Notes for Human Anatomy

The Human Body – An Orientation  Growth

 Anatomy – study of the structure and  Reproduction
shape of the body and its parts  Metabolism
 Physiology – study of how the body and
its parts work or function  Cardiovascular
 Transports materials in body
Anatomy – Levels of Study via blood pumped by heart
 Gross Anatomy  Oxygen
 Large structures  Carbon dioxide
 Easily observable  Nutrients
 Microscopic Anatomy  Wastes
 Very small
structures  Lymphatic
 Can only be  Returns fluids to blood vessels
viewed with  Disposes of debris
a microscope  Involved in immunity

Levels of Structural Organization  Respiratory

Organ System Overview  Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
 Integumentary  Removes carbon dioxide
 Forms the external body  Digestive
covering  Breaks down food
 Protects deeper tissue from  Allows for nutrient absorption into
injury blood
 Synthesizes vitamin D  Eliminates indigestible material
 Location of cutaneous
nerve receptors  Urinary
 Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
 Skeletal  Maintains acid – base balance
 Protects and supports  Regulates water and electrolytes
body organs
 Provides muscle  Reproductive
attachment for movement  Production
 Site of blood cell of offspring
formation
 Stores mineral Necessary Life Functions
 Maintain Boundaries
 Nervous  Movement
 Fast-acting control  Locomotion
system  Movement of substances
 Responds to internal and  Responsiveness
external change  Ability to sense changes and react
 Activates muscles and  Digestion
glands  Break-down and delivery of
 Endocrine nutrients
 Secretes regulatory  Metabolism – chemical reactions within
hormones the body
Page 1 of 19
  Production of energy  Effector
 Making body structures  Provides a means for
 Excretion response to the stimulus
 Elimination of waste from
metabolic reactions Feedback Mechanisms
 Reproduction  Negative feedback
 Production of future generation  Includes most homeostatic control
 Growth mechanisms
 Increasing of cell size and number  Shuts off the original stimulus, or
reduces its intensity
Survival Needs  Works like a household thermostat
 Nutrients  Positive feedback
 Chemicals for energy and cell  Increases the original stimulus to
building push the variable farther
 Includes carbohydrates, proteins,  In the body this only occurs in
lipids, vitamins, and minerals blood clotting and birth of a baby
 Oxygen  The Language of Anatomy
 Required for chemical reactions  Special terminology is used to prevent
 Water misunderstanding
 60–80% of body weight  Exact terms are used for:
 Provides for metabolic reaction  Position
 Stable body temperature  Direction
 Atmospheric pressure must be  Regions
appropriate  Structures
Anatomical Position
Homeostasis - To accurately describe a body parts and
 Maintenance of a stable internal position there should be a reference point
environment = a dynamic state of (set as standing position). Erect, head
equilibrium and toes pointed forward, arms hanging
 Homeostasis must be maintained for at the sides, palm facing forward.
normal body functioning and to sustain Body Orientation and Direction
life • Superior/ Inferior= above/ below position
 Homeostatic imbalance – a disturbance in • Anterior/ Posterior= front/ back
homeostasis resulting in disease • Medial/ Lateral= towards the midline/
away from the midline.
Maintaining Homeostasis • Cephalad/ Caudal= towards the head/
 The body communicates through neural towards the tail.
and hormonal control systems • Dorsal/ Ventral= backside/ belly side
 Receptor • Proximal/ Distal =near the trunk or near
 Responds to changes in the the point of attachment
environment (stimuli) • Superficial/ Deep= near the surface.
 Sends information to control
center Locating Body Landmarks
 Control center Anterior Body landmarks
 Determines set point • Abdominal- tummy
 Analyzes information • Anticubital- elbow anterior
 Determines appropriate • Axillary- armpit
response • Brachial- arms
Page 2 of 19
 • Buccal- mouth • Epigastric
• Carpals – wrist bone • Right lumbar region
• Cervical- neck bone • Umbilical region
• Deltoids- side of arm • Left lumbar region
• Digitals- fingers or toes • Right Iliac region
• Inguinal- groin • Left iliac region
• Mammary- breast
• Umbilical- navel Body Membranes
• Femorals- thigh Epithelial tissue membrane
• Nasal- nose a) cutaneous membrane- made up of
• Oral- mouth keratinizing stratified epithelium
• Orbital- eyes b) mucous membrane- seen lining in all
• Patellar- knee cap body cavities open to the exterior.
• Pelvic- pelvis c) Example: respiratory, digestive, urinary,
• Peroneal- side of the leg and reproductive tract. Serous
• Sternal- breast bone Membranes- line body cavities that are
• Tarsal-ankle simple squamous epithelial.
• Thoracic- chest 1. Parietal layer- lines a specific portion
Posterior Body Landmarks of the wall of the ventral body cavity.
• Cephalic- head 2. Visceral Layer- cover the outside of
• Gluteal- buttocks the organs in that cavity.
• Lumbar- lower back
• Occipital-base of the skull
• Popliteal- back of the knee
• Scapular- shoulder blade
• Sural- calf or posterior surface of leg
• Vertebral- area of the spinal column

Body Planes & Section

• Sagittal/ Midsagittal Plane
• Frontal/ Coronal Plane
• Transverse/ Cross section Plane
Body Cavities
• Dorsal Cavity
a) Cranial Cavity- brain
b) Spinal Cavity- spinal cord
• Ventral Cavity
a) Thoracic Cavity- heart and lungs
b) Abdominal Cavity- abdominal organs
c) Pelvic Cavity- reproductive organs
Abdominal Pelvic Quadrants
• Upper quadrants
• Lower quadrants
• Upper quadrants
• Lower quadrants
9 Abdominopelvic Regions
• Right hypochondriac
• Left hypochondriac
Page 3 of 19
 Notes for Basic Chemistry  Radioactivity
 Process of spontaneous atomic
Basic Chemistry decay
- Matter and Energy
 Matter – anything that occupies space Molecules and Compounds
and has mass (weight)  Molecule – two or more like atoms
 Energy – the ability to do work combined chemically
 Chemical  Compound – two or more different atoms
 Electrical combined chemically
 Mechanical
 Radiant Chemical Reactions
  Atoms are united by chemical bonds
Composition of Matter  Atoms dissociate from other atoms when
 Elements chemical bonds are broken
 Fundamental units of matter
 96% of the body is made from four Electrons and Bonding
elements  Electrons occupy energy levels called
 Carbon (C) electron shells
 Oxygen (O)  Electrons closest to the nucleus are most
 Hydrogen (H) strongly attracted
 Nitrogen (N  Each shell has distinct properties
 Atoms  Number of electrons has an upper
 Building blocks of elements limit
 Shells closest to nucleus fill first
Atomic Structure
 Nucleus Electrons and Bonding
 Protons (p+)  Bonding involves interactions between
 Neutrons (n0) electrons in the outer shell (valence shell)
 Outside of nucleus  Full valence shells do not form bonds
 Electrons (e-)
Inert Elements
Identifying Elements  Have complete valence shells and are
 Atomic number stable
 Equal to the number of protons  Rule of 8s
that the atoms contain  Shell 1 has 2
 Atomic mass number electrons
 Sum of the protons and neutrons  Shell 2 has 10
electrons
Isotopes and Atomic Weight  10 = 2 + 8
 Isotopes  Shell 3 has 18
 Have the same number of protons electrons
 Vary in number of neutrons  18 = 2 + 8 + 8

Isotopes and Atomic Weight Reactive Elements

 Atomic weight  Valence shells are not full and are
 Close to mass number of most unstable
abundant isotope  Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons
 Atomic weight reflects natural  Allows for bond formation, which
isotope variation produces stable valence
Chemical Bonds
Radioactivity  Ionic Bonds
 Radioisotope  Form when electrons are
 Heavy isotope completely transferred from one
 Tends to be unstable atom to another
 Decomposes to more stable isotope  Ions
Page 4 of 19
  Charged particles  Lack carbon
 Anions are negative  Tend to be simpler compounds
 Cations are positive  Example: H2O (water)
 Either donate or accept
electrons Important Inorganic Compounds
 Covalent Bonds  Water
 Atoms become stable through  Most abundant inorganic
shared electrons compounds
 Single covalent bonds share one  Vital properties
electron  High heat capacity
 Double covalent bonds share two  Polarity/solvent properties
electrons  Chemical reactivity
 Cushioning
Examples of Covalent Bonds  Salts
Polarity  Easily dissociate into ions in the
 Covalent bonded presence of water
molecules  Vital to many body functions
 Some are  Include electrolytes which conduct
non-polar electrical currents
 Electrically neutral  Acids
as a molecule  Can release detectable hydrogen
 Some are ions
polar  Bases
 Have a positive  Proton acceptors
and negative side  Neutralization reaction
 Chemical Bonds  Acids and bases react to form
 Hydrogen bonds water and a salt
 Weak chemical bonds
 Hydrogen is attracted to negative pH
portion of polar molecule  Measures relative concentration of
 Provides attraction between hydrogen ions
molecules  pH 7 = neutral
 Patterns of Chemical Reactions  pH below 7 = acidic
 Synthesis reaction (A+BAB)  pH above 7 = basic
 Atoms or molecules combine  Buffers: chemicals that can
 Energy is absorbed for bond regulate pH change
formation
 Decomposition reaction (ABA+B) Important Organic Compounds
 Molecule is broken down  Carbohydrates
 Chemical energy is released  Contain carbon, hydrogen, and
 Synthesis and Decomposition oxygen
Reactions  Include sugars and starches
 Patterns of Chemical Reactions  Classified according to size
 Exchange reaction (ABAC+B)  Monosaccharides – simple
 Involves both synthesis and sugars
decomposition reactions  Disaccharides – two simple
 Switch is made between molecule sugars joined by
parts and different molecules are dehydration synthesis
made  Polysaccharides – long
 Biochemistry: Essentials for Life branching chains of linked
 Organic compounds simple sugars
 Contain carbon
 Most are covalently bonded
 Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
 Inorganic compounds
Page 5 of 19
Important Organic Compounds  C = Cytosine
 T = Thymine
Lipids  U = Uracil
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and  Make DNA and RNA
oxygen  Nucleic Acids
 Carbon and hydrogen  Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
outnumber oxygen  Organized by complimentary bases
 Insoluble in water to form double helix
- Common lipids in the human body  Replicates before cell division
 Neutral fats (triglycerides)  Provides instruction for every
 Found in fat deposits protein in the body
 Composed of fatty acids and  Important Organic Compounds
glycerol  Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 Source of stored energy  Chemical energy used by all cells
 Common lipids in the human body  Energy is released by breaking
(continued) high energy phosphate bond
 Phospholipids  ATP is replenished by oxidation of
 Form cell membranes food fuels
 Steroids
 Include cholesterol, bile
salts, vitamin D, and some
hormones

Cholesterol
 The basis for all steroids made in the
body

Important Organic Compounds

 Proteins
 Made of amino acids
 Contain carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and
sometimes sulfur
Protein Animations
 Click below to explore the levels of protein
structure
Proteins
 Account for over half of the body’s organic
matter
 Provides for construction materials
for body tissues
 Plays a vital role in cell function
 Act as enzymes, hormones, and
antibodies

Enzymes
 Act as biological catalysts
 Increase the rate of chemical reactions

Important Organic Compounds

 Nucleic Acids
 Provide blueprint of life
 Nucleotide bases
 A = Adenine
 G = Guanine
Page 6 of 19
 Notes for Cell Diffusion
 Movement of water from higher
concentration to lower concentration
Functional unit of all living things. Diffusion Process:
1. Passive diffusion
Cell Theory: 2. Facilitated diffusion
a. All living things are made up of cell. 3. Active transport
b. Cell is the smallest unit of structure and 4. Endocytosis/Exocytosis
function of life.
c. The cell came from a pre-existing cells. Osmosis
 Diffusion of water to a semi permeable
Types of Cell membrane.

1. Prokaryotic Solution
- no true nucleus  A homogenous mixture of two or more
- energy is produce in reaction with in the substances.
cell membranes. - Ex. Air we breath (mixture of gases)
2. Eukaryotic - Sea water( mixture of salts and H₂O)
- with true nucleus - Rubbing alcohol ( mixture of H₂O &
- energy produced with in the mitochondria alcohol)

Major Parts of Eukaryotic Cell Composition:

1. Cell Membrane  Solute- the dissolved substance in a
2. Nucleus solution.
3. Cytoplasm  Solvent- dissolving medium in a solution.

Cell Membrane Type of Solution

 Composed of bilayer phospholipids  Isotonic- equal concentration of solute
attached to or embedded in protein. and solvent. (NO CHANGE on CELL)
 Regulates passages of nutrients, waste  Hypertonic- ↑ solute,↓ solvent (CELL will
products and secretion in and out of SHRINK)
cells. With selective permeability.  Hypotonic- ↓ solute, ↑ solvent ( CELL will
 Also called plasma membrane SWELL )
 Can easily pass through are the glucose,
amino acid, minerals, nutrients, O₂, CO₂ Factors Influencing permeability of cell
 Lipid solubility
Bilayer Phospolipids  Size of the pores
 Head part- hydrophilic , loves water, pole  Electrical charges
near water.
 Tail part- hydrophobic, hates water, pole Anatomy of the Cell
away from water.  Cells are not all the same
 All cells share general structures
Protein  Cells are organized into three main
Floating in lipid portion regions
Can be:  Nucleus
 enzyme carrier receptors transport  Cytoplasm
binding site: hormones and chemical  Plasma membrane
messenger The Nucleus
-  Control center of the cell
GLYCOPROTEIN  Contains genetic material (DNA)
 Determine the blood type, receptors for  Three regions
bacteria, viruses, toxins cell to cell  Nuclear membrane
interaction  Nucleolus
 any changes that occurs may  Chromatin
transformed into Cancer Cell. Nuclear Membrane
Page 7 of 19
 Barrier of nucleus  Rough Endoplasmic
 Consists of a double phospholipid Reticulum
membrane  Studded with
 Contain nuclear pores that allow for ribosomes
exchange of material with the rest of the  Site where building
cell materials of cellular
Nucleoli membrane are formed
 Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli  Smooth Endoplasmic
 Sites of ribosome production Reticulum
 Ribosomes then migrate to the  Functions in
cytoplasm through nuclear pores cholesterol synthesis
Chromatin and breakdown, fat
 Composed of DNA and protein metabolism, and
 Scattered throughout the nucleus detoxification of
 Chromatin condenses to form drugs
chromosomes when the cell divides  Golgi apparatus
Plasma Membrane  Modifies and packages proteins
 Barrier for cell contents  Produces different types of
 Double phospholipid layer packages
 Hydrophilic heads  Secretory vesicles
 Hydrophobic tails  Cell membrane components
 Also contains protein, cholesterol, and  Lysosomes
glycoproteins  Lysosomes
 Microvilli  Contain enzymes that digest
 Finger-like projections that nonusable materials within the cell
increase surface area for  Peroxisomes
absorption  Membranous sacs of oxidase
 Membrane junctions enzymes
 Tight junctions  Detoxify harmful substances
 Desmosomes  Break down free radicals
 Gap junctions (highly reactive chemicals)
Cytoplasm  Replicate by pinching in half
 Material outside the nucleus and inside  Mitochondria
the plasma membrane  “Powerhouses” of the cell
 Cytosol  Change shape continuously
 Fluid that suspends other  Carry out reactions where oxygen
elements is used to break down food
 Organelles  Provides ATP for cellular energy
 Metabolic machinery of the  Cytoskeleton
cell  Network of protein structures that
 Inclusions extend throughout the cytoplasm
 Non-functioning units  Provides the cell with an internal
framework
Cytoplasmic Organelles  Cytoskeleton
 Ribosomes  Three different types
 Made of protein and RNA  Microfilaments
 Sites of protein synthesis  Intermediate filaments
 Found at two locations  Microtubules
 Free in the cytoplasm  Centrioles
 Attached to rough  Rod-shaped bodies made of
endoplasmic reticulum microtubules
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)  Direct formation of mitotic spindle
 Fluid-filled tubules for carrying during cell division
substances
 Two types of ER Cell life cycle
Page 8 of 19
 Cells have two major periods  Building materials for cells
Interphase  Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
- Cell grow, Cell carries on metabolic  RNA is essential for protein synthesis
processes
Cell division Types of RNA
 Cell replicates itself Transfer RNA (tRNA)
 Function is to produce more cells for  Transfers appropriate amino acids to the
growth and repair processes ribosome for building the protein
 Genetic material duplicated and readies Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
a cell for division into two cells  Helps form the ribosomes where proteins
 Occurs toward the end of interphase are built
 DNA uncoils and each side serves as a Messenger RNA
template  Carries the instructions for building a
protein from the nucleus to the ribosome
Events of Cell Division
Transcription
Mitosis  Transfer of information from DNA’s base
 Division of the nucleus sequence to the complimentary base
 Results in the formation of two daughter sequence of mRNA
nuclei Translation
 Base sequence of nucleic acid is
Cytokinesis translated to an amino acid sequence
 Division of the cytoplasm  Amino acids are the building blocks of
 Begins when mitosis is near completion protein.
 Results in the formation of two daughter 
cells

Stages of Cell Division

Interphase
 No cell division occurs
 The cell carries out normal metabolic
activity and growth
Prophase
 First part of cell division
 Centromeres migrate to the poles
Metaphase
 Spindle from centromeres are attached to
chromosomes that are aligned in the
center of the cell
Anaphase
 Daughter chromosomes are pulled
toward the pole
 The cell begins to elongate
Telophase
 Daughter nuclei begin forming
 A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins
to form

Protein Synthesis
 Gene – DNA segment that carries a
blueprint for building one protein

Proteins have many functions

Page 9 of 19
  Single layer of tall cells
 Notes for Tissue  Often includes goblet cells, which
Tissues produce mucus
 Body Tissues  Lines digestive tract
 Cells are specialized for particular  Pseudostratified
functions  Single layer, but some cells are
Tissues shorter than others
 Groups of cells with similar  Often looks like a double cell layer
structure and function  Sometimes ciliated, such as in the
 Four primary types respiratory tract
 Epithelium  May function in absorption or
 Connective tissue secretion
 Nervous tissue
 Muscle Stratified Epithelium
Epithelial Tissues  Stratified squamous
 Found in different areas  Cells at the free edge are flattened
 Body coverings  Found as a protective covering
 Body linings where friction is common
 Glandular tissue  Locations
 Functions  Skin
 Protection  Mouth
 Absorption  Esophagus
 Filtration  Stratified cuboidal
 Secretion  Two layers of cuboidal cells
Epithelium Characteristics  Stratified columnar
 Cells fit closely together  Surface cells are columnar, cells
 Tissue layer always has one free surface underneath vary in size and shape
 The lower surface is bound by a  Stratified cuboidal and columnar
basement membrane  Rare in human body
 Avascular (have no blood supply)  Found mainly in ducts of large
 Regenerate easily if well nourished glands
 Transitional epithelium
Classification of Epithelium  Shape of cells depends upon the
 Number of cell layers amount of stretching
 Simple – one layer  Lines organs of the urinary system
 Stratified – more than one layer  Glandular Epithelium
 Gland – one or more cells that secretes a
 Shape of cells particular product
 Squamous – flattened
 Cuboidal – cube-shaped Two major gland types
 Columnar – column-like  Endocrine gland
 Ductless
Simple Epithelium  Secretions are hormones
 Simple squamous  Exocrine gland
 Single layer of flat cells  Empty through ducts to the
 Usually forms membranes epithelial surface
 Lines body cavities  Include sweat and oil glands
 Lines lungs and capillaries Connective Tissue
 Simple cuboidal  Found everywhere in the body
 Single layer of cube-like cells  Includes the most abundant and widely
 Common in glands and their ducts distributed tissues
 Forms walls  Functions
of kidney tubules  Binds body tissues together
 Covers the ovaries  Supports the body
 Simple columnar  Provides protection
Page 10 of 19
Connective Tissue Characteristics  Ligaments – attach bone to
 Variations in blood supply bone
 Some tissue types are well  Areolar connective tissue
vascularized  Most widely distributed
 Some have poor blood supply or connective tissue
are avascular  Soft, pliable tissue
 Extracellular matrix  Contains all fiber types
 Non-living material that surrounds  Can soak up excess fluid
living cells  Adipose tissue
 Matrix is an areolar tissue in
Extracellular Matrix which fat globules predominate
 Two main elements  Many cells contain
 Ground substance – mostly water large lipid deposits
along with adhesion proteins and  Functions
polysaccharide molecules  Insulates the body
 Fibers  Protects some organs
 Produced by the cells  Serves as a site of
 Three types fuel storage
 Collagen fibers  Reticular connective tissue
 Elastic fibers  Delicate network of interwoven
 Reticular fibers fibers
 Forms stroma (internal supporting
Connective Tissue Types network) of
 Bone (osseous tissue) lymphoid organs
 Composed of:  Lymph nodes
 Bone cells in lacunae  Spleen
(cavities)  Bone marrow
 Hard matrix of calcium salts  Blood
 Large numbers of collagen  Blood cells surrounded by fluid
fibers matrix
 Used to protect and support the  Fibers are visible during clotting
body  Functions as the transport vehicle
for materials
Connective Tissue Types
 Hyaline cartilage Muscle Tissue
 Most common cartilage  Function is to produce movement
 Composed of:  Three types
 Abundant collagen fibers  Skeletal muscle
 Rubbery matrix  Cardiac muscle
 Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline  Smooth muscle
cartilage  Skeletal muscle
 Elastic cartilage  Can be controlled voluntarily
 Provides elasticity  Cells attach to connective tissue
 Example: supports the external ear  Cells are striated
 Fibrocartilage  Cells have more than one nucleus
 Highly compressible  Cardiac muscle
 Example: forms cushion-like discs  Found only in the heart
between vertebrae  Function is to pump blood
 Dense connective tissue (involuntary)
 Main matrix element is collagen  Cells attached to other cardiac
fibers muscle cells at intercalated disks
 Cells are fibroblasts  Cells are striated
 Examples  One nucleus per cell
 Tendon – attach muscle to  Smooth muscle
bone  Involuntary muscle
Page 11 of 19
  Surrounds hollow organs
 Attached to other smooth muscle
cells
 No visible striations
 One nucleus per cell

Nervous Tissue
 Neurons and nerve support cells
 Function is to send impulses to other
areas of the body
 Irritability
 Conductivity

Tissue Repair
 Regeneration
 Replacement of destroyed tissue by
the same kind of cells
 Fibrosis
 Repair by dense fibrous connective
tissue (scar tissue)
 Determination of method
 Type of tissue damaged
 Severity of the injury

Events in Tissue Repair

 Capillaries become very permeable
 Introduce clotting proteins
 Wall off injured area
 Formation of granulation tissue
 Regeneration of surface epithelium

Regeneration of Tissues
 Tissues that regenerate easily
 Epithelial tissue
 Fibrous connective tissue and bone
 Tissues that regenerate poorly
 Skeletal muscle
 Tissues that are replaced largely with
scar tissue
 Cardiac muscle
 Nervous tissue within the brain
and spinal cord

Developmental Aspects of Tissue

 Epithelial tissue arises from all three
primary germ layers
 Muscle and connective tissue arise from
the mesoderm
 Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
 With old age there is a decrease in mass
and viability in most tissues

Page 12 of 19
 Notes for Integumentary
 Around the
System heart

Skin and Body Membranes Connective Tissue Membrane

Function of body membranes  Synovial membrane
 Line or cover body surfaces  Connective tissue only
 Protect body surfaces  Lines fibrous capsules
 Lubricate body surfaces surrounding joints

Classification of Body Membranes Integumentary System

 Epithelial membranes  Skin (cutaneous membrane)
 Cutaneous membrane  Skin derivatives
 Mucous membrane  Sweat glands
 Serous membrane  Oil glands
 Connective tissue membranes  Hairs
 Nails
Cutaneous Membrane
 Cutaneous membrane = skin Skin Functions
 A dry membrane  Protects deeper tissues from:
 Outermost protective boundary  Mechanical damage
 Superficial epidermis  Chemical damage
 Keratinized stratified  Bacterial damage
squamous epithelium  Thermal damage
 Underlying dermis  Ultraviolet radiation
 Mostly dense  Desiccation
connective tissue  Aids in heat regulation
 Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
Mucous Membranes  Synthesizes vitamin D
 Surface epithelium
 Type depends on site Skin Structure
 Underlying loose connective  Epidermis – outer layer
tissue (lamina propria)  Stratified squamous epithelium
 Lines all body cavities  Often keratinized (hardened by
that open to the keratin)
exterior body surface  Dermis
 Often adapted  Dense connective tissue
for absorption  Deep to dermis is the hypodermis
or secretion  Not part of the skin
 Anchors skin to underlying organs
Serous Membranes  Composed mostly of adipose tissue
 Surface simple squamous epithelium
 Underlying areolar connective tissue Layer of Epidermis
 Lines open body cavities that are closed  Stratum basale
to the exterior of the body  Cells undergoing mitosis
 Serous layers separated by serous fluid  Lies next to dermis
 Serous Membranes  Stratum spinosum
 Specific serous membranes  Stratum granulosum
 Peritoneum  Stratum lucidum
 Abdominal  Occurs only in thick skin
cavity  Stratum corneum
 Pleura  Shingle-like dead cells
 Around the
lungs Melanin
 Pericardium  Pigment (melanin) produced by
melanocytes
Page 13 of 19
 Color is yellow to brown to black  Function
 Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum  Helps dissipate excess heat
basale  Excretes waste products
 Amount of melanin produced depends  Acidic nature inhibits bacteria
upon genetics and exposure to sunlight growth
 Odor is from associated bacteria
Dermis
 Two layers Appendages of the Skin
 Papillary layer  Hair
 Projections called dermal  Produced by hair bulb
papillae  Consists of hard keratinized
 Pain receptors epithelial cells
 Capillary loops  Melanocytes provide pigment for
 Reticular layer hair color
 Blood vessels
 Glands Hair Anatomy
 Nerve receptors  Central medulla
 Cortex surrounds medulla
Skin Structure  Cuticle on outside of cortex
Normal Skin Color Determinants  Most heavily keratinized
 Melanin
 Yellow, brown or black pigments Associated Hair Structures
 Carotene  Hair follicle
 Orange-yellow pigment from some  Dermal and epidermal sheath
vegetables surround hair root
 Hemoglobin  Arrector pilli
 Red coloring from blood cells in  Smooth muscle
dermis capillaries  Sebaceous gland
 Oxygen content determines the  Sweat gland
extent of red coloring
Appendages of the Skin
Appendages of the Skin  Nails
 Sebaceous glands  Scale-like modifications of the
 Produce oil epidermis
 Lubricant for skin  Heavily keratinized
 Kills bacteria  Stratum basale extends beneath
 Most with ducts that empty into the nail bed
hair follicles  Responsible for growth
 Glands are activated at puberty  Lack of pigment makes them
 Sweat glands colorless
 Widely distributed in skin
 Two types Nail Structures
 Eccrine  Free edge
 Open via duct to pore  Body
on skin surface  Root of nail
 Apocrine  Eponychium – proximal nail fold that
 Ducts empty into hair projects onto the nail body
follicles
Skin Homeostatic Imbalances
Sweat and Its Function  Infections
 Composition  Athletes foot
 Mostly water  Caused by fungal infection
 Some metabolic waste  Boils and carbuncles
 Fatty acids and proteins (apocrine  Caused by bacterial
only) infection
Page 14 of 19
  Cold sores  Does not spread
 Caused by virus (encapsulated)
 Malignant
Skin Homeostatic Imbalances  Metastasized (moves) to
 Infections and allergies other parts of the body
 Contact dermatitis  Skin cancer is the most common type of
 Exposures cause allergic cancer
reaction
 Impetigo Skin Cancer Types
 Caused by bacterial  Basal cell carcinoma
infection  Least malignant
 Psoriasis  Most common type
 Cause is unknown  Arises from statum basale
 Triggered by trauma,  Squamous cell carcinoma
infection, stress  Arises from stratum spinosum
 Burns  Metastasizes to lymph nodes
 Tissue damage and cell death  Early removal allows a good
caused by heat, electricity, UV chance of cure
radiation, or chemicals  Malignant melanoma
 Associated dangers  Most deadly of skin cancers
 Dehydration  Cancer of melanocytes
 Electrolyte imbalance  Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and
 Circulatory shock blood vessels
 Detection uses ABCD rule
Rule of Nines
 Way to determine the extent of burns ABCD Rule
 Body is divided into 11 areas for quick  A = Asymmetry
estimation  Two sides of pigmented mole do
 Each area represents about 9% not match
 B = Border irregularity
Severity of Burns  Borders of mole are not smooth
 First-degree burns  C = Color
 Only epidermis is damaged  Different colors in pigmented area
 Skin is red and swollen  D = Diameter
 Second degree burns  Spot is larger then 6 mm in
 Epidermis and upper dermis are diameter
damaged
 Skin is red with blisters
 Third-degree burns
 Destroys entire skin layer
 Burn is gray-white or black

Critical Burns
 Burns are considered critical if:
 Over 25% of body has second
degree burns
 Over 10% of the body has third
degree burns
 There are third degree burns of the
face, hands, or feet

Skin Cancer
 Cancer – abnormal cell mass
 Two types
 Benign
Page 15 of 19
Notes for Skeletal System
Classification of Bones on the Basis of
Shape
The Skeletal System  Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
 Parts of the skeletal system  Diaphysis
 Bones (skeleton)  Shaft
 Joints  Composed of compact bone
 Cartilages  Epiphysis
 Ligaments  Ends of the bone
 Divided into two divisions  Composed mostly of spongy bone
 Axial skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton Structures of a Long Bone
 Periosteum
Functions of Bones  Outside covering of the diaphysis
 Support of the body  Fibrous connective tissue
 Protection of soft organs membrane
 Movement due to attached skeletal  Sharpey’s fibers
muscles  Secure periosteum to underlying
 Storage of minerals and fats bone
 Blood cell formation  Arteries
 Supply bone cells with nutrients
Bones of the Human Body  Articular cartilage
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones  Covers the external surface of the
 Two basic types of bone tissue epiphyses
 Compact bone  Made of hyaline cartilage
 Homogeneous  Decreases friction at joint surfaces
 Spongy bone  Medullary cavity
 Small needle-like  Cavity of the shaft
pieces of bone  Contains yellow marrow (mostly
 Many open spaces fat) in adults
 Contains red marrow (for blood cell
Classification of Bones formation) in infants
 Long bones
 Typically longer than wide Bone Markings
 Have a shaft with heads at both  Surface features of bones
ends  Sites of attachments for muscles,
 Contain mostly compact bone tendons, and ligaments
 Examples: Femur, humerus  Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Short bones  Categories of bone markings
 Generally cube-shape  Projections and processes – grow
 Contain mostly spongy bone out from the bone surface
 Examples: Carpals, tarsals  Depressions or cavities –
 Flat bones indentations
 Thin and flattened
 Usually curved Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Thin layers of compact bone  Osteon (Haversian System)
around a layer of spongy bone  A unit of bone
 Examples: Skull, ribs,  Central (Haversian) canal
sternum  Opening in the center of an osteon
 Irregular bones  Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Irregular shape  Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
 Do not fit into other bone  Canal perpendicular to the central
classification categories canal
 Example: Vertebrae and hip  Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Lacunae

Page 16 of 19
  Cavities containing bone cells  Open (compound) fracture –
(osteocytes) broken bone penetrates through
 Arranged in concentric rings the skin
 Lamellae  Bone fractures are treated by reduction
 Rings around the central canal and immobilization
 Sites of lacunae  Realignment of the bone
 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Canaliculi Repair of Bone Fractures
 Tiny canals  Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is
 Radiate from the central canal to formed
lacunae  Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form
 Form a transport system a callus
 Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony
Changes in the Human Skeleton callus
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily  Bony callus is remodeled to form a
hyaline cartilage permanent patch
 During development, much of this
cartilage is replaced by bone Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas c
 Bridge of the nose
 Parts of ribs
 Cartilage is broken down
 Bone replaces cartilage

Bone Growth
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened
until growth stops
 Bones change shape somewhat
 Bones grow in width
 Long Bone Formation and Growth
 Long Bone Formation and Growth
 Types of Bone Cells
 Joints
 Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long
bone during childhood
 New cartilage is continuously
formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
 Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
 Osteoblasts
 Bone-forming cells
 Osteoclasts
 Bone-destroying cells
 Break down bone matrix for
remodeling and release of calcium
 Bone remodeling is a process by both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts

 Bone Fractures
 A break in a bone
 Types of bone fractures
 Closed (simple) fracture – break
that does not penetrate the skin

Page 17 of 19
Notes for Axial Skeleton Notes for Appendicular
Skeleton
The Skeletal System The Bony Thorax
The Axial Skeleton  Forms a cage to protect major organs
 Forms the longitudinal part of the body  Made-up of three parts
 Divided into three parts  Sternum
 Skull  Ribs
 Vertebral column  Thoracic vertebrae
 Bony thorax
 The Skull The Appendicular Skeleton
 Two sets of bones  Limbs (appendages)
 Cranium  Pectoral girdle
 Facial bones  Pelvic girdle
 Bones are joined by sutures
 Only the mandible is attached by a freely The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
movable joint  Composed of two bones
The Skull  Clavicle – collarbone
Bones of the Skull  Scapula – shoulder blade
Human Skull, Superior View  These bones allow the upper limb to have
Human Skull, Inferior View exceptionally free movement

Paranasal Sinuses Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

 Hollow portions of bones surrounding the Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
nasal cavity
 Functions of paranasal sinuses Bones of the Upper Limb
 Lighten the skull  The arm is formed by a single bone
 Give resonance and amplification to voice  Humerus
 The forearm has two bones
The Hyoid Bone  Ulna
 The only bone that does not articulate  Radius
with another bone  The hand
 Serves as a moveable base for the tongue  Carpals – wrist
 Metacarpals – palm
The Fetal Skull  Phalanges – fingers
 The fetal skull is large compared to the
infants total body length Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
 Fontanelles – fibrous membranes  Hip bones
connecting the cranial bones  Composed of three pair of fused bones
 Allow the brain  Ilium
to grow  Ischium
 Convert to bone within 24 months after  Pubic bone
birth  The total weight of the upper body rests
on the pelvis
The Vertebral Column  Protects several organs
 Vertebrae separated by intervertebral  Reproductive organs
discs  Urinary bladder
 The spine has a normal curvature  Part of the large intestine
 Each vertebrae is given a name according
to its location The Pelvis
The Pelvis: Right Coxal Bone
Structure of a Typical Vertebrae Gender Differences of the Pelvis
Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae
Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae

Page 18 of 19
Bones of the Lower Limbs
 The thigh has one bone
 Femur – thigh bone
 The leg has two bones
 Tibia
 Fibula
 The foot
 Tarsus – ankle
 Metatarsals – sole
 Phalanges – toes

Arches of the Foot

 Bones of the foot are arranged to form
three strong arches
 Two longitudinal
 One transverse

Joints
 Articulations of bones
 Functions of joints
 Hold bones together
 Allow for mobility
 Ways joints are classified
 Functionally
 Structurally

Functional Classification of Joints

 Synarthroses – immovable joints
 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
 Diarthroses – freely moveable joints

Page 19 of 19