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/ 9
142
Analysis and Realization of a Pulsewidth
Modulator Based on Voltage
Space Vectors
HEINZ WILLI VAN DER BROECK, HANS-CHRISTOPH SKUDELNY, wewser, iss, aso GEORG VIKTOR STANKE
Absract—The method of using a space vector concept fr deriving the
siting tastans for pusevide- modulated oltage Source inverters i
Compared with the commonly used established snwsolal concept. Ar
Seducing the siching mes from assumptions for minimum current
“orton, the resting mean voltage values are shown andthe affer-
cs beincen thee andthe eabihedsneoidl PWM are aborted.
‘sed on an anayica calculation, the caren distortions and trgue
compared with those of estabished sinesoial
‘modulation. The realization of « pulsewidth modulator bs
‘eserbed ia the range of sch
Irbich generates by sftyare~spmmetrical sachronows ple
“The performance hasbeen proved by laborer et.
"ARIABLE-FREQUENCY ac drives are increasingly
‘used for various applications in industry and traction.
Due to the improvement of fast-switching semiconductor
power devices, voltage source inverters with pulsewidth-
‘modulated (PWM) control, as shown in Fig. 1, find particu-
larly growing interest.
‘Control methods that generate the necessary PWM patterns
hhave been discussed extensively inthe literature. Two basic
concepts may be distinguished: for small and medium-size
drives, the curtent-contolled PWM kas proved to be advanta
_geous. For big drives employing inverters wit low switching
frequency, PWM voltage control is more advantageous.
However, this method i also an option for small and medium-
size dives, A detailed description of the basic methods may be
found in {1] and (2). This paper deals with PWM voltage
control methods
PWM Vottack Contaot Mettoos
If the switching frequency Jf is high compared to the
fundamental ourpuc frequency f, of the inverter (fequency
ratio zy 2 9, +++ 15), sampling methods with sinusoidal
reference signals, e.g., naral sampling (3) or regular
sumpling [4], may be used. These methods aim at generating
an inverter output voltage with sinusoidally modulated pulse-
Pager IPCSD 87-19, approved y the Isla Drives Commies ofthe
IEEE Init Applicat Society for pentane TORS Testy
Applctons Socety Annan Mes, Denver, CO, Seplember28-Oette 3
‘Manascrp eased for plcion Api 1, 1987,
HW. van der Boeke wi Pigs Foschungsaboratorim Aachen,
Wesstassrse, S100 Aachen, West Germany
TC Sen and. V_Stnk re wide Ins fur Somer
sik nd Hlecache Aatite,Uagerstase 17/9, SIO) Aachen. Wes
Geom
TEE Lng Nomber #71608
Insiction moor deve was plsewi-naaed vag smane
Fe
Widths. They will be relerred to as established sinusoidal
‘modulation in this paper, If the switching frequency is an
integer multiple of the fundamental ouput fequency. this will
be called synchronized sinusoidal modulation. in contrast to
free-running. sinusoidal modulation, where the switching
frequency and the fundamental output frequency are indepen
‘dent of each other.
‘Sinusoidal modulation maintains good performance of the
tive in the entre range of operation berwcen zero and 100:
percent modulation index m, Ifthe modulation index exceeds
unity, sinusoidal modulation is no longer possible. In this
range of operation itis useful to apply optimized PWM with
precaleulated switching points, which are stored in a look-up
lable. Optimized PWM is also recommended for low-fre
quency ratios. Ie is practical to calculate the notches ofF line in
such a way that current ripple oF losses or torque pulsations ae
minimized
Sivusoat, MopuLatios
In the following the sinusoidal modulation will be discussed
in more detail. For this purpose un inverter leg. a8 shown in
Fig. 2(a) is represented by an equivalent circuit. shown in
Fig. 20),
Ifthe changeover switch is operated according 10 sinusoidal
rmodialation, the ine-o-center voltage Uj follows a shape as
shown for instance in Fig, 3 in per-unit notation. The mean
value of the voltage 1 averaged over each cycle of the
switching frequency follows a staircase shape, which will be
replaced with a smoothed curve a(t) for sufficiently high
frequency ratios zr. This curve will be called mean value
herein, Ina symmetrical three-phase inverter the mean line-to
center voltages are
0K)
an,
wo
(0093-9994/88/0100-0142501.00 © 1988 IEEE ©
(a) lover gb lavener eg egal cic.
Fe
0)
Fig 3. Simple phase ivener cpt tage by cubed sina
However, the instantaneous values of the voltages depend on
the method of pulsing, It has been shown that a symmetry of|
the pulses within one switching period, 2s shown in Fig. 7, is
particularly advantageous [1], [11]. For fxed-Trequeney ratios
that are multiples of three. this concept results in equal shapes
‘ofthe three phase-tocenter voltages:
wen (2)
@
“The upper limi ofthe phas-o-enter voltage for simsoda
nvoxultons theorstically m= 1 with = 1. This sony 78
percent of the vale hit would be reached by square wave
Serato,
Srace-Vecroa MonttaTion
‘teem approach to PWM modulation is based on the
space vector representation of the voiages in the 2 plane
The a. d components ae found by Park transform, where the
total power, a well a the impedances remains unchanged
{sce also (23). This concept as discussed in publications
such as [4 }(6) For our purpose the esi es are summa
tase
“The thee machine voltages are represented by a voltage
space vector C. There are eight states walle for thi ecto
ording to eight sitching postions of the inverter. which
ae depicted in Fig. .
We define a mean pace vector E, which is lost constant
chring a switching period. Ths vector generates the funda
tnenal behavior af the mackie, eg, lrrents and torque
The difeence space vector U-U causes the current harmon
ies. For discnsing the currot harmonics, a simplified
tquivalent circuit of the induction machine according to Fig.
She) canbe used
For the quality of PWM contol, the deviation of the
snachine coments from the fundamental curr’ i bihly
Important. Forth heal case of slice high frequency
rato, cycles of switching sates can be found wherein the
143
Fig 4. (a) veer switching states. ()Ivener up voltage pace
oe =
Fig. 5. quale ici indi machine) Singh se peste
‘ion ()Simpiesuog for harmon cure acl 6) Simpieaon
imcan voltage vector is equalized to the Fundamental voltage
‘vector and the average deviation current vector becomes 20.
‘Within one switching state the deviation current vector
changes by the amount
[2 @- 6) arena ®
where
1, beginning of switching state
1, end of switching state
‘An optimum PWM modulation is expected if
© the maximum deviation of the current vector for several
switching states becomes as small as possible, and
* the eyele time is as short as possibie. 144
‘These conditions are met in general if
‘+ only the three switching states adjacent to the reference,
vector are used, and
‘the cycle wherein the average voltage vector becomes
equal to the reference vector consists of thee successive
‘witching states only.
‘To obtain minimum switching frequency ofeach inverter leg it
is necessary to arrange the switching sequence in such a way
thatthe transition from one state to the next is performed by
‘witching only one inverter leg
It can be seen in the switching diagram of Fig. 4 that these
conditions are met if stating from one zero state the inverter
legs are switched inthe relevant sequence ending at the other
zero state. If, for instance, the reference vector sits in sector I,
the switching sequence has to be ++ -812721812721-+
Hence it follows for a switching eyele in sector I:
le Depart a Dar= (a Bo ar
fh" Og des)? Oo at
For sufficiently high switching frequency the reference space
vector Os assumed constant during one switching cycle
“Taking into account that the states Uy, and Uae constant
and Oey = 0, one finds (see Fig. 6)
q+ T.+8q + T= Oe * Te ©
If the space vectors in this equation are described in
rectangular coordinates, it follows that
n fv [s]en- fe. jeer
«-([s7] o
Dra
[Oe 6
bu
3
Hence
sin 0")
a °
ona 1
tate a 20, i)
Tehenet- tN. an
For the sectors II-VI the same roles apply. Ths results in a
definite switching order according to Fig, 7, which shows
exactly the same symmetry as derived for established sinusoi
al modulation [11]
“To compare the results of the space-vector PWM with other
a,
Bg
Fig 6, Determination of iting tines,
Fig. 7. Optimum ule patern of pace vets PWM,
PWM concepts, the mean values of the phase-to-cemter
voltages averaged over one switching cycle are evaluated. For
sector I one finds
Rote he
a-%( PenansB)
i
ae
( 7
Taking ito aecount the necessary changes i the other sectors.
fone finds for the fundamental period
O(n=a- U,
2sin wie for 0 = ait = 30"
2 as,
~ sin (30° +014) for 30° = wit = 90"
i
O()* - 0-9 =~ 01-1) 49),
O()= O0-T9)= Ot 79) “7 a
5
Fig. Mean invert vlages by sce vsor PWM
Hence the phase-o-phase voltages are
4
yes
3
G,t)= O40 ~ CMe sin (ot+30) (18)
O,t)= O:4t~ T/A) = Ole T/9. ay)
Bodh the phaseto-enter voltage G; and the phase-o-phase
soltage Care shown in Fig. 8 in petanit notation, 1 tas
‘ou that with space-vector PWM, the phase-to-phase voltage
which is seen by the machine i sinusoidal, as expected
However, the phaseto-enter vollage i not sinusoidal. To
understand this result we have to recall that the Park
transformation, which defines the components ofthe space
Yectors, is not definitly reversible. Harmonics of tiple
orders may be aed tothe phase voltages without affecting
the Park components and the value of the phase-o-phase
voltages. Once tis cure is know it could be substituted for
the sinusoidal reference signal in anormal erce-pase
modulator. [a fact sn infinite number of curves could be
Synheszed as reference curves for PWM modulators. Some
have been mentioned in the hteratre, ©. (1
Comparing the phase-o-phase voltages scconding to the
established PWM and the space-veetor PWM, one finds
a 20)
Looking at Fig. 4 one finds that the maximum value for a
Sinusoidal PWM is. @ = 372
This leads tothe maximum modulation index im the case of|
space veetor PWM:
Mage = 2/N3 en
‘This is approximately 15 percent more than with established
PWM 8}. 19]. The amplitude of the maximum voltage
fundamental reaches about 90 percent ofthe respective square
wave fundamental
Couransox oF Sixusoinat PWM. ano Space Vector PWM
Te has been found in the previous section that with space-
vector modulation @ modulation index of m = 1.15 can be
feached. without any constraint, whereas with sinusoidal
‘modulation, notches are suppressed and low-order harmonics
‘occur inthe range of avermadulation m > 1. In addition, the
harmonic content of the inverter output Voluges and currents
lus
Js less for the space-vector method than for its counterpart.
This is demonstrated in Fig. 9, which shows the results of
simulation runs with exact modeling of the modulation
procedures. In either case the samme frequency ratio zy = 21
‘and the same modulation index m = 0.9 have been used
Because the phase-o-phase Veltage, which has the shape of
14, is more favorable fr the space-vector PWM, the harmonic
content of the current and the torque pulsations are signii-
cantly reduced. To demonstrate the differences between the
two modulation concepts, an analytical solution is used also
for the simsoidal PWM {10}. (11)
Under the same assumptions as those described far the
space-vector PWM, a single-phase approach is used as frst
step. On the basis of an equivalent circuit forthe induction
‘machine, as shown in Fig. 5(b), the phase-to-center voltage,
the mean phase-to-centr voltage, andthe harmonic content of
the current are shown in Fig. 10.
In analytical form the hartionic conten ofthe current
a1 23)
For the symmetrical theee-phase machine with open neutral
the harmonic content of the phase currents can be derived [rom
the linetorline voltages. Under the symmetry conditions that
we have supposed both for established sinusoidal modulation
land space vector modulation (refer 10 Fig. 7), the Park
‘components of the harmonic content ofthe stator currents can
be derived by superimposing the single-phase values (22) (10),
tu
i
[se a3 2a][E)
‘The harmonic content of the stator currents can be calculated
ina similar way
of i. 1a -12
2}-12 1-12
3} -12 -12 1
he .
ta] = ca}. Ga)
le 1
To compare the copper losses, the rms value of the
harmonic machine current is 10 be evaluated. Since the
harmonic conten is orthogonal to the fundamestal current, the
ditional copper losses. due to current harmonies can be
calculated independently. By integration of (23) and (24) one
Finds for sinusoidal PWM 146
a
®
Fg. 9._Sinultion of PWM insene fl inion machine) Esbished
iowa PWM (J/f, = 20; m= 09). fy Spacevecte PWM (f/f.
Sm = 09,
4 uu,
1S ty aeefsLal
‘ an
gma
Fe 8, Vag pe an ing frm ce iti oe be
Sap pass oe
A similar caleuation for the space-vector concept yields
3 0 ge 2 (2BB)
a ncivacs Manan ae
(ie) ' 3-48
Fig. 11 shows the evaluation of these equations in per-unit
rotation with 2 = FLU)
6,
+
ig. 11. Square of ems armani cue.
a SIN-P RM
Fig. 2. (a) Envelope care for exalted sini PWM (T;,
Tif be MU). 1) Space veer PHM
For cross-reference to the fundamental quantities the ideal
‘no-load machine current may be used
pm Uy
Vb Le
[Next the torgue pulsations are compared for the 1wo PWM.
modes, Ione assumes that the airgap fux is purely sinusoidal
the tongue pulsations are described by the following:
THe)
where the angle ¢ describes the position within the fundamen
tal period with respect to the zero crossing of This
‘equation is to be evaluated for both PWM modes. As the
relation between y and £ depends on the point of operation
land cannot be represented in simple analytical form, an
‘envelope curve will be derived:
on
cosy) ¥ (28)
Tog sin g—Lg
Ty-(e)= max {TA eb 29)
“The torque pulsations do not exceed the following limits:
To may, {TiO (0)
For both PWM methods the envelope curves are ploted in
Fig. 12, As expected a strong dependence on the modulation
index m appears. Then the maxima of these curves are
evaluated asa function ofthe modulation index. These values
fare given in analytical form for sinusoidal PWM and for space-vector PWM in (31) and (32), respectively
ap
In 32) a slight
forthe sake ofa simple result
‘The evaluation of (31) and (32) is depicted in Fig. 13. Tis
apparent that the space-vector PWM! concept results in
eonsiderably less torque pulsations than the sinusoidal PWM.
‘Again in Fig. 13 the torque pulsations are plotted in per-onit
‘notation, For comparison with the Fundamental quantities the
pull-ot torque may’ be used. This is under ideal assumptions:
1 fi mud
a a RAL?
PWM Mooutsron
a
A modulator for practical use in high-power thyristor
inventors or GTO inverters should be capable ofthe following,
‘moles of operition: free-running sinusoidal. modulation,
syneheonous sinusoidal modulation, and optimized PWM
including overmodulation and. square-wave operation. A,
‘sooth transition between these modes is highly desirable. A
versatile modulator with a general strategy and a high degree
of Nexbiity can he realized by means of @ microprocessor.
“The real-time forming ofthe iaverter gate pulses, however, is
time eritical. For this reason this is usually the task of separate
‘counters, which are controlled by the microprocessor.
One problem of this solution #8 the synchronization of the
pole frequency with the fundamental working frequency,
‘which is necessary for small frequency’ ratios (about zy = 30).
For synchronized pulsing the clock frequency of the
fox22 0m arf oa)
where 1. 8 the resolution of the entre pulse eyele. For an
adequate resolution ofthe pulse angle the counter frequency
tny reach the megahert range
IK this frequency is derived from 2 higher reference
Frequoney by dividing, only a limited umber of frequency
ratios is possible due to the technological upper limit of the
reference frequency. IF the counter frequency is generated by
phiselocked-loop (PLL) circuits, some other problems arise
‘due to PLL transients ifthe froquency’ratois changed, or due
tw the symmetry requirements of the pulse angles. These
problems may be overcome by very complex PLL arrange
‘nents using several PLL loops. It seems 19 he more practical
to adjust the switching frequency by means of software. In this
cane the counters are clocked with fixed stabilized frequency.
tnd the ime positions wf the note angles are loaded into the
‘counters by the microprocessor, Therefore the microprocessor
has to cael the count value fo the eyele time T. fom the
siytal value of the reference fundamental frequency and the
147
cae ww ew
Fig. 8. Peak ales of orga harmonic with P= Tb AUe9 for
‘Ssh sai al space este POH,
suitable frequency ratio
05)
The cycle time then has to be multiplied with the pulsewidth
ratio derived ftom the reference curve for the PWM (see (9)
and (10),
esto oF « PWM-Conrnotter
(On the bass ofthe space vector concept a PWM controller
was developed. It covers all modes of operation that were
‘mentioned inthe previous section. The reference values ofthe
fundamental ouput voltage, whieh for synchronous modula
tion have to be the amplitude and the frequency, are given in
purely digital form. ‘This enables the modulator to be
interfaced directly with a superimposed digital drive control
system.
As an example the synchronous sinusoidal modulation is
depicted in Fig. 14. As described previously the reference
curve and the eyele time are calculated by software in a space
vector reference frame. The hardware counters forthe regular
sampling procedure could be organized either in the space
vector system or in the three-phase system, The authors
preferred the three-phase arrangement as depicted in Fig. 14
The sampling instants are fixed for strongly symmetrical
pulsing, and a software counter, which is loaded with the
umber of cycles per sector, selects for every frequency
‘tio the suitable sampling values in the sefereace curves. The
reference curves, as seen in Fig. 8, ae calculated piecewise in
‘so channels and multiplied with the modulation index andthe
cyele time. The sector distributor solects the respective values
for the three phases. As the regular sampling method is use.
‘only one reference value is needed for each switching cycle. A
new value of the frequency ratio ean be started only at the
beginning ofa 60" sector. Thus fully symmetric pulse patterns
fare generated. Since with space-vector PWM the current
istortion inthe symmetry axis of the pulses is zero (see Fe
10), this ensures pulse ratio transitions without curtent and
torque transients.
‘As an example of the performance ofthis modulation, Fig
15 shows the oscillogram of volage and current as measured
at a laboratory test bed with no load and a fundamental
Frequency of about 23 Hz. One sees thatthe frequency ratio is
changed without any current transient.
‘Operation in another mode is possible by just calling the
appropriate subroutine. The fundamental frequency and the ‘au0Mpu0H
au0mY405, 149
Pig. 1S, Measure shape of to current and line-in voltage with ple
ato Cag.
‘modulation index can be changed independently. The transi
tion from one mode to another is without current transients.
‘The described modulator was realized by means of an 8086
microprocessor. Although rather complex programs are
needed, the modulator is capable of switching frequencies up
to2 ki
Conetusios
Ik was shown that sinusoidal modulation generated in a
space vector representation has the advantages of lower
current harmonics and a possible higher modulation index
‘compared withthe three-phase sinusoidal modulation method.
‘A. modulator on the basis of an 8086 microprocessor
suitable of operating in the free-running mode, in the
sinusoidal modulation mode, and in the fixed-pattern mode
was developed. As an example the operation ofthis modulator
‘was shown inthe sinusoidal modulation mode.
[Nowencuarune
Uy = 20, DC source voltage
Ust0. w=", 2,3 Phaseto-enter voltage
uot, Pernt value of U,(.
Fundamental amplitude of
sta UO
00 = 65°" Ue) de Mean value of UC for
ce switching period + = 1,
Un Us Park components of voltage
Yin Ua. Us Phase to-phase voltage
a Voltage space vector.
Lav dav de Machine currents (star con-
nection)
hale Park components of La,
Te
Harmonic content of current
for single-phase calelation,
RMS value of harmonic con
tent of current.
i RMS value of fundamental
machine current at no-load
¥ Flux, crest value
Tr. Torque pulsation
Envelope eurve of torque pul-
10, m = 1203
Kod
tr Peak value of torque pulse
tions.
Tro Fundamental pull-out torque
fe vt Fundamental frequency,
f= Wir = ver) Switching frequency.
er = dh Frequency ratio.
m = OU, “Modulation index.
o= ble Leakage factor
L. Leakage inductance
Lb Leakage inductance for eal-
culation of torque pulsations.
Phase angle 0 = y = 60°.
Phase angle 0 = 5 360°
Rerenences
(1) A, Scaung and H. Senile, Stas feganey changers ith
‘Sabaoal onal n conjunction wih reversible variable seed
{ives Brow Bover Re lS, pp 85-372 1968
[ey Ards Phen, "Acro BWM cna ener de,
in Conf. Recra of 1979 1EBE-1AS Ann. Mesa, 9p. 95-192
Lo) 1 Zatoks 8 Abbondan and C. Noy Plewth madutad
lnvece otc drive with inpoyed alan," TEEE Trans. nd
‘App vo AST no 6, pp 88-703, Nov De 1973,
a) Gti A. Wess, and, Wick. Design a experinent als
fa bras a erode" im Con: Re 842 IEEE 14S nn
Mowing, pp, 62-07
(5) J/Ee and Ren, "Conroe siting inven, fing
2 Sphuse Le machin, by 4 mcropocese.” ETO-Fachberehe,
(61 Ae Belt G. Fei, and G. Us,
‘ecnigue sulle to sip iadoton mrs
PEC 95, Tokyo, pp 396-100.
Im K. Kovac and Rae, Trantote Vorgnge in Wachslromm
‘chine, Ba Ta Budapest: Vrs Sr Ungar Akers Jet
Wacemtuen 1959.
(8), 1 Scher," Beropsipanang or Unictescwenng," ET2B, 0
Too. 7 pp. 1-82, 878
19) D.Geum, Fiolssnonh and K. Laver, The eet of wor enh
fn he hurmoniecomeat ‘of miropecesor-teed PWM wavclrm
ents in Conf. Ree. 1989 JEEE-14S nual Mew,
a0,
HL van der Bosc and HC. Shula, “Anyi amass of he
os flee of PWM sede" LEEE Tron. Power Elecron
‘oma 4 Ape O88
uty He van dir ek, "Vergleich von spanunasinprigenden Wee
‘ircern itu fel Zocgpuare ar Sean ener Drs
Imayncronmanchne water ‘Verseniurg der Pulswetenoduatin
Ioter Takia,” Diseraton, Rheiasch WestlesheTechche
Hoctscal, Ascher, 1985,
‘Bowes and At Nobnt,“Miroroesor coal of PWM ser
fs. in IEE Proc, wa 128, PLB no. Nov 981 pp. 203-405,
[13] BBoseandW.Suhesand, A Rg periormanc pew daa
in Cont Record of
00)
1 tor fran ier fd dive terug a mrocomptr." in Con.
Rec, van, Meriing IEEE-14S, tp. 4-453,
Munch and Mt lo "A limos eve conte, "in
Con Rec, 1980 IGEE-VAS Annual Meeting, yp 63-680,
18 Cooks A. Canon, and R. Eras "A mcypocessr bes
se pie with mole e Con. Rec 982 Dt. Semicond
tor Power Comerter Cot of TEEE-IAS, pp 375-388
18 tian, "spl pulsewah dlr employing vances
lsh sings" IEEE Trans. nd. po, vo TA. 90 3
fa 4, My Tone 198.
cine W. vam der Broech was bueno Fs
Semany, on Nove 25,1952. He eee the
Ing Grn, dase a cri eniseig fom the
Force Kh, Ga In 97S, andthe
Dipl ing eg’ ctrl eninsing rm the
‘Auchen Unersty of Tetley Germany,
oe.
Fro 1980401987 he was. the cet ta
ote Insite of Power Flernis ap Eectel
Drives atthe Aathen Univer of Tebanog Ie
[985 received the Deng dere rom te sme
sive, Sage 1987 he ae Seen wh the Plips Research Laboratory
‘ache, Gomany
Hags-
