INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

HYDRAULICS STRUCTURE I
GROUP PROJECT ON HYDRAULICS STRUCTURE IN HYDROPOWER STATIONS

GROUP MEMBERS ID NO

1. YEABSIRA DENEKE………………………………………………………..00491/12
2. YOHANNES ANTENEH……………………………………………………00566/12
3. YOHANIS MESAY……………………………………………………………01208/12
4. YONAS BELAY…………………………………………………………………02376/12
5. ZERIHUN ENDALE……………………………………………………………01806/12
6. WONGELNEH EYOB…………………………………………………………00976/12
7. YAIKOB SAMUEL………………………………………………………………02120/12

Submitted to :-Instructor.

Submission date:-27/04/2015 E.C

Gondar

Ethiopia
 Department of Civil Engineering IOT
Hydraulic Structure❶ Group project①

DISCLAIMER

This document has been produced without formal editing. The designations and the presentation of the
material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries, or its economic system or degree of development.Although great care has been taken to
maintain the accuracy of information herein, This document may be freely quoted or reprinted.

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Table of Contents
1.INTRODUCTION TO HYDROPOWER..........................................................................................................5
1.1 Hydroelectric Power.........................................................................................................................5
2.HOW HYDROPOWER WORKS...................................................................................................................6
2.1 Generating Power..............................................................................................................................6
2.2 Transmitting Power...........................................................................................................................7
3.HYDRAULIC STRUCTURE COMPONENTS IN HYDROPOWER STATIONS.....................................................8
3.1. Forebay.............................................................................................................................................9
3.2. Intake Structure................................................................................................................................9
3.3. Penstock.........................................................................................................................................10
3.4. Surge Chamber...............................................................................................................................10
3.5. Hydraulic Turbines..........................................................................................................................11
3.6. Power House...................................................................................................................................12
3.7. Draft Tube.......................................................................................................................................13
3.8. Tailrace...........................................................................................................................................13
4.CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO POWER PLANT............................................................................................14
4.1 IMPOUNDMENT...............................................................................................................................14
4.2 DIVERSION.......................................................................................................................................15
4.3 PUMPED STORAGE..........................................................................................................................15
4.4 SIZES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS......................................................................................16
4.4.1 Large Hydropower....................................................................................................................16
4.4.2 Small Hydropower....................................................................................................................16
4.4.3 Micro Hydropower....................................................................................................................16
5. PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SCHEME.......................................................................16
5.1 Dam/Barrage...................................................................................................................................17
5.2 Head race tunnels/channels............................................................................................................17
5.3 Surge shaft/surge chambers............................................................................................................18
5.4 Pressure shaft/Penstock..................................................................................................................18
5.5 Underground and surface power house..........................................................................................19
5.6 Tailrace channel or tailrace tunnel..................................................................................................19
6 HYDRAULIC TURBINES............................................................................................................................20

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6.1 IMPULSE TURBINE...........................................................................................................................20
6.1.2 Pelton Turbine..........................................................................................................................20
6.2 REACTION TURBINE.........................................................................................................................21
6.2.1 Kaplan Turbine..........................................................................................................................21
6.2.2 Francis Turbine.........................................................................................................................21
7 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................................22
8 GLOSSARY...............................................................................................................................................23
9 REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................................24

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 hydrologic cycle.............................................................................................................................7

Figure 2 Generating power..........................................................................................................................8
Figure 3 power transmission.......................................................................................................................9
Figure 4 Intake structure of Hydropower station...................................................................................11
Figure 5 hydropower station penstock...................................................................................................11
Figure 6 Surge chamber............................................................................................................................12
Figure 7 Hydraulic turbine.......................................................................................................................13
Figure 8 power house...............................................................................................................................14
Figure 9 Draft tube....................................................................................................................................14
Figure 10 Tailrace.....................................................................................................................................15
Figure 11 IMPOUNDEMENT.......................................................................................................................16
Figure 12 Diversion...................................................................................................................................16
Figure 13 PUMPED STORAGE.....................................................................................................................17
Figure 14 A barrage in Rockhampton ,Australia.....................................................................................18
Figure 15 head race tunnels.....................................................................................................................19
Figure 16 Surge shaft................................................................................................................................19
Figure 17 pressure shaft...........................................................................................................................20
Figure 18 Tailrace tunnel.........................................................................................................................21
Figure 19 pelton turbine...........................................................................................................................22
Figure 20 Kaplan turbine..........................................................................................................................22
Figure 21 Francis Turbine........................................................................................................................23

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1.INTRODUCTION TO HYDROPOWER

1.1 Hydroelectric Power -- what is it?

It is a form of energy as well as renewable resource for our nature.

Other renewable resources include geothermal, wave power, tidal power, wind power, and solar
power. Hydroelectric power plants do not use up resources to create electricity nor do they pollute
the air, land, or water, as other power plants may.

Hydroelectric power has played an important part in the development of this world’s electric
power industry. Both small and large hydroelectric power developments were instrumental in the
early expansion of the electric power industry.

Hydroelectric power comes from flowing water … winter and spring runoff from mountain streams
and clear lakes. Water, when it is falling by the force of gravity, can be used to turn turbines and
generators that produce electricity. Hydroelectric power is important to our world. Growing
populations and modern technologies require vast amounts of electricity for creating, building, and
expanding. In the 1920's, hydroelectric plants supplied as much as 40 percent of the electric energy
produced. Although the amount of energy produced by this means has steadily increased, the
amount produced by other types of power plants has increased at a faster rate.

Hydropower is an essential contributor in the national power grid because of its ability to respond
quickly to rapidly varying loads or system disturbances, which base load plants with steam systems
powered by combustion or nuclear processes cannot accommodate.

Hydroelectric power plants are the most efficient means of producing electric energy. The efficiency
of today's hydroelectric plant is about 90 percent. Hydroelectric plants do not create air pollution,
the fuel--falling water--is not consumed, projects have long lives relative to other forms of energy
generation, and hydroelectric generators respond quickly to changing system conditions. These
favorable characteristics continue to make hydroelectric projects attractive sources of electric
power.

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2.HOW HYDROPOWER WORKS

Hydroelectric power comes from water at work, water in motion. It can be seen as a form of solar
energy, as the sun powers the hydrologic cycle which gives the earth its water. In the hydrologic cycle,
atmospheric water reaches the earth’s surface as precipitation. Some of this water evaporates, but
much of it either percolates into the soil or becomes surface runoff. Water from rain and melting snow
eventually reaches ponds, lakes, reservoirs, or oceans where evaporation is constantly occurring.

Moisture percolating into the soil

may become ground water
(subsurface water), some of
which also enters water bodies
through springs or underground
streams. Ground water may
move upward through soil
during dry periods and may
return to the atmosphere by
evaporation. Water vapor passes
into the atmosphere by
evaporation then circulates,
condenses into clouds, and some
returns to earth as precipitation.
Thus, the water cycle is
complete. Nature ensures that
water is a renewable resource.

Figure 1 hydrologic cycle

2.1 Generating Power
In nature, energy cannot be created or destroyed, but its form can change. In generating electricity,
no new energy is created. Actually one form of energy is converted to another form. To generate
electricity, water must be in motion. This is kinetic (moving) energy. When flowing water turns
blades in a turbine, the form is changed to mechanical (machine) energy. The turbine turns the
generator rotor which then converts this mechanical energy into another energy form -- electricity.
Since water is the initial source of energy, we call this hydroelectric power or hydropower for short.
At facilities called hydroelectric power plants, hydropower is generated.

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Some power plants are located on rivers, streams, and canals, but for a reliable water supply, dams
are needed. Dams store water for later release for such purposes as irrigation, domestic and
industrial use, and power generation. The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing water to be
released as needed to generate power.

Figure 2 Generating power

The dam creates a Ahead or height from which water flows. A pipe (penstock) carries the water
from the reservoir to the turbine. The fast-moving water pushes the turbine blades, something like
a pinwheel in the wind. The waters force on the turbine blades turns the rotor, the moving part of
the electric generator. When coils of wire on the rotor sweep past the generator=s stationary coil
(stator), electricity is produced. This concept was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831 when he
found that electricity could be generated by rotating magnets within copper coils. When the water
has completed its task, it flows on unchanged to serve other needs.

2.2 Transmitting Power

Once the electricity is produced, it must be delivered to where it is needed -- our homes, schools,
offices, factories, etc. Dams are often in remote locations and power must be transmitted over some
distance to its users. Vast networks of transmission lines and facilities are used to bring electricity
to us in a form we can use. All the electricity made at a power plant comes first through
transformers which raise the voltage so it can travel long distances through power lines.

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(Voltage is the pressure that

forces an electric current
through a wire.) At local
substations, transformers
reduce the voltage so
electricity can be divided up
and directed throughout an
area.

Figure 3 power transmission

Transformers on poles (or buried underground, in some neighborhoods) further reduce the electric
power to the right voltage for appliances and use in the home. When electricity gets to our homes,
we buy it by the kilowatt-hour, and a meter measures how much we use.

While hydroelectric power plants are one source of electricity, other sources include power plants
that burn fossil fuels or split atoms to create steam which in turn is used to generate power. Gas
turbine, solar, geothermal, and wind-powered systems are other sources. All these power plants
may use the same system of transmission lines and stations in an area to bring power to us.

3.HYDRAULIC STRUCTURE COMPONENTS IN HYDROPOWER STATIONS

The major components of a hydroelectric plant are as follows.

1. Forebay
2. Intake structure
3. Penstock
4. Surge chamber
5. Hydraulic turbines
6. Power house
7. Draft tube
8. Tailrace

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3.1. Forebay
A forebay is a basin area of hydropower plant where water is temporarily stored before going into
intake chamber. The storage of water in forebay is decided based on required water demand in that
area. This is also used when the load requirement in intake is less.

We know that reservoirs are built across the rivers to store the water, the water stored on
upstream side of dam can be carried by penstocks to the power house. In this case, the reservoir
itself acts as forebay.

3.2. Intake Structure

Intake structure is a structure which collects the water from the forebay and directs it into the
penstocks. There are different types of intake structures are available and selection of type of
intake structure depends on various local conditions.

Intake structure contain some important components of which trash racks plays vital role. Trash
racks are provided at the entrance of penstock to trap the debris in the water.

If debris along with water flows into the penstock it will cause severe damage to the wicket gates,
turbine runners, nozzles of turbines etc. these trash racks are made of steel in rod shape. These
rods are arranged with a gap of 10 to 30 cm apart and these racks will separate the debris form the
flowing water whose permissible velocity is limited 0.6 m/sec to 1.6 m/sec.

In cold weather regions, there is chance of formation of ice in water, to prevent the entrance of ice
into the penstocks trash racks heated with electricity and hence ice melts when it touches the trash
racks.

Other than trash racks, rakes and trolley arrangement which is used to clean the trash racks and
penstock closing gates are also provided in intake structure.

Figure 4 Intake structure of Hydropower station

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3.3. Penstock
Penstocks are like large pipes laid with some slope which carries water from intake structure or
reservoir to the turbines. They run with some pressure so, sudden closing or opening of penstock
gates can cause water hammer effect to the penstocks.

So, these are designed to resist the water hammer effect apart from this penstock is similar to
normal pipe. To overcome this pressure, heavy wall is provided for short length penstock and surge
tank is provided in case of long length penstocks.

Steel or Reinforced concrete is used for making penstocks. If the length is small, separate penstock
is used for each turbine similarly if the length is big single large penstock is used and at the end it is
separated into branches.

Figure 5 hydropower station penstock

3.4. Surge Chamber

A surge chamber or surge tank is a cylindrical tank which is open at the top to control the pressure
in penstock. It is connected to the penstock and as close as possible to the power house.

Whenever the power house rejected the water load coming from penstock the water level in the
surge tank rises and control the pressure in penstock.

Similarly, when the huge demand is needed in power house surge tank accelerates the water flow
into the power house and then water level reduces. When the discharge is steady in the power
house, water level in the surge tank becomes constant.

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There are different types of surge tanks available and they are selected based on the requirement of
plant, length of penstock etc.

Figure 6 Surge chamber

3.5. Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic turbine, a device which can convert the hydraulic energy into the mechanical energy
which again converted into the electrical energy by coupling the shaft of turbine to the generator.

The mechanism in this case is, whenever the water coming from penstock strike the circular blades
or runner with high pressure it will rotate the shaft provided at the center and it causes generator
to produce electrical power.

Generally hydraulic turbines are of two types namely

Impulse turbine

Reaction turbine

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Impulse turbine is also called as velocity turbine. Pelton wheel turbine is example for impulse
turbine. Reaction turbine is also called as pressure turbine. Kaplan turbine and Francis turbine
come under this category.

Figure 7 Hydraulic turbine

3.6. Power House

Power house is a building provided to protect the hydraulic and electrical equipment. Generally, the
whole equipment is supported by the foundation or substructure laid for the power house.

In case of reaction turbines some machines like draft tubes, scroll casing etc. are fixed with in the
foundation while laying it. So, the foundation is laid in big dimensions.

When it comes to super structure, generators are provided on the ground floor under which
vertical turbines are provided. Besides generator horizontal turbines are provided. Control room is
provided at first floor or mezzanine floor.

Figure 8 power house

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3.7. Draft Tube
If reaction turbines are used, then draft tube is a necessary component which connects turbine
outlet to the tailrace. The draft tube contains gradually increasing diameter so that the water
discharged into the tailrace with safe velocity. At the end of draft tube, outlet gates are provided
which can be closed during repair works.

Figure 9 Draft tube

3.8. Tailrace
Tailrace is the flow of water from turbines to the stream. It is good if the power house is located
nearer to the stream. But, if it is located far away from the stream then it is necessary to build a
channel for carrying water into the stream.

Otherwise the water flow may damage the plant in many ways like lowering turbine efficiency,
cavitation, damage to turbine blades etc.

This is because of silting or scouring caused by unnecessary flow of water from power house.
Hence, proper design of tailrace should be more important.

Figure 10 Tailrace

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4.CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO POWER PLANT

There are three types of hydropower facilities: impoundment, diversion, and pumped storage.
Some hydropower plants use dams and some do not.

Although not all dams were built for hydropower, they have proven useful for pumping tons of
renewable energy to the grid. In the United States, there are more than 90,000 dams, of which less
than 2,300 produce power as of 2020. The other dams are used for recreation, stock/farm ponds,
flood control, water supply, and irrigation.

Hydropower plants range in size from small systems suitable for a single home or village to large
projects producing electricity for utilities.

4.1 IMPOUNDMENT
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An impoundment
facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in a reservoir. Water
released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator
to produce electricity. The water may be released to meet changing electricity needs or other needs,
such as flood control, recreation, fish passage, and other environmental and water quality needs.

Figure 11 IMPOUNDEMENT

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4.2 DIVERSION
A diversion, sometimes called a “run-of-river” facility, channels a portion of a river through a canal
and/or a penstock to utilize the natural decline of the river bed elevation to produce energy. A
penstock is a closed conduit that channels the flow of water to turbines with water flow regulated
by gates, valves, and turbines. A diversion may not require the use of a dam.

Figure 12 Diversion

4.3 PUMPED STORAGE

Another type of hydropower, called pumped storage hydropower, or PSH, works like a giant
battery. A PSH facility is able to store the electricity generated by other power sources, like solar,
wind, and nuclear, for later use. These facilities store energy by pumping water from a reservoir at
a lower elevation to a reservoir at a higher elevation.

When the demand for electricity is low, a PSH facility stores energy by pumping water from the
lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of high electrical demand, the water is
released back to the lower reservoir and turns a turbine, generating electricity. 

Figure 13 PUMPED STORAGE

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4.4 SIZES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Hydropower facilities range in size from large power plants, which supply many consumers with
electricity, to small and even ‘micro’ plants, which are operated by individuals for their own energy
needs or to sell power to utilities.

4.4.1 Large Hydropower

Although definitions vary, DOE defines large hydropower plants as facilities that have a capacity of
more than 30 megawatts (MW).

4.4.2 Small Hydropower

Although definitions vary, DOE defines small hydropower plants as projects that generate between
100 kilowatts and 10 MW.

4.4.3 Micro Hydropower

A micro hydropower plant has a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts. A small or micro hydroelectric

power system can produce enough electricity for a single home, farm, ranch, or village.

5. PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC SCHEME

The major components of a Hydroelectric Power Plant are:-

1. Dam/Barrage
2. Head works i.e. power intake, head regulator and desilting chambers etc.
3. Head race tunnels/channels
4. Surge shaft/surge chambers
5. Pressure shaft/Penstock
6. Underground and surface power house
7. Tailrace channel or tailrace tunnel.

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5.1 Dam/Barrage
A barrage is a type of low head, diversion dam which consists of a number of large gates that can be
opened or closed to control the amount of water passing through. This allows the structure to
regulate and stabilize river water elevation upstream for use in irrigation and other systems. The
gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load of the pool
created. The term barrage is borrowed from the French word "barrer" meaning "to bar"

Figure 14 A barrage in Rockhampton ,Australia

5.2 Head race tunnels/channels

A tunnel provided between De-silting chamber or Fore-bay to the Surge Shaft” or “A structure that
carries water from intake to the power house for power generation”

Tunnels are very important components of any type of hydropower project and can be very useful
in long run. Now day’s highly sophisticated machines are used for tunneling such as TBM (Tunnel
Boring Machine) which can accomplish the work in months which may takes even years to be
completed using manual procedures.

Figure 15 head race tunnels

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5.3 Surge shaft/surge chambers

In hydropower, a surge chamber is a large pressurized underground chamber creating a free
surface in the waterway to improve the dynamic abilities of the power plant waterways. It is
generally used for long waterways when a surge shaft can not be created to fulfill the same purpose.

Figure 16 Surge shaft

5.4 Pressure shaft/Penstock

Penstocks are pipes or long channels that carry water down from the hydroelectric reservoir to
the turbines inside the actual power station.[2] Generally, they are made of steel and water under
high pressure flows through the penstock. They are a vital component of a hydroelectric facility that
allows water to move to the turbine.[3] Grates or filters can be attached to the ends of penstocks to
trap large debris such as branches. This ensures that debris cannot enter the channel and block it.

Figure 17 pressure shaft

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5.5 Underground and surface power house

 An underground power station is a type of hydroelectric power station constructed by
excavating the major components (e.g. machine hall, penstocks, and tailrace) from rock,
rather than the more common surface-based construction methods.
 One or more conditions impact whether a power station is constructed underground. The
terrain or geology around a dam is taken into consideration, as gorges or steep valleys may
not accommodate a surface power station. A power station within bedrock may be less
expensive to construct than a surface power station on loose soil.

 Surface power house

 A surface powerhouse: usually located at the dam toe, where water is conveyed through the
dam by means of penstocks.

5.6 Tailrace channel or tailrace tunnel.

The tail race, containing tail water, is a channel that carries water away from a hydroelectric
plant or water wheel. The water in this channel has already been used to rotate turbine blades or
the water wheel itself. This water has served its purpose, and leaves the power generation unit or
water wheel area

Figure 18 Tailrace tunnel

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6 HYDRAULIC TURBINES
Hydraulic turbines are the prime movers that convert the energy of the falling water into a
rotational mechanical energy and consequently to an electric energy through the use of the
generators that are connected to the turbines. Turbines consist of a row of blades that are fixed on
a rotating shaft or a plate. The shaft rotates because of the impact of the difference in velocity and
pressure of the water striking the blades.

Generally hydraulic turbines are of two types namely

Impulse turbine

Reaction turbine

Impulse turbine is also called as velocity turbine. Pelton wheel turbine is example for impulse
turbine. Reaction turbine is also called as pressure turbine. Kaplan turbine and Francis turbine
come under this category.

6.1 IMPULSE TURBINE

An impulse turbine generally uses the velocity of the water to move the runner and discharges at
atmospheric pressure. A water stream hits each bucket on the runner. With no suction on the down
side of the turbine, the water flows out the bottom of the turbine housing after hitting the runner.
An impulse turbine is generally suitable for high-head, low-flow applications. The two main types of
impulse turbine are Pelton and cross-flow turbines.

6.1.2 Pelton Turbine

The Pelton turbine was invented by American inventor Lester Allan Pelton in the 1870s, A Pelton
wheel has one or more free jets discharging water into an aerated space and impinging on the
buckets of a runner. Pelton turbines are generally used for very high heads and low flows. Draft
tubes are not required for an impulse turbine because the runner must be located above the
maximum tailwater to permit operation at atmospheric pressure.

Figure 19 pelton turbine

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6.2 REACTION TURBINE
A reaction turbine generates power from the combined forces of pressure and moving water. A
runner is placed directly in the water stream, allowing water to flow over the blades rather than
striking each individually. Reaction turbines are generally used for sites with lower head and higher
flows and are the most common type currently used in the United States.

The two most common types of reaction turbines are Propeller (including Kaplan) and Francis.
Kinetic turbines are also a type of reaction turbine.

6.2.1 Kaplan Turbine

: Both the blades and the wicket gates are

adjustable, allowing for a wider range of operation.
This turbine was developed by Austrian
inventor Viktor Kaplan in 1919.

Figure 20 Kaplan turbine

6.2.2 Francis Turbine

The Francis turbine was the first modern hydropower turbine and was invented by British-
American engineer James Francis in 1849. A Francis turbine has a runner with fixed blades, usually
nine or more. Water is introduced just above the runner and all around it which then falls through,
causing the blades to spin. Besides the
runner, the other major components
include a scroll case, wicket gates, and a
draft tube. Francis turbines are commonly
used for medium- to high-head (130- to
2,000-foot) situations though they have
been used for lower heads as well. Francis
turbines work well in both horizontal and
vertical orientations.

Figure 21 Francis Turbine

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7 CONCLUSION

Hydroelectric power has played an important part in the development of this world’s electric
power industry. Both small and large hydroelectric power developments were instrumental in the
early expansion of the electric power industry.

Hydroelectric power comes from water at work, water in motion. It can be seen as a form of solar
energy, as the sun powers the hydrologic cycle which gives the earth its water. In the hydrologic
cycle, atmospheric water reaches the earth’s surface as precipitation.

In nature, energy cannot be created or destroyed, but its form can change. In generating electricity,
no new energy is created. Actually one form of energy is converted to another form. To generate
electricity, water must be in motion.

Once the electricity is produced, it must be delivered to where it is needed -- our homes, schools,
offices, factories, etc. Dams are often in remote locations and power must be transmitted over some
distance to its users.

The major components of a hydroelectric plant are Forebay, Intake structure, Penstock, Surge
chamber, Hydraulic turbines, Power house, Draft tube, Tailrace.

Hydropower plants range in size from small systems suitable for a single home or village to large
projects producing electricity for utilities.

Hydraulic turbines are the prime movers that convert the energy of the falling water into a
rotational mechanical energy and consequently to an electric energy through the use of the
generators that are connected to the turbines.

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8 GLOSSARY
 Dam :- A massive wall or structure built across a valley or river for storing water.
 Energy :- The capacity for doing work as measured by the capability of doing work
(potential energy) or the conversion of this capability to motion (kinetic energy). Energy
has several forms, some of which are easily convertible and can be changed to another form
useful for work.
 Hydroelectric Power :- Electric current produced from water power.
 Hydroelectric Power plant :- A building in which turbines are operated, to drive generators,
by the energy of natural or artificial waterfalls.
 Power :- Mechanical or electrical force or energy. The rate at which work is done by an
electric current or mechanical force, generally measured in watts or horsepower.
 Reservoir :- An artificial lake into which water flows and is stored for future use.
 Turbine :- A machine for generating rotary mechanical power from the energy of a stream
of fluid (such as water, steam, or hot gas). Turbines convert the kinetic energy of fluids to
mechanical energy through the principles of impulse and reaction, or a mixture of the two.

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9 REFERENCES
 US Department of the interior bureau of reclamation power resources office;july 2005.
 Black and Veatch ( pumped storage and large pumped plants).
 Water power technologies office, “types of hydro power plant”
 India’s perimeter Hydro power utility “Hydro Technology”
 Energy Education "https://energyeducation.ca/wiki/index.php”
 ScienceDirect journals and books.
 Comprehensive Energy Systems,2018.
 Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy.

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