimal Communication Mode
(formal and informal) The Non-Oral Communication Assessment
The Non-speech Test

SWALLOWING: Oral-Motor/Feeding Scale

HEARING: Tests specifically designed for students with a hearing impairment

(Thompson,1987)

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CID Scales of Early Communication Skills for Hearing

Impaired Children
CPVT Carolina Picture Vocabulary Test
GAEL Grammatical Analysis of Elicited Language
MSEI Maryland Syntax Evaluation Instrument
PCPEP Patterson-Cole Phonologic Evaluation Procedure
RITLS Rhode Island Test of Language Structure
SKI-HI RLT SKI-HI Receptive Language Test
SKI-HI LDS SKI-HI Language Development Scale
TAGS Teacher Assessment of Grammatical Structures
TEXLA Test of Expressive Language Ability
TERLA Test of Receptive Language Ability
TCRVT Total Communication Receptive Vocabulary Test
TSA Test of Syntactic Abilities

*** information taken from catalogues, Language Disorders from

Infancy Through Adolescence, test manuals.

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SOCIAL LANGUAGE SKILLS

(Reprinted with permission from the Durham District School Board)

Skill 1: Introducing To introduce yourself to someone, you:

- use a pleasant face and voice
- look at the person
- tell the person your name
- ask for the person’s name

To introduce two people who don’t know each other, you:

- use a pleasant face and voice
- look at each person
- tell each person the other’s name

Skill 2: Following Directions To follow directions, you:

- use a pleasant face and voice
- look at the person giving directions
- say “OK”
- start to do what was asked right away
- do it satisfactorily

Skill 3: Giving and Receiving To give positive feedback, you:

Positive Feedback - use a pleasant face and voice
- look at the person
- tell exactly what you like about what the person did

To receive positive feedback, you:

- use a pleasant face and voice
- look at the person
- acknowledge the feedback by saying, “thanks” or “you’re
welcome”.

Skill 4: Sending an “I’m To send an “I’m interested” message, you:

interested” Message - use a pleasant face
- look at the person
- keep your hands and body still

Skill 5: Sending an Ignoring To send and ignoring message, you:

Message - keep a pleasant face
- look away or walk away from the person
- do not respond
- pretend you’re not listening

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Skill 6: Interrupting a To interrupt the right way, you:

Conversation - use a pleasant face and voice
- wait for a pause in the conversation
- say “Excuse me”
- look directly at the person
- then talk

Skill 7: Joining a To join a conversation, you:

Conversation - use a pleasant face and voice
- look at the person
- wait for a pause
- say something on the topic

Skill 8: Starting a To start a conversation and keep it going, you:

Conversation and - use a pleasant face and voice
Keeping It Going - look at the person
- ask questions about the other person
- tell about yourself

Skill 9: Sharing To share, you:

- use a pleasant face and voice
- divide up something there’s not much of, so others can
also have some (if appropirate)
- take turns (if appropriate)

Skill 10: Offering to Help To offer to help, you:

- use a pleasant face and voice
- notice something that you can do for someone
- ask if you can help
- if that person says “yes”, then you do it

Skill 11: Compromising To compromise, you:

- use a pleasant face and voice
- think of a way both people can get something that they
want
- suggest it

Skill 12: Asking for Clear To ask for clear directions, you:
Directions - use a pleasant face and voice
- look at the person
- ask for more information
- repeat the directions to the person

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Skill 13: Problem Solving To solve a problem, you:

- take a deep breath to get a calm body and good attitude
- think of at least three different things you can do
- pick the best one for you
- try that one first

Skill 14: Using Positive To reward someone, you:

Consequences - use a pleasant face and voice
- do something nice for the person. For example, you
could do the person a favour, thank the person, give the
person a hug, or share something

Skill 15: Giving and To give a suggestion for improvement, you:

Receiving a - use a pleasant face and voice
Suggestion for - say something nice on the topic
Improvement - make the suggestion
- thank the person for listening

To receive a suggestion for improvement, you:

- use a pleasant face and voice
- listen to the suggestion
- make no excuses
- thank the person for the suggestion

Skill 16: Handling Name- To handle name-calling and teasing, you:

Calling and Teasing - keep a pleasant face
- take a deep breath to get calm
- look away, or walk away if you can
- use positive self-talk (say to self, “I am calm”, etc.)

Skill 17: Saying “No” to Stay To say “no”, you:

Out of Trouble - use a pleasant face and voice
- take a deep breath to get calm
- look at the person
- keep saying “no”
- suggest something else to do

If suggesting something else doesn’t work, you:

- ignore the person and walk away

LM/ak STEP/D10c/106 1994 05 30

Speech and Language: Durham District School Board

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SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

(Reprinted with permission from the Durham District School Board)

Introduction The following pages outline normal speech and language development.
They provide a comprehensive outline to assist teachers in
understanding the developmental process of speech and language. It
is important to remember the developmental stage of the student with
special needs. Due to the highly variable nature of syntactic and
morphological development, as well as the lack of research in the area,
the following statements should be considered as approximate age levels
at which certain forms and constructions may appear.

0 - 3 Months

Phonology C Birth cry - undifferentiated

C Reflexive soundmaking: produces k, l, g, h glottal catch,
front vowels, ah, eh, uh
C Some variety in non-crying sounds
C Sucks well with inner mouth parts and lips
C Differentiated cry (true vocal communication begins)
C Coos and gurgles
C Produces single syllables
C Begins blowing bubbles

Semantics C Makes eye contact briefly

C Stops movement or quiets in response to sound (responds
more readily to speech than to non-speech sounds)
C Startle response to loud sound
C Visually tracks
C Moves eyes toward source of sound
C Attends to voice - turns head toward voice
C Reflexive smile
C Fixes gaze on spoon or bottle
C Quiets when picked up
C (ATTENDING PHASE 0 - 9 MONTHS) prerequisite of
semantic development

Play C Long spells of staring vacantly at large masses (windows,

walls)
C Hands predominantly closed > no reaching to grasp objects
C If hand is touched, either clenches or opens
C Reacts to paper or cloth on face
C Raises head when prone

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C Grasps object when placed in hand

C Reaches for object but misses (3 months)

4 - 6 Months

Phonology C Babbling begins

- Double Syllables
- Puts lips together - says “m”
- uses nasal tone
C Vocalizes pleasure and displeasure

Semantics C Actively seeks sound source - turns head toward sound

without aid of visual stimulation
C Smiles in response to speech and feelings of pleasure
C Fixes gaze on face
C Anticipates feeding upon sight of bottle
C Discriminates strangers
C Looks in response to own name
C Watches or closely attends to movement patterns
C Smiles on sight of face
C Recognizes spoon or bottle
C Indicates displeasure on withdrawal of objects
C (ATTENDING PHASE 0 - 9 MONTHS) prerequisite of
semantic development

Play C Raises head and chest when prone

C Puts object in mouth
C Watches hands
C Plays actively when propped in play area - 10-15 minutes
C Looks intently at and shakes rattle
C On visual cue, free hand comes toward but does not grasp
rattle
C Pays attention to cube on table
C May detect a tiny pellet
C Generally inspects surroundings
C Smiles, fingers mirror image
C Increases activity at sight of toy
C Works for toy out of reach
C Exploitative in string play
C Head control established in midline
C Bangs with object held in hand
C Transfers object from one hand to another
C Rolls over - both ways

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7 - 9 Months

Phonology C Uses m, n, t, d, b, p, z, in babbling multiple syllables

C Babbles tunefully - singing tones
C Uses wide variety of sound combinations including non-
English sounds
C Inflected vocal play - intonation patterns heard
C Interjectional vocalizations
C Imitates intonation and speech sounds of others (9
months)

Semantics C Responds to facial expressions

C Attempts to imitate gross gestures
C Comprehends parental gestures
C Recognizes others
C Looks at some common objects when names are spoken
C Looks at family members when named
C Comprehends “no” - inhibits on command
C Interest in pictures maintained for full minute while they
are named
C Shy, clings to adult in presence of stranger
C (ATTENDING PHASE 0 - 9 MONTHS) prerequisite of
semantic development
C Frequently cries when parent leaves the room
C Shouts to attract attention, listens, then shouts again
C May say “da-da” or equivalent
C Some gesture language: plays pat-a-cake, peek-a-boo, bye-
bye, shakes head for no
C Sight of object or person produces gross gesture (emerging
nomination)
C Imitates ringing of bell

Play C Uncovers hidden toy (beginning of object permanence)

C Grasps dangling object
C Explores toy with fingers and mouth
C Hitching present
C Bounces when supported in standing position
C Sits without support
C Uses pincer grasp to pick up small object
C Drinks from cup
C Eyes and hands function in close interaction
C Imitates arm movements
C Bangs spoon on table
C Rings bell and smiles at sound

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C Pulls self to standing position

C Crawls on belly
C Holds down bottle, feeds self cracker

10 - 12 Months

Phonology C Vocalizes during play

C Vocalizes to mirror
C Jabbers loudly - wide variety of sounds and intonations
C Uses all sounds (consonants and vowels) in vocal play
C Closes mouth without drooling
C Jargon begins as babbling stops
C May acquire first true word (10 - 18 months)

Semantics C Begins to relate symbol and object - first true word

C Gives block, toy, or object on request
C Understands and follows simple commands regarding
body action
C Responds with searching movements to simple questions
C Looks in correct place for toys out of sight
C Turns head immediately to own name
C Understands the meaning of “hot”
C In presence of more than one object, shows awareness of
more than one
C Names or looks for object out of sight - first true word
C Gestures and/or vocalizes to indicate wants and needs
(emerging state, recurrence, nomination)
C Begins to vary behaviour according to emotional reactions
of others - repeats performances which are laughed at
C Recognizes inverted object - emerging awareness of
top/bottom, front/back

Play C Squeezes doll to make it squeak

C Regards and pokes clapper of bell (beginning cause/effect)
C Deliberately drops toys and watches them fall
C Plays ball with another person
C Still brings objects to mouth - uses tongue more
C Puts objects in and takes them out of large container
(beginning awareness of in/out)
C Places one block after another on table (prerequisite to
counting)
C Responds to music
C Holds crayon - imitates scribble
C Takes a few steps with help

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C Brings one object momentarily above another (emerging

awareness of spatial concepts precedes block stacking)
C Stacks rings on a peg

1.1 - 1.6 Years (13 - 18 Months)

Phonology C Uses sentence-like intonations (jargon)

C Some Echolalia
C Uses all vowels and consonants in jargon
C Omits final consonants and some initial consonants
C Basically unintelligible with exception of a few words

Semantics C Follows simple one-step commands

C Points to objects he/she recognizes (emerging nomination)
C Points to objects he/she wants (emerging state)
C Begins to claim certain objects as his/her own (emerging
possession)
C Points to one to three body parts in command
C Identifies two or more objects or pictures from a group
C Perceives emotion of others
C Uses 3 to 20 words
C Vocalizes with gestures
C Says, “All gone” (emerging negation)
C Answers question, “What’s this?”
C Asks for “more” (emerging recurrence)

Play C Solitary or onlooker play - self play

C Continual walking activities
C Begins running - stiff and awkward
C Scribbles spontaneously with crayon
C Removes mittens, socks, hat - unzips zipper
C Throws, picks up object, and throws again
C Puts objects in and out of containers
C Figures out ways of overcoming some obstacles (opening
doors, reaching high places)
C Imitates many things (sweeping, combing hair - self use)
C Pulls toys - carries or hugs doll, teddy bear
C Very rapid shifts in attention - especially expressed by
gross motor shifts

Syntax - Morphology C 50% of all utterances are nouns

C Mean length of response - 1.2 words

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1.7 - 2.0 Years (19 - 24 Months)

Phonology C More words than jargon - jargon almost gone by 2 years

C Asks questions with rising intonation at end of phrase
C Improvement in intelligibility - approximately 65%
intelligible by 2 years

Semantics C Comprehends approximately 300 words

C Listens as pictures are named
C Listens to simple stories - especially likes ones heard before
C Points to 5 body parts on self or doll
C Responds approximately to yes/no questions (head nod or
shake)
C Object permanence fully acquired
C Discriminates food from other objects (e.g., unwraps
candy before eating)
C Initiates activities/actions which are present to his/her
senses, not those from past experiences
C Uses approximately 50 recognizable words
C Uses names of most familiar objects
C Produces animal sound or uses its name
C Verbalizes toilet needs (closer to 2 years) - may verbalize
need before, during or after act
C Identifies and names 5 or more pictures by 2 years
C Says own name on request - refers to self with full name
C Verbalizes immediate experiences
C Combines 2 words into phrase; may use 3 to 4 word
responses (2 years)
C Begins to use some verbs and adjectives

Play C Parallel play - plays near others but not with them
C Talks to self as he/she plays
C Little social give and take - little interest in what others say
or do but hugs, pushes, pulls, snatches, grabs, defends
rights by kicking and pulling hair
C Does not ask for help
C Procrastinates
C Strings Beads
C Transports blocks in a wagon rather than just building
C Relates actions to object or another person - washes, feeds,
combs doll in addition to self
C Likes to play with flexible materials such as clay
C Less rapid shifts in attention

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Syntax - Morphology C Follows directions using one or two spatial concepts -

in/on
C Negation used in form of “no” - (“no bed”)
C Possessive emerging (“daddy car”)
C Refers to self with pronoun and name (“me Tommy”)
C 33% of utterances are nouns
C Combines 2 words into phrase (approximate 2 years) in
noun+verb, or noun+adjective format
C Mean length of response - 1.8 words

2.1 - 2.6 (25 - 30 Months)

Phonology C Much substitution and omission of final consonants

C Approximately 70% intelligible

Semantics C Comprehends approximately 500 words

C Listens to 5 to 10 minute story
C Carries out series of 2 related commands
C Identifies action in pictures
C Has concept of “one” and “all”
C Uses 200 intelligible words
C Names 6 objects by use
C Repeats two numbers correctly
C Answers “Where” questions
C Answers “What...doing” questions
C Answers “What do you hear with?”

Play C Parallel play predominates

C Arranges doll furniture into meaningful groups and uses
doll figures to act out simple themes from own experience
C aligns 3 or more cubes to make train - pushes train
C Builds tower of 6 to 7 blocks
C Imitates drawing of vertical line

Syntax - Morphology C Articles “a” and “the” appear in sentences

C Uses present progressive “ing” on verbs
C Regular plural forms emerging (cat-cats)
C Uses in/on correctly
C Irregular past tense emerging
C Uses some contractions in memorized form (don’t, can’t,
it’s, that’s)

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C 25% of utterances are nouns, 25% verbs

C Combines 3 to 4 words in subject and verb and object
format
C Mean length of response - 3.1 words

2.7 - 3.0 Years (31 - 36 Months)

Phonology C P, b, m, w, h, n tend to be used with high degree of

accuracy by most children
C Still some substitution and distortion of consonants
C Continuing to improve intelligibility - now approximately
80% intelligible

Semantics C Comprehends approximately 900 words

C Points to pictures of 10 objects described by their use
C Listens to 20-minute story
C Knows own sex and difference
C Knows in/on/under
C Knows big/little
C Matches colours
C Completes 3 piece form board - matches shapes
C Is cautious of common dangers, such as stairways, animals
C Has complicated, sequenced routines for daily activities
(e.g., bedtime, meals) - objects to change (beginning of
time/sequence awareness)
C Uses 500 intelligible words
C Answers 6 to 7 agent/action questions “What runs?”
C Answers simple “Who, Why, Where, How many”
questions (3 years)
C Answers one of three questions: “What do you do when
you’re hungry, sleepy, cold?”
C Asks simple questions - “What’s that?”
C Yes/no questions emerging - “Is he sleeping?”
C Repeats sentence of 6 to 7 syllables accurately

Play C Dramatization and imagination begin to enter into play

(make believe and pretend)
C Symbolic play
C Beginning interest in cooperative play - plays with others
in small groups
C Interest in combining playthings
C Is willing to wait his/her turn
C Puts toys away with some supervision

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C Watches cartoons on T.V.

C Names own drawing
C Builds tower of 9 blocks
C Puts together four-part nesting toy
C Stacks 5 or more rings on a peg in order of size
C Imitates drawing a circle and horizontal lines

Syntax - Morphology C Auxiliary “is/am” + “ing” (boy is running)

C Uses “is” + adjective (ball is red)
C Regular past tense verbs appear - walk/walked
C Uses “s” for possession (daddy’s car)
C Uses pronouns - I, me, you, mine (he, she and it
emerging)
C Negative “not” emerging
C Uses contracted form of “is” (he’s running)
C Adverbs of location emerging (here, there)
C Begins to use do, can and will (emerging future tense)
C Uses imperatives (commands: “go get it”, “don’t”, etc.)
C 20% nouns, 25% verbs
C Infinitive compliment (“I want to play”) emerging
C Mean length of response - 3.4 words

Phonology C P, b, m, w, h mastered
C K, g, t, d, ng, s, r, y are being used consistently although
may not be completely mastered

Semantics C Comprehends 1200 words

C Knows “in front of “ and “behind” when objects with
logical front and back is used
C Identifies hard/soft, rough/smooth
C Identifies circle and square
C Responds to commands involving 2 actions
C Responds to commands involving 2 objects
C Able to match sets (42 months)
C Uses 800 words
C Responds appropriately to simple “How...” question
C Answers 2 of 3 questions: “What do you do when you’re
hungry/sleepy/cold?”
C Beginning of question-asking stage - asks mainly “What”
and “Who” questions
C Names 8 to 10 pictures
C States action
C Supplies last word of line (“The apple is on the ...”)
C Counts 3 objects, pointing to each

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Play C Builds bridge from model

C Begins associative group play
C Organizes doll furniture accurately and begins using it
genuinely imaginative ways
C Draws two or more strokes for a cross on imitation

Syntax - Morphology C Beginning to use “is” at beginning of questions

C Third person singular present tense(s) emerging (“he
runs”)
C Contracted forms of modals - (won’t, can’t)
C Regular plural forms are consistent
C Irregular plural forms emerging (child/children)
C Uses “are” with plural nouns (“boys are running”)
C Uses “and” as conjunction to form compound sentences
C Uses “is”, “are”, “am” in sentences
C Combines 4 to 5 words in sentences
C Mean length of response - 4.3 words

3.7 - 4.0 Years (43 - 48 Months)

Phonology C L, sh, j are frequently used correctly

C Becoming very intelligible in connected speech
C Continued refinement of articulatory skills taking place

Semantics C Comprehends 1500 to 2000 words

C Knows front and back of clothes
C Responds to commands involving three actions
C Recognizes one colour
C Uses 1000 to 1500 words
C Answers 13 agent + action questions
C Does simple verbal analogies (Daddy is a man”, “Mommy
is a woman”...)
C Answers (responds appropriately) to “how much” and
“how long” (length of time) questions - not necessarily
correctly
C Tells two events in order of sequence
C Tells story mixing real and unreal
C Long, detailed conversations
C Repeats 12 to 13 syllable sentences - one of three trials
C Answers 3 of 3 questions: “What do you do when you’re
hungry/sleepy/cold?”
C Appropriately answers “What if” questions (“What would
you do if you fell down?”)

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C Asks how, why, when questions/asks for detailed

explanations

Play C Increase in dramatization of play

C Complicated ideas but unable to carry out in detail - no
carryover from day to day
C Prefers to play in group of 2 to 3 children; chooses
companion of own sex
C Suggests turns, but often bossy in directing others
C Often silly in play, and may do things wrong purposely
C Puts toys away himself/herself
C Likes to dress up
C Draws a man with 2 parts - adds 3 parts to incomplete
man
C Builds and names buildings with blocks
C Gains information from children’s T.V. programs

Syntax - Morphology C Possessive marker “s” consistent

C Uses regular third person singular (s) consistent
C Uses simple past tense (t, d) consistent - (walk/walked)
C Present progressive “is + ing” consistent
C Contractions used consistently
C Uses negative “not” consistently
C Pronouns: he, she, I, you, me, mine consistent
C “Are, they, their” used inconsistently
C Reflexive pronoun “myself” emerging
C More adverbs of time and manner are being used
C Conjunction “because” emerging
C Uses “got” (“I got it”)
C “What was...” and “What were...” questions emerging
C “Was...” and “Were...” (yes/no questions) emerging (“was
he there”)
C Combines 4 to 5 words in sentences
C Complex sentences used frequently
C Imperatives and emphatics used consistently
C Parts of speech now in stable relationship
C Mean length of response - 4.4 words

4.1 - 4.6 Years (49 - 54 Months)

Phonology C T, d, k, g, n, ng, y mastered

C Uses ch, z and f frequently and accurately

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C Should be very few omissions and substitutions of

consonants
C Very intelligible in connected speech

Semantics C Understands concept number of 3 (“Give me just 3")

C Knows between, above, top, bottom
C Names one colour (54 months)
C Recognizes 2 to 3 primary colours (54 months)
C Answers 14 agent + action questions
C Responds appropriately - not necessarily correctly, to
“How far” questions
C Defines 4 words in terms of use
C Counts 4 objects
C Rote counts to 10
C Repeats 4 digits in 1 of 3 trials
C Uses “What do....?”, “Does...?” and “Did...?” questions

Play C Makes cube gate from model

C Identifies parts missing in 2 pictures
C Shows off dramatically
C Copies square
C Much self-praise

Syntax - Morphology C “If” and “so” appear in sentences

C Irregular plurals used fairly consistently (child/children)
C “Our, they, and their” used consistently
C Uses “could” and “would” in sentences
C Errors of noun/verb and adjective/noun agreement are
frequent
C Combines 4 to 7 words in sentences
C Passive voice emerging in some children - “The dog was
kicked by the boy”
C Mean length of response - 4.6 words

4.7 - 5.0 Years (55 - 60 Months)

Phonology C Th, v, zh used frequently

C Most consonant sounds used consistently and accurately,
though may not be mastered in all contexts
C More errors present in difficult consonant blends

Semantics C Comprehends 2500 to 2800 words

C Answers 2 complex comprehension questions

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C Executes 3 commissions
C Points to red, yellow, green and blue on request (60
months)
C Knows heavy/light, loud/soft, like/unlike - discriminates
long/short
C Classifies according to form, colour or use
C Uses 1500 - 2000 words
C Repeats two nonsense syllables
C Answers simple “When” questions (“When do you sleep”)
C Answers 15 agent/action questions
C Responds appropriately to “How often, How long”
questions
C Asks meaning words
C Tells long story accurately
C Counts 10 objects
C Names first/middle/last
C Identifies missing object from group of 3
C Repeats days of week in sequence

Play C Likes cutting out and pasting

C Likes working on projects - may carry over from day to
day
C Definite interest in finishing what he/she starts
C Plays in group of 2 to 5 - friendships becoming stronger
C Spurred on by rivalry in activity - competition
C Interested in going on excursions
C Draws unmistakable man with body, arms, legs, feet, nose
and eyes
C Adds 7 parts to incomplete man
C Copies a triangle
C Watches life situation programs on T.V. - gains
information from verbal content (60 months)

Syntax - Morphology C Possessive pronouns - “his, her” emerge

C Uses “will” to form future tense
C Fewer errors in agreement between adjective/noun
C Reflexive pronouns becoming more consistent
C Comparative (er) emerging - (“bigger”)
C Combines 5 to 8 words in sentences
C Mean length of response - 5.7 words

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5.1 - 6.0 Years (61 - 72 Months)

Phonology C F mastered

Semantics C Comprehends 13, 000 words (by age 6)

C Answers “What happens if ...” questions
C Understands “opposite of” (“The opposite of hot is...”)
C Differentiates A.M. and P.M.
C Understands yesterday/tomorrow, more/less, some/many,
several/few, most/least, before/after, now/later, across, a
pair
C Has a number concepts to 10 (“Give me ... blocks”)
C Points to penny, nickel, quarter, dime
C Points to half and whole
C Knows right from left (by age 6)
C Points to named numerals - 1 to 25
C Shifts classifications - classifies according to shape, then
colour
C Counts 12 objects correctly
C Recites (rote counts) numbers up to 30
C Repeats 4 digits correctly
C Names basic colours
C Names 5 letters of alphabet (by age 6)
C States similarities and differences of objects
C Describes location or movement: through, away, from,
toward, over
C Names position of objects: first, second, third
C Names days of week in order

Play C Copies drawing or rectangle with diagonals in middle

C Copies drawing of diamond
C Draws man with neck, fingers, clothes, and 2 dimensional
legs
C Adds 9 parts to incomplete man
C May start collections
C Able to play games by rules
C Build elaborate things with blocks

Syntax - Morphology C All pronouns used consistently

C Superlative “est” used (“biggest”)
C Adverbial word endings emerging (slowly, faster, etc.)
C Syntax near normal
C Mean length of response - 6.6 words

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6.1 - 7.0 Years (73 - 84 Months)

Phonology C V, th, l, zh, sh mastered (by age 6½)

C Z, s, th, r, hw mastered (by age 7½)
C Speech is mastered

Semantics C Comprehends 20,000 to 26,000 words

C Understands roughly the difference in time intervals
C Understands seasons of the year, what you do in each
C Prints phone number and own full name with no model
C Puts numerals 1 - 10 in proper sequential order
C Form letters left to right - reversals and inversions
common
C Prints alphabet and numerals from previously printed
model
C Writes one syllable words related to sight vocabulary
C Grasps the basic idea of addition and subtraction
C States preceding and following numbers and days of week
C Is aware of mistakes in other people’s speech
C Apt to use slang and mild profanity
C Tells address, both street and number
C Second emergence of question stage - “why”
C Recites the alphabet sequentially - names capital letters,
names, lower case by 7, matches upper to lower case
C Sight reads 10 printed words
C Rote counts to 100
C Names numerals 1 -10
C Tells time related to a specific daily schedule

Play C Obsessive play interest - mania for guns, funny books

C Spends hours at one activity
C Plays alone better than at 6 years
C Group play similar to 6 year old with less ability to
pretend and more need to provide necessary paraphernalia
C Demands more realism
C Does not branch out on many novel adventures
C Better at planning what he/she does
C Beginning of inventing and designing
C Strong return to cutting out and colouring
C Fond of table games
C Dramatization of experiences and stories is predominant
C Likes stunts: gymnastics, tumbling, etc.

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Syntax - Morphology C Fairly consistent use of most morphological makers

C “If” and “so” developed by most children
C Reflexive pronouns developed by most children
C Irregular comparatives used more correctly (good, better,
best)
C Perfect tense “have” and “had” emerging
C Nominalization occurring: noun forms are developed from
verb forms
C Continued improvement on irregular plurals
C Iteration emerging (“You have to clean clothes to make
them clean.”)
C Participial compliments emerging
C Passive voice fully developed in most children
C Continued refinement of syntax
C Mean length of response - 7.3 words

COMMON REASONS FOR DELAYED SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

There are a variety of causes for delayed speech development.

Each child’s speech development is influenced by a variety of
factors which include:
C the ability to hear
C the physical development of the mouth and throat
C inherited abilities

Learning to Talk Involves: C producing speech sounds

C understanding the meaning and use of words
C combining words into phrases and sentences
C combining sounds to say words and sentences

Common Causes of Delayed Hearing Loss

Speech C mild/temporary loss may be due to ear infections and
allergies
C children learn to speak by hearing others speak
C if a child does not hear speech correctly, it will affect
his/her ability to speak correctly
C an appointment with an audiologist, a specialist in testing
hearing, should be made if there is concern

Mouth Deformities
C physical defects
C structural problems

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Motor Control of Mouth Movements

C difficulty with motor control involving movement of lips,
tongue and jaw

Metalinguistic Ability C the knowledge that: (1) language is arbitrary

(2) language is a code
(3) language is a system of elements
and rules for how they go
together

C the ability to reflect on language as something that can be

talked about just as, for example, a chair or a cat can be
talked about

C the ability to manipulate the various elements of oral

language for social and/or stylistic purposes

Stages of Metalinguistic Stage One (Ages 1½ - 2):

Development
C distinguish print from non-print

C knows how to interact with books: right side up, page-

turning from right to left

C recognizes some printed symbols, e.g., TV characters’

names, brand names, signs

LM/ak STEP/D10c/106 1994 05 30

Speech and Language: Durham District School Board

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