24th Forging Industry Technical Conference, Cleveland, Ohio, 2002

FATIGUE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF FORGED VERSUS

COMPETING PROCESS TECHNOLOGIES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

ALI FATEMI AND MEHRDAD ZOROUFI

PROFESSOR AND RESEARCH ASSISTANT, RESPECTIVELY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL, INDUSTRIAL,
AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
THE UNIVERSITY OF TOLEDO, TOLEDO, OHIO 43606

ABSTRACT

To increase the usage and competitiveness of forged ferrous components,

comparative mechanical and metallurgical properties for ferrous forged components and
similar components produced by other manufacturing technologies must be evaluated.
Among the mechanical properties, fatigue properties and performance are key
considerations in design and performance evaluation of many components. The overall
objective of this study is therefore to compare fatigue performance of forged
components with those of components in which forging is not a process step. Steering
knuckle was chosen as an example representative component, because it is a common
automotive component. In addition to a literature survey, the overall study includes both
analytical as well as experimental evaluations. This paper describes the analytical and
experimental methods to be employed and presents some of the findings from the
literature survey conducted.

INTRODUCTION AND PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Fatigue is a major consideration in the design and performance evaluation of

materials, components, and structures since about 90 percent of all mechanical failures
are attributed to fatigue fractures (1). A comprehensive study of the cost of fracture in
the United States indicated a $119 billion (in 1982 dollars) cost occurred in 1978, or
about 4% of the gross national product (2). The greatest portion of these failures were
found to occur in motor vehicle and parts. The investigation emphasized that this cost
could be significantly reduced by using proper and current technology in design, and
this includes fatigue design. In automotive component design and analysis, efforts have
been made to determine the fatigue behavior of components made of forgings as well
as competing processes (3-6), to implement methodologies for stress analysis and
fatigue life predictions (7-13), and to optimize such components (14-16). Only a small
number of studies have been devoted to manufacturing process comparisons with a
focus on durability aspects. Such studies are necessary to enhance the competitiveness
of the forged components and their application in the automotive industry. Accordingly,
the overall objective of this research program is to compare fatigue performance of
forged components with that of components in which forging is not a process step.
Steering knuckle was chosen as an example representative component, because it is a
common automotive component. The main competitions to forged steel steering knuckle
are cast iron and cast aluminum steering knuckles.
The overall study includes a literature survey, analytical evaluations, as well as
experimental work. The literature survey includes both a survey on comparison of
forging with competing manufacturing processes and potentials for improving
competitiveness, as well as a survey of durability and optimization studies on steering
knuckle. The analytical work includes stress analysis, durability analysis, and
optimization analysis. The experimental work includes both specimen testing to
characterize material monotonic deformation and fatigue performance, as well as
component testing to compare with life predictions. This paper describes the
aforementioned analytical and experimental methods to be employed and presents
some of the findings from the literature survey conducted.

Literature Survey

A literature review is conducted to determine the processes and example parts

that represent competition to forgings and compare mechanical properties of forgings
and competitive products such as castings. Mechanical properties evaluated mainly
include strength, ductility and fatigue. Similar alloys and heat treatment conditions are
evaluated and benefits of forgings (in particular regarding fatigue properties) are
compared to other products. A specific literature survey is also conducted for vehicle
steering knuckle, which is used as an example part in this study. This survey includes
material selection and manufacturing, stress analysis, fatigue analysis and life
prediction, and optimization analysis. As mentioned earlier, some of the results from the
literature survey are presented, after the analytical and experimental methods to be
employed in the overall project are described.

Stress Analysis

Finite element analysis of the steering knuckle will be conducted to obtain stress
distributions for the component. Forces and moments that the steering knuckle
experiences include static reactions imparted via the tire patch, dynamic force due to
steer motion, dynamic lateral loading, off-center loading when the tire is loaded laterally
on the tire sidewall, and oscillatory response that the knuckle exhibits due to impact
loading. As recommended by Conle and Chu (9), an elastic unit load analysis combined
with a superposition procedure for each load point in the service history will be utilized
to produce each elements stress history. This approach uses strength of materials
method and an elastic FEA model to obtain stress-strain relation, and subsequently
load-strain relation, which is the norm for most vehicular durability analyses. This
approach contrasts a plastic FEA analysis which would compare load-strain curve
directly. Nonlinear analysis will also be used in this study, if appropriate, where
deformations may be inelastic such as at stress concentrations.

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Durability Analysis

Based on the finite element analysis, fatigue life predictions will be performed.
Basically, four fatigue life models exist (1). These consist of the nominal stress-life (S-N)
and the local strain-life (ε-N) models which are based on crack nucleation, the fracture
mechanics model which is based on fatigue crack growth (da/dN-∆K), and the two-stage
model which consists of combining the strain-life and crack growth models to
incorporate both crack nucleation and growth. In the stress-life analysis the material
properties are obtained from load-controlled fatigue tests, while in the strain-life
analysis, the material properties are obtained from strain-controlled fatigue tests. The
strain-life approach is also called local strain approach since nominal stresses and
strains are translated to local stresses and strains by using experimental methods such
as strain gauges, computational methods such as FEA, or analytical models such as
Neuber’s rule. In the fatigue crack growth analysis, the governing parameter is the
stress intensity factor which is obtained from the component geometry and loading. The
material properties used are fatigue crack growth rate of the material which is obtained
from fatigue crack growth tests, and material fracture toughness.
Figure 1 provides a fatigue design flow chart, often used for automotive
components (1). In this flow chart, a number of inputs are gathered in order to select the
configuration of the component, the material(s) of construction and the manufacturing
process(s). These include component size and geometry (such as stress concentrations
and notches), material properties obtained from specimen testing, the environment
(such as corrosion, temperature, and fretting), and manufacturing/processing/treatment,
which affect material properties and introduce effects such as surface roughness and
residual stresses. The type of loading the component is subjected to can be classified
as constant versus variable amplitude, uniaxial versus multiaxial (such as combined
bending and torsion), and with or without mean stresses. A cycle counting method (such
as rainflow cycle counting) and a cumulative damage model (such as the Miner linear
rule) are needed for variable amplitude loading. An equivalent multiaxial stress/strain
parameter (such as von Mises or Fatemi-Socie parameters) is needed for multiaxial
loading. A mean stress correction parameter (such as SWT parameter) is required for
mean stress correction, if present. A fatigue design criterion is also selected depending
on the functionality, design requirements, cost, and safety critical nature of the
component. These criteria include infinite-life, safe-life, fail-safe, and damage tolerant
designs. Based on the selected criterion and the above considerations, the fatigue life of
the component is then estimated and verified against component bench testing.

Optimization

Based on the results of stress and durability analyses and the testing conducted,
an analytical optimization study of the forged steel steering knuckle will be performed.
Such optimization seeks to minimize stress, maximize fatigue life, and minimize
manufacturing weight. The same model used for the finite element analysis will be used
to perform the optimization analysis. Recommendations will be made on the optimized
geometry. The optimization problem is made up of three basic considerations. It

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includes an objective function to be minimized or maximized, which for this case would
be stress in a particular region of the component and fatigue life of the component.
Another consideration is a set of design variables that affect the value of the objective
function, which are the variables used to define the geometry and material of the
knuckle in this study. Finally, A set of constraints are specified that allows the design
variables to have certain values but exclude others. For this study it is intended to limit
the component’s weight, while other constraints might be fatigue life or crack nucleation
size. The optimization aspects include optimization analysis, manufacturing of the
optimized part if possible, and testing/verification of the optimized part. Such analysis
and testing allow production of lighter steering knuckles, resulting in more efficient
engines. The optimized parts for testing are manufactured by the component
manufacturer.

Specimen Testing

Strain-controlled monotonic and fatigue tests of specimens obtained from

steering knuckles will be conducted. From these experiments, both static as well as
baseline cyclic deformation and fatigue properties of materials are obtained. Such data
provide a direct comparison between deformation, fatigue performance, and failure
mechanisms of the base materials, without introducing the effects and interaction of
complex design parameters such as surface finish, component size, residual stress, and
stress concentration. They also provide the required baseline data for life prediction
analysis to predict component fatigue life and performance under actual service loading
conditions. ASTM standard test methods and recommended practices will be followed
for all tests. The forged steel data are available from the AISI fatigue database, while
these properties for the other two materials (cast iron and cast aluminum) will be
generated in this study.

Component Testing

Component testing is more challenging than specimen testing because of the

large load requirements and complexities of setups and fixturing, to be able to cycle the
most important loading of the steering knuckle over long periods. A limited number of
load or stroke-control fatigue tests of steering knuckles made of forged steel and
alternative materials/processes (i.e. cast iron and cast aluminum) will be conducted.
The stress history amplitudes will be increased (magnification factors to be determined)
compared with those recorded on the corrugated proving ground in order to reduce
testing time. Strain gages will be positioned on those locations found critical during FEA
stress analysis. Data from such tests provide a direct comparison between fatigue
performances of the components made of each base material and manufacturing
process. This comparison inherently includes effects such as surface finish, component
size, residual stresses, stress concentrations, etc. In addition, such data provide
validation for the life predictions performed based on the baseline material fatigue data
generated by specimen testing.

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SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE SURVEY

Manufacturing Processes Competing with Forging

Various mechanical and metallurgical properties, environmental considerations,

and above all cost competitiveness aspects are the main driving forces shaping the
future direction of the forging industry. In the ground vehicle industry, the power train
components, suspension components, and steering system components are the main
application of steel forgings. Such conventional forged components include crankshaft,
camshaft, connecting rod, piston crown, steering lever, suspension arm, steering
knuckle and spindle, wheel hub, drive flange and axle beam. Some of these
components are also manufactured by die-casting, and more recently by powder forging
and composite technologies. Powder metallurgy processes using sintering offers net-
shaped products and have been used to improve productivity. Composites offer
lightweight and directional properties, but are comparatively expensive. A number of
selected examples from literature are provided here to indicate the drivers for
conversion from forging process to competing technologies and to help improving
forging competitiveness.
Forged products are compared to cast competitor products in Table 1. The cost
of forging a part compared to that of making it by various casting techniques, machining,
or by other manufacturing methods is a key consideration and often depends on the
production volume. A cost comparison for a typical automotive component (connecting
rod) is provided in Figure 2 (17). As can be seen, all other factors being the same, and
depending on the number of pieces required, manufacturing a certain part by, say,
expandable mold casting may well be more economical than doing so by forging and on
the other hand, for large quantities forging is more economical.
Powder metallurgy offers high precision and low weight tolerances leading to less
machining operations in comparison to classically forged or cast components. On the
other hand, fatigue resistance and toughness are not generally as good as steel
forgings (18). Powder metallurgy may not be satisfactory for parts with small precision
geometrical details. Also, large components can be forged, whereas only relatively
small parts can be manufactured by P/M to achieve high density. Jang et al. (19)
conducted a study on powder materials and production processes by producing the
clutch disk spline hub of automobile, to replace with the existing forged component.
They also investigated mechanical properties and microstructure along with the
performance of a dynamic test of three types of powder materials. They concluded that
one of the produced powder metallurgy samples which is a diffusion alloy powder and is
treated with carburizing-tempering, performed better in torsion durability tests and wear
resistance than that of existing forged steel component. They also concluded that if
powder metal is sintered and treated with adequate condition, toughness could be
improved to the same level as forged metal. In general, the main advantages of P/M
parts are elimination of waste material as well as machining operations and low unit
cost when mass-produced, while their main disadvantages are high cost of dies,

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typically lower physical properties, higher cost of materials, limitations on the design,
and the limited range of materials which can be used.
Thixoforming has come to play an increasing role as an alternative to forging,
especially to obtain high-strength aluminum components for lightweight automotive
designs. In this process a semi-solid metal is injected into a closed die. Thixo-formed
aluminum components are often intended to replace steel forgings to form near-net
shape components, or nodular cast iron components to reduce the solidification
shrinkage. Hirt et al. (20) used a pilot thixoforming system to redesign, thixoform and
test an aluminum steering knuckle, as a thin walled structural component subject to high
loads, and to compare the product with the original steel-forged knuckle. They
combined steering knuckle thick-walled and thin-walled areas with stiffening ribs and
undercuts to gain necessary yield strength, fracture toughness and stiffness. As a
result, the weight of the new part was 50% below that of conventional forged steel
design, despite identical functional capabilities.
The positive trend for the application of cast components is mainly due to lower
cost incentives. However, weaker mechanical properties of cast components due to a
wide variety of flaws and their low ductility have always been a matter of concern.
Houshito et al. (21) performed a feasibility study on the application of high strength
ductile iron to automotive chassis parts, namely steering knuckles. They state that while
the shape of forged part is limited by the manufacturing process, the shape of casting
part can be optimized by balancing the stress distribution. They intended to reduce
weight and cost of the steering knuckle by replacing the forged part by a cast part with
optimized shape and comparable strength. In this regard, stress and rigidity analysis
and fatigue and impact testing were conducted on the knuckle. They concluded that the
Young's modulus of castings is lower than that of forging by 20%, and fatigue strength
of the cast knuckle was lower than the original forged knuckle by 23%.
The influence of surface roughness and defects on fatigue life for various
manufacturing processes is also a key consideration in durability performance.
Processes such as powder metallurgy have sometimes been more appealing, if they
require less machining after production (22, 23). Surface effects also include differences
in microstructure, chemical composition, and residual stresses. Figure 3 shows a
comparison of fatigue strength in various manufacturing processes for a front
suspension arm. Even though for the hot forged steel surface defects of blank surfaces
reduce fatigue strength by 30% from that of the machined surface, the fatigue strength
is still considerably better than that of the nodular cast iron arm.
Strain hardening of the surface layer has a strong influence of fatigue behavior
which depends on the depth of the deformed layer. Surface decarburization can occur
after hot forging, which can cause different defects on the surface layer, reduce strain
hardening of the surface layer, and consequently reduce the fatigue strength. Excessive
strain hardening resulting from large deformations can also produce cracking and
flaking of the surface and significantly reduce the fatigue strength.

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Benefits of Forgings and Some Potentials for Improving Competitiveness

Application of forged parts made of microalloyed steels to automobile parts is

becoming increasingly common due to their superior properties compared to
conventional quenched and tempered carbon steels. Microalloyed steels do not require
heat treatment and, therefore, no additional machining for correcting distortions after
forging is necessary. The fatigue properties and toughness of microalloyed steel
forgings have been demonstrated to be fit for purpose. However, compared with heat
treated low alloy steels their fracture toughness is somewhat lower, even though still
significantly superior to castings.
To consider fatigue durability, Kuratomi et al. (24) developed lightweight
connecting rods based on fatigue resistance analysis of microalloyed steels. Rotating
bending fatigue on smooth and notched specimens as well as component buckling and
load-life fatigue tests were conducted. Figure 4 shows the fatigue test results obtained
with actual connecting rods made of SV40CL1 microalloyed steel (0.4% carbon steel)
and S40C quenched and tempered (equivalent to SAE 1040) steel. It was concluded
that connecting rods made of the forged microalloyed steel exhibit 25% higher fatigue
limit than the similar forged Q& T steel and are 10% lighter in weight.
Following the same goal, Farsetti and Blarasin (3) investigated the possibility of
replacing forged quenched and tempered steels by forged microalloyed steels of
appropriate composition and microstructure. They concluded that replacing Q&T steels
with microalloyed steels is possible considering the following:
• For mechanical components that can be made from 800 MPa class steels,
microalloyed steels could be used. With low-C high-Mn steels, satisfactory
strength values can be attained, keeping good toughness properties.
• The higher-strength class microalloyed steel lends itself to an increase in
strength and toughness by optimizing the microstructural parameters.
• Small ferrite grain and presence of bainitic phase will increase strength of
microalloyed steels significantly.
Anisotropy, if present, is an importance consideration in durability performance. It
could have beneficial or detrimental effects, depending on the loading direction. During
initial breakdown of cast ingots or subsequent working nonuniformities in alloy
chemistry, second-phase particles, inclusions, and crystalline grains are aligned in the
directions of the greatest metal flow, known as the grain-flow pattern. Grain flow
produces directional characteristics in properties such as strength, ductility, and
resistance to impact and fatigue. The variation in yield strength and tensile strength is
not usually as significant as that in impact and fatigue resistance. The forging process
can use this directionality to provide a unique and important advantage by orienting
grain flow within the component so that it lies in the direction requiring maximum
strength. The maximum load-bearing capacity of a forging is realized when the
component is loaded along the grain-flow direction. Properly developed grain flow in
forgings closely follows the outline of the component. In contrast, bar stock and plate
have grain flow in only one direction, and changes in contour require that flow lines be
cut, exposing grain ends and rendering the material more liable to fatigue failure and
more sensitive to stress corrosion.

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 Fatigue crack growth resistance is an important consideration, when evaluating
fatigue performance. Fatigue crack growth behavior of quenched and tempered steels,
which are often used to produce forged products, are compared to cast steel in Figure
5. As can be seen, the quenched and tempered 4140 steel exhibits superior fatigue
crack propagation behavior compared to the cast SAE 0030 steel.
To improve fatigue performance of forged components, reducing surface defects
and/or their effects play an important role. One way to achieve this goal is to induce
surface compressive residual stresses. Applying localized inelastic deformation through
processes such as shot peening or surface rolling, are the common available methods
of inducing residual stresses. Fifty percent greater fatigue strength has been reported in
rolled threads, compared with cut or ground threads made of high strength steel (1).
Figure 6 illustrates the beneficial effect of shot peening on fatigue resistance of gears.
Thermal processes can also induce residual stresses. For example, in surface
hardening of steel by processes such as induction hardening, carburizing, or nitriding, in
addition to the hard surface produced, a beneficial compressive residual stress is also
created on the surface. This compressive residual stress can very effectively prevent
the formation and growth of cracks.
In order to keep pace with the new competitors, steel forgings must satisfy the
automotive manufacturers requirements in terms of weight, cost, durability,
recycleability and overall performance. Traditionally, forged components have been
produced from heat treated carbon and low alloy steels. Although heat treated steels
are still widely used, air cooled forging steels are becoming increasingly popular.
Through a reduction in energy consumption, fewer process steps and lower inventories,
these forgings can offer significant cost savings. Cristinacce et al. (25) provide some
recent examples of the range of components produced from air cooled forging steels.
An air cooled 0.53%C steel was used in the production of hubs and spindles, where an
approximately 400% increase in hardness was achieved compared to the heat treated
forgings. In another case, a swivel hub was redesigned as a forging in place of a steel-
casting that had been proposed originally. The steel casting exhibited unacceptable
distortion of the steering arm in heat treatment, surplus material leading to high
machining cost, and excessive weight affecting the unsprung mass of the suspension
design. A redesigned swivel hub was forged and control air-cooled. The results of
mechanical tests on both the forging and the casting are given in Table 2. It can be
seen that the forging had superior strength, ductility, and hardness, compared to the
heat treated casting. The use of the forging also resulted in lower weight by 21%, better
dimensional control, less machining, and avoidance of heat treatment costs.

Steering Knuckle Studies

Steering knuckle is selected as an example part for this study. Fatigue analysis
and life prediction features and optimization of vehicle steering knuckle and similar
automotive components were reviewed. The results of selected studies on
determination of local stresses and strains, notch analysis, force and moment
measurements, multiaxial stress/strain paths, fatigue failure diagnosis and analysis
guidelines, and fatigue life assessment procedure are briefly discussed here.

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 Lee et al. (12) describe the durability design process of a cast steering knuckle.
Their objectives included:1) assessing quantitatively fatigue lives of steering knuckle, 2)
identifying critical and non-damaging areas for design enhancement, and 3) weight
reduction. They assumed that effects of dynamic frequency could be negligible and that
a uniaxial notch stress/strain estimation procedure could be used for plasticity
correction. The elastic stress components due to numerous static loads were combined
to derive the time history for each stress component. The dynamic loads (i.e. variable
field forces) and the static loads (i.e. clamp bolt forces and forces due to change in
pressures and temperatures) were taken into account. The finite element models of the
preliminary and optimized knuckles are shown in Figure 7. They used the critical plane
approach to account for multiaxial stresses. The search for the plane where the fatigue
crack initiates, called the critical plane, can be very time-consuming, but necessary,
because the principal stress/strain axes vary with time for non-proportional loading
problems. They noted that the SWT parameter was especially satisfactory for analyzing
automotive suspension and engine components made of cast materials. knuckle strain
gage measurements were made for loads in elastic and non-elastic load ranges.
As a result of analyzing fatigue behavior of a vehicle axle steering arm based on
local stresses and strains, to determine the effect of surface roughness and residual
stress on fatigue life and to verify local strain approach, Savaidis (6) concluded that
there was a significant detrimental effect caused by surface roughness and residual
stress state on fatigue behavior. This detrimental effect for the surface roughness is
shown in Figure 8. In addition, local strain approach for fatigue resistant design was
shown to have good agreement with experimental results.
Multiaxial fatigue is an important factor that should be considered in the fatigue
analysis of components. Kocabicak and Firat (26) proposed a bi-axial load-notch strain
approximation for proportional loading to estimate the fatigue life of a passenger car
wheel during the cornering fatigue test under plane stress conditions. In their work the
elasto-plastic strain components were calculated analytically using the total deformation
theory of plasticity. In addition, the input for the load–notch strain analysis was the
measured or calculated plastic strain state at the notch together with the materials
stabilized cyclic stress–strain curve evaluated from unnotched axial specimens. The
damage accumulation was based on the Palmgren–Miner rule.
Conle and Chu (9) developed a 3-D stress-strain model to simulate reversed
multiaxial stress/strain paths to assess damage in complex vehicular structures. They
indicate that a Neuber plasticity correction method must be used to correlate plastic
behavior. In addition elastic unit load analysis should be used combined with a
superposition procedure of each load points service history.
Devlukia and Bargmann (11) conducted fatigue assessment of a suspension arm
using deterministic and probabilistic approaches. Their approach had the following
considerations and results:
• The strength reduction effect due to surface roughness is accounted for by
representing the surface as a collection of notches and making use of Neuber's
rule. The strength reduction effects due to the surface roughness are similar
under constant and variable amplitude loading.

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 • Residual stress demonstrates a more pronounced effect under constant
amplitude loading as compared to variable amplitude loading.
• Cumulative damage under variable amplitude loading sequence of long duration
on simple specimens is non-conservative by a factor of about 2 as compared to
measured data.
• The prediction of component lives based on specimen data is conservative by a
factor of about 2.
Conle and Mousseau (10) used vehicle simulation and finite element results to
generate fatigue life contours for chassis components using automotive proving ground
load history results combined with computational techniques. They concluded that the
combination of vehicle dynamics modeling, finite-element analysis, and fatigue analysis
is a viable technique for the fatigue design of automotive components.
Witter et al. (27) converted a steering knuckle into a 6-DOF transducer to be able
to estimate the operating wheel translation force and moment inputs to a Mercury Sable
steering knuckle. To reach this goal, a 6-DOF load cell was used in the array calibration
procedure to provide an estimate of the 6 forces and moments’ inputs at a point on the
plate bolted to the steering knuckle. They concluded that the calibration matrix did not
vary significantly with suspension height, but did vary significantly with large steering
angles. Moreover, the strain gage responses were sensitive to moments. It was
suggested to place vehicle on a 4-poster and apply forces and moments through the 4-
poster exciter to prevent the effect of un-suspended vehicle array calibration problems.
The results of their analysis was compared with two cornering tests on the same design,
showing an 11% error with respect to the physical test results conducted on the
prototypes.
Thermal shape vectors were used by Krishna and Fetcho (15) in finite element
shape optimization of a steering knuckle for weight reduction. They found that thermal
displacements could be used as shape vectors to derive shape optimization. The load
and displacement methods of generating the shape vectors are cumbersome to apply to
complex castings such as steering knuckles. With 100 iterations and 118 hrs of CPU,
the steering knuckle was redesigned using thermal shape vectors and its weight was
reduced by 7.6%.
Botkin (14) used a shape design modeling with fully automatic three-dimensional
mesh generation to model and optimize vehicle suspension components, namely
suspension arm and steering knuckle. In the model the control arm geometry was
assembled from two parts: BOSS and ARM and similarly the steering knuckle consisted
of BOSS, SLAB and HUB (see Figure 9). A preliminary set of design primitives were
developed which could be assembled into complete solid models. The resulting models
were associated with design variables, which could be easily changed.

SUMMARY

This paper described the details of the analytical and experimental methods to be
employed to compare fatigue performance of forged components with those of
components in which forging is not a process step. Some of the findings from the

10
literature survey conducted were also reported. Forging process as a major
manufacturing process in the automotive industry, and its advantages in comparison
with other manufacturing techniques and potential improvements were investigated.
This comparison emphasized material selection and manufacturing, and mechanical
properties, in particular with regards to fatigue performance. Durability and optimization
of steering knuckle as a typical vehicle component were also reviewed. Selected
examples from the literature were provided to determine some of the driving forces for
conversion from forging to competing technologies, such as casting. Some important
factors that could influence the properties of forged products, such as anisotropy and
surface defects, were discussed.
Machined, as well as as-forged steering knuckles of a small 4-cylinder vehicle
have been obtained to be used as the forged steel component to be evaluated in this
study. The machined knuckles will be used for component testing, while the as-forged
steering knuckles will be used to prepare fatigue-testing specimens. Finite element
method is currently being implemented to analyze the available forged steel component,
and work is currently underway to prepare testing specimens from these components.
Vehicles equipped with cast aluminum and cast iron steering knuckles, even though in a
larger vehicle, have also been identified to be used for comparisons with the forged
steel knuckles as the competing process technologies.

REFERENCES

1. Stephens, R. I., Fatemi, A., Stephens, R. R., Fuchs, H. O., “Metal Fatigue in
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4. Gunnarson, S., Ravenshorst, H., Bergstorm, C. M., “Experience with Forged
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12. Lee, Y. L., Raymond, M. N., Villaire, M. A., “Durability Design Process of a Vehicle
Suspension Component,” Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 23, 1995, pp. 354-
363.
13. Taylor, D., Esmen, E., Pan, J., “Determination of Assembly Stresses in Aluminum
Knuckles,” SAE transactions, Technical Paper no. 1999-01-0345, 1999, Section 1,
pp. 302-306.
14. Botkin, M. E., “Shape Design Modeling Using Fully Automatic Three-Dimensional
Mesh Generation,” Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 165-
181.
15. Krishna, M. M. R., Fetcho, M. R., “Thermal Shape Vectors in Finite Element Shape
Optimization of a Steering Knuckle,” Recent Advances in Solid and Structures,
ASME PVP, Chung, H. H., ed., Vol. 381, 1998, pp. 165-170.
16. Lin, J., “Shape Optimization of Nonlinear Structures under fatigue Loading,” Ph.D.
Dissertation, Department of Mechanical, Industrial and Nuclear Engineering of the
College of Engineering, University of Cincinnati, 2001.
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Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2001.
18. Esper, F. J. and Sonsino, C. M., “Fatigue design for PM Components,” European
Powder Metallurgy Association, England, 1994.
19. Jang, G. B., Hur, M. D., Kang, S. S., “A Study on the Development of a Substitution
Process by Powder Metallurgy in Automobile Parts,” Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, Vol. 100, 2000, pp. 110-115.
20. Hirt, G., Cremer, R., Witulski, T., Tinius, H. C., “Lightweight Near Net Shape
Components Produced by Thixoforming,” Materials and Design, Vol. 18, No. 4,
1997, pp. 315-321.
21. Houshito, S., Watanabe, Y., Goka, M., Ishihara, Y., “Feasibility Study on the
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12
22. Blarasin, A., Giunti, T., “Manufacturing Processes Influence Fatigue Life,”
Automotive Engineering, Vol. 105, July 1997, pp. 93-95.
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the SAE Fatigue Design and Evaluation Committee, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc., 1997.
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Lightweight Connecting Rod Based on Fatigue Resistance Analysis of Microalloyed
Steel,” SAE transactions, Technical Paper no. 900454, 1990, 487-491.
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Automotive Forging the Steelmakers' Contribution,” Forging and Related
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13
Table 1: Summary of some characteristic comparisons between forging and casting
processes.

Process
Forging Casting
Property
Strength High Medium

Ductility High Low

Toughness High Medium

Fatigue crack growth resistance Good Poor

Directional strength capability Yes None

Heat treatment response Good Requires close control

Internal defects Possible Many

Production volume High High

Production rate High Low (sand casting)

to high (die casting)
Initial tooling cost High Medium

Production cost Low Low

Shape complexity Limited High (in die-casting)

Dimensional versatility High Limited

Dimensional accuracy Medium Medium

Surface finish Good to poor Poor

Material versatility High (ferrous and non-ferrous) Limited

14
Table 2. Properties of cast and forged steels swivel hub (25).

0.2% PS
UTS El R/A 3mm U
C Si Mn S V Lower YS Hv
2 (N/mm2) (%) (%) (J)
(N/mm )
Casting 0.31 0.45 1.34 0.014 - 440 655 15-25 63 190-205
(wide arm)
Forging 0.39 0.26 1.28 0.075 0.099 669 969 17 46.6 9 290-300
(wide arm)

15
 Figure 1. Fatigue design flow chart (1).

Figure 2. Relative unit costs of a small connecting rod made by various forging and
casting processes (17).

16
Figure 3. Changes in fatigue performance of vehicle front suspension arm due to
surface defects from forged and cast manufacturing processes (22).

Figure 4. Fatigue strength of microalloyed (SV40CL1) and Q&T (S40C) forged

connecting rods (24).

17
Figure 5. Constant amplitude fatigue crack growth behavior of Q&T vs. cast steels (23).

Figure 6. The effect of shot-peening on fatigue behavior of carburized gears (1).

18
Figure 7. Finite element model of the preliminary production (left) and the proposed
knuckle (right) (12).

Figure 8. Estimation of the influence of roughness on fatigue life (6).

19
Figure 9. Design model (left) and meshes (right) of the steering knuckle (14).

20