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Networking in computers is to enable its users to share resources and to access these
resources regardless of their physical locations, which may be a few feet or even thousands
of miles apart. Thus we can say that computer network creates a global environment
between its users and computers. It also provides communication links for distant places
Computer network is defined as a set of interconnected autonomous systems that permits
distributed processing of information.

 Need for networking:

• Resource sharing (Processing, Peripherals, Information and software)
• Personal or national or worldwide communication
• Information discovery and retrieval
 A brief history of computer networks: The first computer network was jointly designed
by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and Department of Defence (DoD) of
United States in 1969 and was called ARPANET. It was an experimental project, which
connected a few computers from some of the reputed universities of USA and DoD.
ARPANET allowed access to computer resource sharing projects. This ARPANET was
handed over to Defence Communication Agency (DCA) for further development. As a
result Defence Data Network (DDN) was born in 1983.
 Internet: A Network of computers that share a common communication protocol
(Transfer Control Protocol / Internet Protocol – TCP/IP) that allows computers of
different types to exchange information. Since each computer often has more than a
single user. It has been estimated that more than 45 million people have Internet access.
It is an interconnected system of networks that connects computers around the world
via the Internet Protocol.
 Interspace: The Interspace is a vision of what the Internet will become, where users
cross-correlate information in multiple ways from multiple sources. The Interspace will
offer distributed services to transfer concepts across domains, just as Arpanet used
distributed services to transfer objects across repositories.
 Network switching techniques: It provides communication between two computers.
There are three types of network switching techniques.
1. Circuit switching: This provides end-to-end connected two computers. First, physical
connection between two computers is established and then data (message) is
transmitted from the source computer to the destination computer.
2. Message switching: The source computer sends data (message) to the switching
office, which stores data in a buffer. It then looks for a free link to another switching
office and sends data to that office. This process continues until data delivered to the
destination computer. This type of switching technique is also known as store and
forward switching.
3. Packet switching: A fixed size of packet that can be transmitted across the network
is specified. All the packets are stored in the main memory instead of disk. As a result
accessing time of packets is reduced.

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Data Communication terminologies

 Baud: Baud, also known as Baud rate, is a unit of signaling speed equal to the number of
discrete signal elements transmitted per second. Baud is synonymous with bits per
seconds (bps), if each signal element represents exactly 1 bit. Baud is often used in the
modem speed.
 Data transfer rate: The amount of data transferred in one direction over a link divided
by the time taken to transfer it, usually expressed in bits per second (bps), Kilo bps
(Kbps), Mega bps (Mbps), Giga bps(Gbps), Tera bps(Tbps). Bytes per second (Bps), Kilo
Bps (KBps), Mega Bps (MBps), Giga Bps(GBps), Tera Bps(TBps).
 Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be passed along a communications channel in
a given period of time (1 Seconds). The units used for it are Hz, !03 Hz= 1 Kilo Hz (KHz),
103 KHz = 1 Mega Hz (MHz).
Communication/Transmission Medium:
It is a means of communication or access (lines of communication) set up between the two
firms/organizations to exchange data/information.
 Wired Technologies (Guided Media)
• Twisted Pair/ Ethernet Cable: Comparatively fast prone to electromagnetic
interference, Used in star topology of network. Network length limit up to 100 meter.
 Advantages:
 It is simple.
 It is physically flexible.
 It can be easily connected.
 It is easy to install and maintain.
 It has a low weight.
 It is very inexpensive.
 Disadvantages:
 It is not capable to carrying signal to
long distance.
 It connects only up to 100 meters. (without Repeater)
 Its low bandwidth capabilities.
 It supports maximum data transfer rates 1 to 10 MBps (Mega bytes per seconds).
• Coaxial Cable: Comparatively slow, Economic, Convenient to lay down, used in Bus
topology of networks. Network length limit up to 500 meter.

 Advantages:
 The data transmission rates better than Twist-pair cable.
 It is used a shared cable network.
 It can be used for broadband transmission. i.e., several channels can be transmitted
simultaneously (as with Cable TV).
 It supports high bandwidths – up to 400 MBps.

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 Disadvantages:
 It connects only up to 500 meters.
 It is expensive compared to twisted pair cables.
• Optical Fiber: Very fast, expensive, reliable, no interference. Network length limit up to
100 Kilo Meter.
 Advantages:
 It is immune to electrical and magnetic
interference.
 It is highly suitable for harsh industrial
environments.
 It is guarantees secure transmission.
 It is very high transmission capacity.
 It is used for broadband transmission where
several channels.
 It connects up to 100 kilo meter.
 Disadvantages:
 It installation is difficult.
 It is most expensive over all the cables.
 Connection losses are common problems.
 It is difficult to solder.
• Telephone Wire: Most economic, widely available, slow, good for analog signals.
 Wireless Technologies (Unguided Media)

• Infrared: Infrared electromagnetic waves have frequencies higher than microwaves

but lower than the visible spectrum. Infrared transmission is used for wireless LANs,
as well as for point-to-point communications with portable devices. Examples:
Mobile phones, Remote controls, etc.
• Radio Wave: It is a form of wireless communications in which the output of the
transmitter takes form of dissipating electromagnetic radiation, which spreads
outward from the antenna through free space. It is a slow means of communication.
It is an insecure communication. It is susceptible to weather effects like rains,
thunder storms.
• Microwave: Very expensive, works on line of sight principles, faster than radio
communication. The term microwave refers to electromagnetic energy having a
frequency higher than 1 gigahertz (billions of cycles per second). They are not
reflected or reflected by ionized regions in the upper atmosphere. Microwave beams
do not readily diffract around barriers such as hills, mountains, and large human-
made structures. It is an insecure communication. It is susceptible to weather effects
like rains, thunder storms.

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• Laser: The laser transmission requires direct line-of-sight. It is unidirectional like

microwave, but has much higher speed than microwaves. The laser transmission is
point-to-point transmission.
• Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a telecommunications industries specification that connects
mobile phones, computers, and personal digital assistants can be easily
interconnected using a short-range wireless connection.
• Satellite link: It is a link using radio frequencies relayed by satellite. IT is very
expensive, fast, and wide area coverage. The heavy usage of intercontinental traffic
makes the satellite commercial attractive. The high investment cost.
 Network Devices
• MODEM (Modulator Demodulator): It is a device used to convert the digital signals
into analog signals and vice versa. It is mainly used to connect a telephone to a
computer terminal. Modem in two varieties: 1. Internal Modem (Fixed with
computer) 2. External Modem (Connect externally to computer).
• RJ11 Connector: RJ-11 is the standard connector utilized on 2-pair (4-wire)
telephone wiring, and RJ stands for “Registered Jack” – physical connector interface
most often used for telephone wire terminals.
• RJ45 Connector: RJ45 is a standard type of connector for network cables and
networks. It is an 8-pin connector usually used with Ethernet cables.

• Ethernet Card: Network Interface Card, a card you insert

into a computer that enables it to be connected to a
network. NICs are designed for a particular type of network
and/or protocol. (i.e. Ethernet, ATM, etc)
• Hub: It is an unintelligent network device that sends one signal to
all of the stations connected to it. Basically, hubs are multi-slot
connectors into which a number of multi-port cards can be plugged
to provide additional access as the network group size.
• Switch: It is similar to a hub, in that it provides a central
connection between two or more computers on a network, but
with some intelligence. A switch is responsible for filtering,
transforming data in a specific way and for forwarding packets
between LAN segments. Switch support any packet protocols.
• Repeater: It is devices that strengthens the signal intensity and connects two identical
networks and used to Repeaters are also used extensively in broadcasting, where they
are known as translators or boosters. A repeater is a network device that amplifies and
restores signals for long-distance transmission.

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• Gateway: A Gateway is a network device that connects dissimilar networks. It

establishes an intelligent connection between a local networks and external networks
with completely different structures. It is a network point that acts as an entrance to
another network, such as the server through which people on a company’s local are
network access the Internet. Often a gateway conceals the IP address of the specific user
sending out information, and outsiders can only see the IP address of the gateway itself.
Examples: VSNL, MIT, etc.
• Router: The router is to make decisions based on groups of network. The purpose of a
router is to examine incoming packets, choose the best path for them through the
network, and then switch them to the proper outgoing port. Routers are the most
important traffic-regulating devices on large networks. Router can handle multiple
protocol and works with IP addresses.

• Bridge: A bridge is a device designed to connect two LAN segments. The purpose of a
bridge is to filter traffic on a LAN. It connects two different types of cables (like Optical
Fiber, Twist-pair cable). Bridge cannot handles multiple protocol but, It works with MAC
addresses.

 Network Topologies: It is the physical make up of a network, i.e., end points or user
station attached to the network.
1. Bus: It is characterized by common transmission medium shared by all the
connected hosts, managed by dedicated nodes. It offers simultaneous flow of data
and control.

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2. Tree: A tree topology may be defined as a group of bus topologies put together and
controlled by one node.

3. Star: It is characterized by central switching mode (communication controller)

unique path (point-to-point link) for each host. It is easy to add and remove
additional host by upgrading the centralized node.

4. Ring: A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. This creates
a physical ring of cable.

 Advantages
Bus Topology Tree Topology Star Topology
• Economic as • Faster as compared to • Faster communication as
Compared to other Bus Topology compared to Bus topology.
topologies of network. • Easier to set-up for • Independent line of
• Simple Architecture multi-floor plans of connection allows freedom
network. of removing or adding
nodes from the network.
 Disadvantages
Bus Topology Tree Topology Star Topology
• Slower as compared to tree and • Slower as compared • Expensive as
star topologies of network to Star Topology compared to Bus
• Breakage of wire at any point • Expensive as Topology
disturbs the entire network compared to Bus • Long wire length
Topology

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 Types of Networks: Network are classified in accordance with the amount of territory
their encompass.
 LAN (Local Area Networks): Interconnects a high number of access or node points or
stations within a confined physical area. An example is the territory covered in a
single office building that houses various department/offices. All these are
interconnected using a LAN.
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): It is used to connected systems confined within
a city/limited geographical area. Localized systems such as teller machines within a
single citywide area are interconnected using a MAN. A small bank with offices
restricted to a city or a single state might also be interconnected through a MAN.
 WAN (Wide Area Network): It is used to connected systems with no limitation of
geographical area. IT is used to serve many locations distributed over a large
geographical area. A system of overnight teller machines used by a banking
organization covering the North of India is an example of WAN. Internet is also
example of the same.
 PAN (Personal Area Network): A Personal Area Network refers to a small network of
communication-capable devices within a range of reachability of an individual
person. This range to typically up to 10 meter. For example two cell phones through
Bluetooth, it forms a PAN.
 Protocols: It is the set of rules for governing communication between two
communication devices. It also infers documentation, negotiations and establishment of
rules.
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol): A protocol for
communication between computers used as a standard for transmitting data over
networks and is the basis for standard Internet protocols.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): It is a primary method to transfer files over the Internet.
FTP transfer files to and from a remote network site. It is a common method of
moving files between two computers.
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): The Point-to-Point protocol originally emerged as an
encapsulation protocol for transporting IP traffic over point-to-point links. PPP also
established a standard for assigning and managing IP address, network protocol
multiplexing, etc for added networking capabilities.
 Telnet (Level-Remote Login): Application Level-Remote Login – Telnet is a program that
allows user to establish a virtual terminal connection between two machines using
TCP/IP (Transfer Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol).
 Wireless/Mobile Communication: It is the communication using devices, which are not
physically connected with each other by cable.
 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication): Global system for mobile
communication (GSM) is a wide area wireless communications System that user
digital radio transmission to provide voice data and multimedia communication
services. A GSM system coordinates the communication between mobile telephones
(mobile stations), base stations (cell sites), and switching systems. Each GSM radio
channel is 200 KHz wide that is further divided into frames each of which hold 8 time

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slots. GSM was originally named Grouped Special Mobile. The GSM system includes
mobile telephones (mobile stations), radio tower (base stations), and
interconnecting switching systems. In India this technology is adapted by AirTel and
Vodaphone.
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): It is a digital wireless telephony transmission
technique, which allows multiple frequencies to be used simultaneously – Spread
Spectrum. It is patented by QUALCOMM. In India this technology is used by Reliance,
Tata and MTNL.
 WLL (Wireless Local Loop): Sometimes called as Radio in The Loop (RITL) or Fixed-
Radio Access (FRA), WLL is a system that connects subscribers to the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) using radio signals as a substitute for cable for all or part
of the connection between the subscriber and the switch. This includes cordless
access systems; proprietary fixed radio access, and fixed cellular systems.
 3rd Generation GSM (3GSM): The third generation GSM system uses sideband code
division multiple access (WCDMA) technology to provide voice, data and broadband
multimedia services. The radio portion of the WCDMA system uses wideband radio
channels (5 MHz wide) which are different and not compatible with 200 KHz GSM
channels. The WCDMA infrastructure is compatible with GSM mobile radio
communication system.
 SMS (short Message Service): Using SMS, a short alphanumeric message (160
alphanumeric characters) can be send to a mobile phone to be displayed there, much
like in an alphanumeric pager system. The network buffers the message until the phone
becomes active.
 Voice Mail: It is a system that answers calls and allows users to replay to, save, delete or
forward messages.
 E-Mail: Electronic mail. This is the most widely used service facilitating users to send and
receive messages electrically in a store and forward manner. Messages and letters that
send over the computer network to other people with the help of individual’s unique
email addresses (email ids) e.g. [email protected]
 Chat: It is an application to communicate with a person, a group, or a site on the
Internet in real time by typing text. The text appears on the screen(s) of all the other
participants in the “chat”.
 Video Conferencing: It is a conference between two or more participants at different
locations over the Internet or a private network. Each user has a video camera,
microphone, and speakers mounted on his or her computer. As the participants speak to
one another, they hear each other’s voices and see a video image of the other
participant(s).
 Network Security Concepts:
 Cyber Law: Cyber law encompasses a wide variety of political and legal issues related
to the Internet and other communications technology, including intellectual
property, privacy, freedom of expression, and jurisdiction.

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 Firewall: Any of a number of security schemes (hardware/software) that prevent

unauthorized users from gaining access to a computer network or that monitor
transfers of information to and from the network.
 Hackers: The people who break and enter a computer/network without having
authorized having authorized access and with no malicious intent. It is the duty of an
ethical hacker to inform the system administrator of the security flaw as soon as
he/she identifies it.
 Computer Virus: A computer virus can spread from on e computer to another (in
some form of executable code) when its host is taken to another computer; for
instance because a user sent it over a network or the Internet, or carried it on a
removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, DVD, or USB drive. Viruses can increase
their changes of spreading to other computers by infecting files on a network file
system or a file system that is accessed by another computer.
 Computer Worm: A computer worm is a self-replicating computer program. It uses a
network to send copies of itself to other nodes (computers on the network) and it
may do so without any user intervention. Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach
itself to an existing program.
 SPYWARE: Spyware is a type of malware that is installed on computers and collects
information about users without their knowledge. The presence of spyware is
typically hidden from the user. Typically, spyware is secretly installed on the user’s
personal computer. Sometimes, however, spyware such as key loggers are installed
by the owner by the owner of a shared, corporate, or public computer on purpose in
order to security monitor other users.
 TORJAN HORSE: “Malware” computer programs presented as useful or harmless in
order to induce the user to install and run them.
 SPAM: Spam is the abuse of electronic messaging systems (including most broadcast
media, digital delivery systems) to send unsolicited bulk messages indiscriminately.
While the most recognized form of spam is e-mail spam, the term is applied to
similar abuses in other media: instant messaging spam, Usenet newsgroup spam,
Web search engine spam, spam in blogs, wiki spam, online classified ads spam,
mobile phone messaging spam, Internet forum spam, junk fax transmissions, social
networking spam, and file sharing network spam.
 Cookies: A small piece of information that server sends to a client. When you visit a
Web site with cookie capabilities, its server sends certain information about you to
your browser, which is stored on your hard drive as a text file. At some later time
(such as returning to the site the next day), the server retrieves the cookie. It’s a way
for the server to remember things about you.
 THE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ACT, 2000 (No. 21 of 2000) [9th June 2000]: An Act to
provide legal recognition for transactions carried out by means of electronic data
interchange and other means of electronic communication, commonly referred to as
“electronic commerce”, which involve the use of alternatives to paper-based methods of
communication and storage of information, to facilitate electronic filing of documents
with the Government agencies and further to amend the Indian Penal Code, the Indian

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Evidence Act, 1872, the Bankers’ Books Evidence Act, 1891 and the Reserve Bank of
India Act, 1934 and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Whereas the General Assembly of the United Nations by resolution A/RES/51/162, dated
the 30th January, 1997 has adopted the Model Law on Electronic Commerce adopted by
the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law.
And whereas the said resolution recommends inter alias that all States give favorable
consideration to the said Model Law when enacts or revise their laws, in view of the
need for uniformity of the law applicable to alternatives to paper-cased methods of
communication and storage of information; and whereas it is considered necessary to
give effect to the said resolution and to promote efficient delivery of Government
services by means of reliable electronic records.
 Intellectual property (IP): Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain
exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic
works; discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases symbols, and designs. Common
types of intellectual property include copyrights, trademarks, patents, industrial design
rights and trade secrets in some jurisdictions.
 Web page: It is a single document written in HTML having extension as .htm or .html. It
is viewable in any Internet Browser. It can be edited in any text editor.
 HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language): The coding language used to create Hypertext
documents for use on the World Wide Web.
 XML (eXtensible Markup Language): XML is a programming language that enables
designers to create their own tags to indicate specific information.
 HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol – The protocol that allows use of HTML on the World
Wide Web (WWW).
 Domain Name: It is the unique name that identifies an Internet site. Domain Names
always have 2 or more parts, separated by dots (or periods). The part on the left is the
most specific, and the part on the right is the most general. A given machine may have
more than one Domain Name but a given Domain Name points to only one machine.
Example: microsoft.co.in, cbse.nic.in
 URL (Uniform Resource Locator): It is the global address of documents and other
resources on the World Wide Web. The first part of the address indicates what protocol
to use, and the second part specifies the IP address or the domain name where the
resource is located.
 IP Address: It is a unique identifier used to specify hosts and networks. Internet Protocol
(IP) numbers are part of a global standardized scheme for identifying machines that are
connected to the Internet. Technically speaking. IP numbers are 32 bit addresses that
consists of four octets, and they expressed as four numbers between 0 and 255,
separated by periods, for example: 198.168.0.1
 Website: It is a group of Web Pages that collectively represent a company, or individual
on the World Wide Web. A group of web pages that have been developed together to
present information on specific subjects is also a Web Site.

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