Learning Module No. 1.

CONCEPT OF STRESS

Introduction
Three fundamental areas of engineering mechanics are:
1. Statics
2. Dynamics
3. Mechanics of materials or strength of materials

Statics and Dynamics are devoted primarily to the study of external effects of forces on rigid
bodies. Mechanics of materials is a branch of mechanics that develops relationships between the
external loads applied to a deformable body and the intensity of internal forces acting within the body.
This is also concerned with computing the deformations of the body, and it provides a study of the
body’s stability when the body is subjected to external forces. This course deals with two fundamental
concepts : strength and rigidity.

Equilibrium of a Deformable Bodies

A. External loads. A body can be subjected to several types of external loads:
a. Surface forces. They are caused by the direct contact of one body with the surface of
another body.
• Concentrated Load. A force applied to a point on the body.
• Distributed Load. If the surface loading is applied along a narrow area or certain
length.
• Resultant Force of a distributed load is equal to the area under the distributed loading
curve, and this resultant acts through the centroid of this area.
b. Body Force.
A body force or also called weight due to earths gravitation acts through the body’s
center of gravity.

c. Supports Reactions.
The surface forces that develop at the supports or points of support between bodies
are called reactions. If the support prevents translation in a given direction, then a force
reaction is developed on the member in that direction. Likewise, if rotation is prevented, a
couple moment is exerted on the member.

B. Equations of Equilibrium.

Equilibrium of a body requires both a balance of forces, to prevent the body from
translating or moving along a straight or curved path, and a balance of moments, to prevent
the body from rotating.
∑𝐹 = 0 ∑M =0

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 If forces lie in the X-Y plane, then the conditions for equilibrium of the body can be
specified by only three scalar equilibrium equations; that is,

∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 ∑Mo = 0

In an X, Y, Z coordinate system is established with the origin at point O, the force and
moment vectors can be resolved into components along the coordinate axes and the above
two equations can be written in scalar form as six equations, namely,

∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 ∑Fz = 0

∑Mx = 0 ∑My = 0 ∑Mz = 0
The best way to account for these forces is to draw the body’s free body diagram.

C. Internal Loadings ( Analysis of Internal Forces )

One of the most important applications of statics in the analysis of problems involving
mechanics of materials is to be able to determine the resultant force and moment acting
within a body, which are necessary to hold the body together when the body is subjected to
external loads.
In general, the internal forces reduces to a force and a couple (moment) that are resolved
into components that are normal and tangent to the section:

Pxx. Axial Force. Pushing or pulling action perpendicular to the section.

Pxy & Pxz. Shear Force. These are components of the total resistance to sliding the portion to
to one side of the exploratory section past the other.
Mxx.. Torque. This component measures the resistance to twisting the member.
Mxy & Mxz. Bending Moment. These components measures the resistance to bending the
member about the Y or Z axis.

1.1 Axial Stress

Simple axial stress is equal to force per unit area. It has symbol of 𝜎 (sigma) : 𝜎 = F/A.
That force F is normal to the cross sectional area A, either in tension or compression.

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Sample Problem.

1. A composite bar consists of an aluminium section rigidly fastened between a bronze section
and a steel section as shown. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Determine the
stress in each section.

Solution:
The stresses in each section are:
𝑃
Using the simple stress equation 𝜎 = ,
𝐴
4000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝑏𝑟 = = 3330 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
1.2 𝑖𝑛2
5000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝑎𝑙 = = 2780 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
1.8𝑖𝑛2
7000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = = 4380 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
1.6 𝑖𝑛2

2. For the truss shown, determine the stress in members AC and BD. The cross sectional area of
each member is 900mm2.

Solution: The three assumptions used in the elementary analysis of trusses are as follows:
1. Weights of the members are neglected.
2. All connections are smooth pins.
3. All external loads are applied directly to the pins.

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Using these three assumptions, the members of the truss may be analyzed as two-force
members – the internal force system carried by any member reduces to simply a single force
(tension or compression) acting along the line of the member.

The free-body diagram of the entire truss is shown above. An equilibrium analysis of
this free-body diagram results in the following values for the external reactions:

𝐴𝑦 = 40 𝑘𝑁, 𝐻𝑦 = 60 𝑘𝑁, 𝐻𝑥 = 0.

To determine the force in member AC, we must pass an imaginary cutting plane which
isolates joint A (section 1, Fig. 1-9). Refer to the free-body diagram of joint A as shown.
Note that both AB and AC have been assumed to be in tension. Analyzing the free-body
diagram, we have:
3
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝐵 =0
5

5 5
AB = − 𝐴𝑦 = − (40) = −66.7 𝑘𝑁
3 3

4
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵 = 0
5

4 4
𝐴𝐶 = − 𝐴𝐵 = − (−66.7) = 53.4 𝑘𝑁
5 5

The minus sign indicates that the 66.7 kN force in member AB is compressive. The force in
member AC is 53.4 kN, tension.

Using free-body diagram of section 2, determine the force BD. To calculate the force
BD, we eliminate the forces BE and CE by taking a moment summation about their point of
intersection, E. and write

∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0

-𝐴𝑦 (8) + 30(4) – BD(3) = 0

BD = -66.7 kN

Or BD = 66.7 kN, compression

The stresses in members AC and BD are

𝑃 53.4 × 103 𝑁
𝜎= 𝜎𝐴𝐶 = = 59.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (tension)
𝐴 900𝑚𝑚2

66.7×103 𝑁
𝜎𝐵𝐷 = = 74.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (compression)
900𝑚𝑚2

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1.2 Shearing Stress.

Differs from both tensile and compressive stress in that it is caused by forces acting along or
parallel to the area resisting the forces. Tensile and compressive stresses are caused by forces
perpendicular to the areas on which they act. For this reason , tensile and compressive stresses are
called normal stresses , where as a shearing stress may be called a tangential stress.

It is produced whenever the applied loads cause one section of a body to slide past its adjacent
section. It has a symbol of 𝜏 (tau).
𝑃 𝑉
𝜏= or where V = shear force
𝐴 𝐴

A = shearing area

Solve the following problems.

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. 1.3 Bearing Stress

Bearing stress 𝜎 b = Pb/Ab where P = Pb and Ab = contact area

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1.6 Thin Walled Pressure Vessel.

A cylindrical tank or spherical vessels are commonly used in industry to serve as boilers . When
under pressure, the material of which they are made is subjected to a loading from all directions.

Consider a cylindrical tank carrying a gas or a fluid under a pressure of 𝜌 (N/m2) is subjected to
a tensile forces which resists the bursting forces developed across longitudinal and transverse
sections.

The elementary force acting normal to an element of the cylinder located at an angle 𝜃 from the
horizontal diameter; dF = 𝜌dA = 𝜌LD/2(d𝜃).

The bursting force F is the summation of the vertical components of these elementary forces:
𝜋 𝜌𝑙𝐷 𝜋
F = dF sin𝜃 = ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃d𝜃 = 𝜌𝑙𝐷/2 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
2

𝜌𝐿𝐷 π 𝜌𝐿𝐷 𝜌𝑙𝐷

F= ⌈−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⌉0 = −(−1 − 1) = (2) = 𝜌𝐿𝐷
2 2 2

F = 𝜌𝐿𝐷 is called the bursting force, acting normal to the cutting plane A-A. It is resisted by
the equal forces P acting on each cut surface of the cylinder wall, and stress 𝜎 = F/A.

∑Fy = 0, 2P = F, the stress 𝜎 =2P/2A , each area of the cut surface A = tL , so

𝜎 = F/2A = 𝜌𝐷𝐿/2𝑡𝐿 , 𝜎 = 𝜌𝐷/2𝑡

This stress is also called tangential stress, circumferential stress, hoop stress or girth stress.

There is also a bursting force acting at the end (bottom) of the cylinder. This bursting force
may be computed by the product of the internal pressure multiplied by the projected area of the
transverse section. P = F , 𝜎𝜋𝐷𝑡 = 𝜌 𝜋𝐷2/4

𝜎 = 𝜌𝐷/4𝑡 , also called longitudinal stress, which half the tangential stress.

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Sample Problems:

1. Assume that a 20mm diameter rivet joins the plates that are each 110 mm wide. The
allowable stresses are 120MPa for bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of
the rivet. Determine a) the minimum thickness of each plate, and b) the largest average
tensile stress in the plates.

2. A hole is to be punched out of plate having an ultimate shearing stress of 300MPa. If the
compressive stress in the punch is limited to 400MPa, determine the maximum thickness of
plate from which a hole 100mm in diameter can be punched.

3. A water tank. 22 ft in diameter, is made from steel plates that are ½ inch thick. Find the
maximum height to which the tank may be filled if the circumferential stress is limited to
6000 psi. The specific weight of water is 62.4 lb/ft3.

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