Solved Paper

December 2019

BVCLS (205)

Q.1 Write short notes on the following:

(a) Dynamic Microphone

Ans. A microphone is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or sensor that converts sound into an electrical
signal. Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, hearing aids,
motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, megaphones, in radio and television
broadcasting and in computers for recording voice, speech recognition, VoIP, and for non-acoustic
purposes such as ultrasonic checking or knock sensors.

Dynamic microphone is the simplest type of microphone in common use is the moving coil dynamic
microphone. The signal is created when a coil of wire attached to a diaphragm moves in and out,
through a magnetic field, as the air pressure changes. An electrical signal is created by induction as the
wires in the coil cut through the magnetic field.

The mass of the moving parts must be very low, so that it does not require much energy to move the
diaphragm since the mass of the assembly limits the high-frequency response of the dynamic
microphone. Dynamic microphones tend to be quite sturdy and of low cost, so they are commonly used
to record drums, amplifier outputs, human voices, and other sources which produce high sound
pressure levels.

In dynamic microphones a physical cone acts like a lens to concentrate the incoming sound waves. The
concentrated energy of these sound waves moves the cone and its attached coil of wire back and forth
inside a magnetic field. The magnetic field induces electricity to flow through the wire to produce an
electrical signal which is the microphone's output.

The electrical signal is analogous to the original sound wave

Dynamic microphones are well known for their versatility and their durability, but are not the best
choice for reproducing high and low frequencies; dynamic microphones require significant energy to
move the coil of wire and therefore lose definition at the extremes.
(b) Depth of focus

Ans. Depth of focus is a lens optics concept that measures the tolerance of placement of the image
plane (the film plane in a camera) in relation to the lens. In a camera, depth of focus indicates the
tolerance of the film's displacement within the camera and is therefore sometimes referred to as "lens-
to-film tolerance".

The phrase depth of focus is sometimes erroneously used to refer to the depth of field (DOF), which is
the area in front of the lens in acceptable focus, whereas the true meaning of depth of focus refers to
the zone behind the lens wherein the film plane or sensor is placed to produce an in-focus image.

Depth of focus pertains to the image space. It varies with the aperture and the magnification of the
objective lens. Depth of focus assumes importance in the field of photomicrography. The film used in
photomicrography must be illuminated in a plane that falls within the focus region. The value of depth
of focus is obtained from the value of the f-number of the lens, image distance, and the circle of
confusion.

Difference between Depth of Focus and Depth of Field

Depth of focus is the distance over which the image plane can be displaced, with the object plane being
maintained under sharp focus. Depth of field, on the other hand, is the range of distances within the
object space for which the image is of acceptable sharpness.

Depth of focus is measured in terms of microscopic units, while depth of field is measured in terms of
macroscopic units.

Factors that Influence the Depth of Focus

The factors that influence the depth of focus of the lens are listed below:-

 Format – Depth of focus for small-format cameras is relatively diminutive

 Lens calibration – In motion pictures, the combination of the lenses and the camera gate
influences the depth of focus

The factors that affect depth of field have a different effect on the depth of focus also.

(c) Telephoto lens

Ans. A lens is an optical device which transmits and refracts light, converging or diverging the beam. A

photographic lens is an optical lens or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera body and
mechanism to make images of objects either on photographic film or on other media capable of storing
an image chemically or electronically. A lens may be permanently fixed to a camera, or it may
be interchangeable with lenses of different focal lengths.

A telephoto lens is a lens with a long focal length. This type of lens is called a telephoto, long focal
length, long lens and zooms in but they all refer to the same thing - a lens that brings distant subjects
closer. This is especially useful when you cannot get close to your subject— or you prefer not to.

Because of this property telephoto lenses are ideal for sports photography as it allows the photographer
to shoot subjects that are at great distances. It is also typically used in wildlife photography, as getting
close to a subject might disturb it. The long focal length of the telephoto lens lets you keep your distance
and still fill the viewfinder frame with the subject.

Telephoto lenses are also used by photographers who want greater control over limiting the depth of
field (the area of an image in focus), typically in portrait photography.

The difference between a zoom lens and a telephoto lens is subtle. A zoom lens enlarges and magnifies
the image. In contrast, a telephoto lens brings the subject “closer” to the photographer, reducing the
distance between objects in the photograph and the camera’s lens. This allows a telephoto lens to show
greater detail than the human eye could see at the same distance.
(d) Aspect Ratio

Ans. An aspect ratio is a proportional relationship between an image's width and height. Essentially, it
describes an image's shape. Aspect ratios are written as a formula of width to height, like this: 3:2.For
example, a square image has an aspect ratio of 1:1, since the height and width are the same.

Television aspect ratio refers to the ratio of a television screen's length vs. height. From the time the
television was introduced, 4:3 or 1.33:1 was the standard aspect ratio used by televisions, only losing
popularity as it became cheaper to manufacture HDTVs with an aspect ratio of 16:9.

Since the commercialization of the television in the 1940s, 4:3 or 1.33:1 was the standard aspect ratio. It
was even used for the 35mm films of the silent era, and it was very close to the aspect ratio defined by
the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, which was 1.375:1 for the new innovation of optical
sound-on-film. Because of this, movies shot on standard 35mm can be viewed satisfactorily on 4:3
televisions. It was only when cinema audience numbers dropped that Hollywood started to create
various widescreen formats, starting with 1.85:1, in order to "enhance" the viewing experience and
entice more customers.
Some cable television stations even today still broadcast in 4:3 standard resolution because the
infrastructure has been around for so long and the size of the picture means that little bandwidth is
consumed compared to 16:9 widescreen HD broadcasts.

(e) Acoustics

Ans. Acoustics is the science that studies sound, in particular its production, transmission, and effects.
The science of acoustics has many applications which are dependent upon the nature of the sound that
is to be produced, transmitted or controlled. In the case of a desirable sound, such as music, the main
application of acoustics is to make the music sound as good as possible. In the case of an undesirable
sound, such as traffic noise, the main application of acoustics is in noise reduction.

Another major area of acoustics is in the field of ultrasound which has applications in detection, such as
sonar systems or non-destructive material testing.

Acoustics refers to the quality and nature of sound in a particular physical environment. ... It has a
specific technical meaning in radio production, which refers to either natural sound qualities of different
locations or to their treatment.

Acoustics are fundamentally important to learning environments. Learning is intrinsically linked with
communication, and aural (sound) communication is acoustics. Similarly, learning is about
concentration, and external noise is a major distracting factor in education.

Sound waves can be reflected or absorbed, and the science of acoustics is largely about what to reflect
(send back into the room, what to transmit (sent to the next room), and what to absorb (turn into heat
energy). Environments for music want more reverberation, enough to "warm" the sound with
reflections. If too much is absorbed, less sound reaches the audience and it sounds "dry" or "dead" , the
musicians need to work harder, and the lack of reverberation makes the slightest error more apparent.
By contrast, environments for speech want less reverberation, although moderate amounts of reflection
are useful to reinforce the sound as long as the overall time that it takes a sound to decay (or die away)
isn't too long.

Q.2 Define lens and describe different types of lenses. Also discuss function of varied focal length lens
& fixed focal length with suitable examples.

Ans. A lens is an optical device which transmits and refracts light, converging or diverging the beam. A

photographic lens is an optical lens or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera body and
mechanism to make images of objects either on photographic film or on other media capable of storing
an image chemically or electronically.

A lens may be permanently fixed to a camera, or it may be interchangeable with lenses of different focal

lengths.

Focal length of a lens is defined as the distance from the optical center of a lens to the focal point
(sensor) when the lens is focused on an object at infinity. It's a primary physical characteristic of a lens
which can be measured in an optical lab. It remains the same no matter what camera the lens is
mounted on. A 7mm focal length lens is always a 7mm focal length lens and a 300mm focal length lens is
always a 300mm focal length lens.

Angle of view describes the angular extent of a given scene that is imaged by a camera. It is used

interchangeably with the more general term field of view.

Angle of View is the amount of a scene a photograph captures and can be measured vertically,
horizontally or diagonally. Also known field of view, angle of view changes given the type of lens a
photographer uses to take a picture.

Angle of view depends upon the focal length of the lens. Wide angle lenses have short focal lengths,
while telephoto lenses have longer corresponding focal lengths.

Focal length determines the angle of view or how much a lens sees which controls what portion of a
scene will be captured. Focal lengths are measured in millimetres.

Lenses can be classified into various categories according to their focal length. These classifications are:-

1. Prime lens
2. Zoom Lens
 3. Telephoto lens
4. Wide angle lens
5. Macro lens
6. Fisheye lens

Prime lens: - A prime lens, also known as a fixed lens, has a fixed focal length such as 18mm, 50mm,
105mm, or 200mm that is not modifiable. A fixed-focal length camera lens is a permanent, non-
adjustable lens found on some low to mid-range quality cameras. Prime lenses often have wider
maximum apertures, making them faster. Wider apertures allow for brighter images in low-light
situations, as well as greater control over depth of field. Fixed lenses are primarily used by portrait
photographers.

Prime lenses are an older, simpler technical design, and primes are often smaller, sharper, and cheaper.
Prime lenses also have the largest maximum apertures. A prime with a maximum aperture that's f/2.8 or
larger (smaller f-number) is also known as a "fast" prime, because the large max. Aperture allows for
faster shutter speeds.

Zoom lens: - A zoom lens has the mechanical capacity to change its focal length. It magnifies the subject.
A zoom lens can be extremely convenient, because many zoom lenses can change their focal lengths
from wide-angle to standard and from standard to zoom. This eliminates the need to carry and change
multiple lenses while shooting a subject or project.

Because of the movement between focal lengths, the f-stops are not always entirely accurate when
using zoom lenses which are one of the major drawbacks of this lens type. To achieve a greater level of
accuracy with apertures, many manufacturers have multiple minimum aperture values as the lens
moves from a shorter focal length to a longer one. This makes the lens slower at longer focal lengths.

Telephoto lens: - A telephoto lens is a lens with a long focal length. This type of lens is called a
telephoto, long focal length, long lens and zooms in but they all refer to the same thing - a lens that
brings distant subjects closer. This is especially useful when you cannot get close to your subject— or
you prefer not to.

Because of this property telephoto lenses are ideal for sports photography as it allows the photographer
to shoot subjects that are at great distances. It is also typically used in wildlife photography, as getting
close to a subject might disturb it.

The long focal length of the telephoto lens lets you keep your distance and still fill the viewfinder frame
with the subject. Telephoto lenses are also used by photographers who want greater control over
limiting the depth of field (the area of an image in focus), typically in portrait photography.

The difference between a zoom lens and a telephoto lens is subtle. A zoom lens enlarges and magnifies
the image. In contrast, a telephoto lens brings the subject “closer” to the photographer, reducing the
distance between objects in the photograph and the camera’s lens. This allows a telephoto lens to show
greater detail than the human eye could see at the same distance.
Wide – angle lens: - A wide-angle lens is a lens with a short focal length that takes in a wide view.

This type of lenses can be called wide-angle, short focal length; short lens and zoom out but refer to the
same thing - lenses that capture a wide expanse of a scene.

Wide-angle lenses are typically used when the subject is in the extreme foreground and the
photographer wants the background in focus as well. This property can be used to create a dramatic
effect and change the perspective in your images as objects very close to the camera look much larger
than those farther in the background.

Wide-angle lenses are thus ideal for photographing buildings, landscapes, interiors, and street
photography. A photographer should refrain from using a wide-angle lens if he wants to focus in on the
details of a single, distinct subject.

Macro lens: - A macro lens is one designed especially for close-up photography. They have a different
internal construction from normal lenses which gives them very good sharpness and contrast, meaning
that they produce some really eye-catching photos.

Macro lenses are useful for photographing any subject at very close range. Typical subjects include
insects, animals, and plants, but they are also popular for taking extremely detailed photos of everyday
objects. Macro lenses are specialized lenses that excel at close-up photography and many of them
produce a 1:1 image, which means that your subject is reproduced on the camera sensor at life-size
which allows for huge amounts of detail.

"Macro" lenses specifically designed for close-up work, with a long barrel for close focusing and
optimized for high reproduction ratios, are one of the most common tools for macro photography.
While flowers and insects make up a significant portion of macro photography, getting close to anything
makes for fascinating images. Coins, old mechanical parts, wood, and everyday mundane objects like
your keys or a glass of water can become huge landscapes with textures and patterns that you never
noticed before. Macro lenses also excel at creating images with a shallow depth of field, leaving only the
foreground in focus, as in the image above.Macro lenses of different focal lengths find different uses:

Continuously-variable focal length – suitable for virtually all macro subjects

45–65 mm – product photography, small objects that can be approached closely without causing
undesirable influence, and scenes requiring natural background perspective

90–105 mm – insects, flowers, and small objects from a comfortable distance

150–200 mm – insects and other small animals where additional working distance is required

Fish –eye lens:- Fish-eye lenses are at the fringe of wide angle lenses and offer a distorted perspective of
the scene so that objects are magnified in the centre and diminish in size and clarity in all directions in
proportion to the lens' shape. Their angle of view is typically a full 180% but some fisheye lenses
produce an even greater field of view (as much as 220 degrees in some cases). Some would consider the
distortion an error, but others would see it as art.

The focal lengths of fisheye lenses depend on the film format. For the popular 35 mm film format,
typical focal lengths of fisheye lenses are between 8 mm and 10 mm for circular images, and 15–16 mm
for full-frame images. For digital cameras using smaller electronic imagers such as 1/4" and 1/3" format
CCD or CMOS sensors, the focal length of "miniature" fisheye lenses can be as short as 1 to 2mm. Sigma
currently makes a 4.5mm fisheye lens that captures a 180 degree field of view on a crop body. Sunex
also makes a 5.6mm fisheye lens that captures a circular 185 degree field of view on a 1.5x Nikon and
1.6x Canon DSLR cameras. Nikon produced a 6 mm circular fisheye lens that was initially designed for an
expedition to Antarctica. It featured a 220-degree field of view, designed to capture the entire sky and
surrounding ground when pointed straight up.

Function of the varied focal length lens & fixed focal length lens:

The basic job of the camera lens is to gather and focus the light reflected from a scene or subject.

As the reflected light rays enter the camera lens and pass through the elements, they are directed to the
camera's image sensor. The function of the camera's image sensor is to "capture" the colors and
intensity of the light rays that enter the camera through the lens. The captured light can then be
reproduced as the exact image that was seen through the camera's viewfinder or LCD screen when the
camera's shutter release was pressed.

A prime lens, also known as a fixed lens, has a fixed focal length such as 18mm, 50mm, 105mm, or
200mm that is not modifiable. A fixed-focal length camera lens is a permanent, non-adjustable lens
found on some low to mid-range quality cameras. Prime lenses often have wider maximum
apertures, making them faster. Wider apertures allow for brighter images in low-light situations, as well
as greater control over depth of field. Fixed lenses are primarily used by portrait photographers.

Prime lenses are an older, simpler technical design, and primes are often smaller, sharper, and cheaper.
Prime lenses also have the largest maximum apertures. A prime with a maximum aperture that's f/2.8 or
larger (smaller f-number) is also known as a "fast" prime, because the large max. Aperture allows for
faster shutter speeds. While a zoom lens has the mechanical capacity to change its focal length. It
magnifies the subject. A zoom lens can be extremely convenient, because many zoom lenses can change
their focal lengths from wide-angle to standard and from standard to zoom. This eliminates the need to
carry and change multiple lenses while shooting a subject or project.

Because of the movement between focal lengths, the f-stops are not always entirely accurate when
using zoom lenses which are one of the major drawbacks of this lens type. To achieve a greater level of
accuracy with apertures, many manufacturers have multiple minimum aperture values as the lens
moves from a shorter focal length to a longer one. This makes the lens slower at longer focal lengths.

Q.3 Write short notes on the following:

(a) Rules of composition

Ans. Composition is about arranging all the visual elements in a frame in a manner that makes the image
visually pleasing, satisfactory and complete. Positioning of the various elements such as mass, colour,
light, line etc. in an aesthetic manner is good composition. Grouping, patterns, shapes and forms have a
great impact on us- they help appreciate an image. When viewers experience friction while reading an
image, they are subconsciously experiencing an unsatisfactory feeling.

An image is said to be well composed when viewers are able to ‘read’ it smoothly without disturbance to
the eye and mind. Pleasing arrangement of elements in an image always leads to its appreciation. Good
composition always tries to achieve this effect. Artists and photographers work on certain principles of
design. What applies to photographs and good works of art applies to video as well. These principles are
not rule of law. We are not liable for punishment if we do not follow these principles. Image
composition is the art of choosing the area of the photograph or boundaries of the photograph and the
camera angle so that the principal subject or subjects of the photo are enhanced or at least not
detracted from by their surroundings. Every photo that you take has a "subject". The subject is the
object of interest, be it a person, a building, or a pretty sunset. It is the reason why you are pointing the
camera in that direction, and not somewhere else. The goal of good composition is emphasize the
subject, and elements of the surroundings that enhance it, and de-emphasize or eliminate the
surrounding elements that distract from it. Keep it simple! The best way to emphasize the subject or
center of attention of a photo is to eliminate most other objects. Noise and clutter reduces the intended
impact of a scene.

The following are principles to consider when choosing an image composition:

1. Grouping & Organization: Grouping and organization, also known as the principle of unity,
means arrangement of objects within a frame so that they look grouped rather than unrelated
and scattered. The human mind has a tendency to group or organize items together to form a
cluster of shapes.
2. Balance: Distributing elements within a frame so as to achieve the state of equilibrium is called
balance. Balance helps the meaning of the picture to be made clearer and visible. The size of the
elements within the frame also lends balance and helps the viewer understand the meaning
clearly.
3. Simplicity: One of the main things to consider is how the elements within the shot relate to each
other and therefore what you include or leave out of the shot. There is often a temptation to fill
a shot with any many points of interest as possible, but when composition is concerned, it's
better to be selective about what you include in the shot and execute with consideration. Some
of the most dramatic photographs have very simple but effective composition, the eye is lead
into the image and the viewer can engage with a clear and effective shot.
4. Centre of Interest: Each picture should have only one main subject or center of interest. Other
elements within the picture should support and focus attention on the principal feature so it
alone is emphasized. Be careful about including people in a shot if they are not the subject of
the shot, particularly if they are looking toward the camera. This is because they attract
 attention away from the main subject. If they are looking toward the subject, this might be
good.
5. Harmony & Interest: Good composition always attempts to present an image without any
visual ambiguity. This means that an image should be harmonious without creating disturbance
in the mind of the viewer (unless it is intended to do so).
6. Lighting: Lighting is a very important component in all visual arts. Light serves not just to
illuminate an object but also contributes to its texture, depth, shape and importantly, the
saturation levels in colour. Light is used to provide mood and can add different meanings or
accentuate the effect of the other elements in the image. Light can also add to the contrast of
an image.
7. Rule of Thirds: Compositional balance using the rule of thirds ratio revolves around positioning
the main visual element in the frame according to a prescribed formula. The frame is divided
into three parts both horizontally and vertically, and the points where the lines intersect provide
the golden section. A useful starting point for any compositional grouping is to place the main
subject of interest on any one of the four intersections.

(b) CCD vs CMOS

Ans. Charge-coupled device (CCD) is a light-sensitive integrated circuit that stores and displays the data
for an image in such a way that each pixel (picture element) in the image is converted into an electrical
charge the intensity of which is related to a color in the color spectrum.

At the heart of today's digital imaging devices are charge-coupled devices (CCD). A type of
semiconductor that's sensitive to light, a CCD consists of a 2-D array of individual elements, each of
which is, in essence, a capacitor - a device that stores an electrical charge. A CCD's charge is created
when photons strike the semiconducting material and release electrons. As more photons fall on the
device, more electrons are liberated, thus creating a charge that's proportional to the light's intensity.
With a 2-D array, you can capture an image. A CCD in a digital camera improves resolution compared
with older technologies. Another asset of the CCD is its high degree of sensitivity.

A good CCD can produce an image in extremely dim light, and its resolution does not deteriorate when
the illumination intensity is low, as is the case with conventional cameras. The CCD was invented in 1969
at Bell Labs, now part of Lucent Technologies, by George Smith and Willard Boyle. CCDs are now
commonly included in digital still and video cameras. They are also used in astronomical telescopes,
scanners, and bar code readers. The devices have also found use in machine vision for robots, in optical
character recognition (OCR), in the processing of satellite photographs, and in the enhancement of radar
images, especially in meteorology.

Complementary metal oxide semi-conductor (CMOS) is an image sensor device. An image sensor is a
device that converts an optical image into an electronic signal. It is used mostly in digital cameras and
other imaging devices. Early analog sensors were video camera tubes, most currently used are digital
charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS). Most digital still
cameras use either a CCD image sensor or a CMOS sensor. Both types of sensor accomplish the same
task of capturing light and converting it into electrical signals. A CCD image sensor is an analog device.
When light strikes the chip it is held as a small electrical charge in each photo sensor.

A CMOS imaging chip is a type of active pixel sensor made using the CMOS semiconductor process.
CMOS can potentially be implemented with fewer components, use less power, and/or provide faster
readout than CCDs. CCD is a more mature technology and is in most respects the equal of CMOS. CMOS
sensors are less expensive to manufacture than CCD sensors. Both CCD & CMOS accomplish the same
end result, especially with today's technology. CMOS typically has lower power (equates to better
battery life), but CCD in the past produced better quality, but used a lot more power. Some differences
between CCD & CMOS are:-

• CCD sensors, create high-quality, low-noise images while CMOS sensors, are more susceptible to
noise.

• Because each pixel on a CMOS sensor has several transistors located next to it, the light
sensitivity of a CMOS chip tends to be lower. Many of the photons hitting the chip hit the
transistors instead of the photodiode.

• CMOS traditionally consumes little power. Implementing a sensor in CMOS yields a low-power
sensor.

• CCDs use a process that consumes lots of power. CCDs consume as much as 100 times more
power than an equivalent CMOS sensor.

• CMOS chips can be fabricated on just about any standard silicon production line, so they tend to
be extremely inexpensive compared to CCD sensors.

• CCD sensors have been mass produced for a longer period of time, so they are more mature.
They tend to have higher quality and more pixels.

Based on these differences, CCDs tend to be used in cameras that focus on high-quality images with lots
of pixels and excellent light sensitivity. CMOS sensors traditionally have lower quality, lower resolution
and lower sensitivity. CMOS sensors are just now improving to the point where they reach near parity
with CCD devices in some applications. CMOS cameras are usually less expensive and have great battery
life.

Q4 the placement of camera in relation to subject plays a privation role in deciding the perception of
Viewers. Discuss the statement with suitable examples?

Ans: Perspective control: The use of a wide-angle lens combined with a limited camera-to-subject
distance creates a type of perspective distortion. The parallel lines along the sides of the building appear
to converge toward the top. The building appears to be leaning backward. You get even more distortion
using an extreme wide-angle lens when you get very close to subj. If this is not the effect you want, the
solution is to move back & use the lens at a normal-to-telephoto setting.
Perspective control is a procedure for composing or editing photographs to better conform with the
commonly accepted distortions in constructed perspective The control would:

• Make all lines that are vertical in reality vertical in the image. This includes columns, vertical
edges of walls and lampposts. This is a commonly accepted distortion in constructed perspective;
perspective is based on the notion that more distant objects are represented as smaller on the page;
however, even though the top of the cathedral tower is in reality further from the viewer than base of
the tower (due to the vertical distance), constructed perspective considers only the horizontal distance
and considers the top and bottom to be the same distance away;

• Make all parallel lines (such as four horizontal edges of a cubic room) cross in one point.

Perspective projection distortion occurs in photographs when the film plane is not parallel to lines that
are required to be parallel in the photo. A common case is when a photo is taken of a tall building from
ground level by tilting the camera backwards: the building appears to fall away from the camera. In the
two images shown to the right, the first suffers from perspective distortion — in the second that
distortion has been corrected. The popularity of amateur photography has made distorted photos made
with cheap cameras so familiar that many people do not immediately realise the distortion. This
"distortion" is relative only to the accepted norm of constructed perspective (where vertical lines in
reality do not converge in the constructed image), which in itself is distorted from a true perspective
representation (where lines that are vertical in reality would begin to converge above and below the
horizon as they become more distant from the viewer).

Perspective Control & Exposure:

Professional cameras where perspective control is important control the perspective at exposure by
raising the lens parallel to the film. There is more information on this in the view camera article.

Most large format(4x5 and up) cameras have this feature, as well as plane of focus control built into the
camera body in the form of flexible bellows and moveable front (lens) and rear (film holder) elements.
Thus any focal length lens mounted on a view camera or field camera, and many press cameras can be
used with perspective control. Some interchangeable lens medium format, 35 mm film SLR, and Digital
SLR camera systems have PC, shift, or tilt/shift lens options which allow perspective control and, in the
case of a tilt/shift lens, plane of focus control, but only at a specific focal length. In photography and
cinematography, perspective distortion is a warping or transformation of an object and its surrounding
area that differs significantly from what the object would look like with a normal focal length, due to the
relative scale of nearby and distant features. Perspective distortion is determined by the relative
distances at which the image is captured and viewed, and is due to the angle of view of the image (as
captured) being either wider or narrower than the angle of view at which the image is viewed, hence the
apparent relative distances differing from what is expected. Related to this concept is axial magnification
-- the perceived depth of objects at a given magnification.

Perspective distortion takes two forms: extension distortion and compression distortion, also called
wide-angle distortion and long-lens or telephoto distortion, when talking about images with the same
field size. Extension or wide-angle distortion can be seen in images shot from close using a wide-angle
lens (with an angle of view wider than a normal lens). Objects close to the lens appear abnormally large
relative to more distant objects, and distant objects appear abnormally small and hence farther away –
distances are extended. Compression, long-lens, or telephoto distortion can be seen in images shot from
a distance using a long focus lens or the more common telephoto sub-type (with an angle of view
narrower than a normal lens). Distant objects look approximately the same size – closer objects are
abnormally small, and more distant objects are abnormally large, and hence the viewer cannot discern
relative distances between distant objects – distances are compressed.

Note that linear perspective changes are caused by distance, not by the lens per se – two shots of the
same scene from the same distance will exhibit identical perspective geometry, regardless of lens used.
However, since wide-angle lenses have a wider field of view, they are generally used from closer, while
telephoto lenses have a narrower field of view and are generally used from farther away. For example, if
standing at a distance so that a normal lens captures someone's face, a shot with a wide-angle lens or
telephoto lens from the same distance will have exactly the same linear perspective geometry on the
face, though the wide-angle lens may fit the entire body into the shot, while the telephoto lens captures
only the nose. However, crops of these three images with the same coverage will yield the same
perspective distortion – the nose will look the same in all three. Conversely, if all three lenses are used
from distances such that the face fills the field, the wide-angle will be used from closer, making the nose
larger compared to the rest of the photo, and the telephoto will be used from farther, making the nose
smaller compared to the rest of the photo.

Technical Background

Although perspective distortion is often annoying when unintended, it is also intentionally used for
artistic purposes. Extension (wide angle) distortion is often implemented to emphasize some element of
the scene by making it appear larger and spatially removed from the other elements. Compression
(telephoto) distortion is often used to give the appearance of compressed distance between distant
objects, such as buildings or automobiles in order to convey a feeling of congestion. Longer lenses
magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and (when focused on the foreground)
blurring the background because of their shallower depth of field. Wider lenses tend to magnify distance
between objects while allowing greater depth of field.

Another result of using a wide-angle lens is a greater apparent perspective distortion when the camera
is not aligned perpendicularly to the subject: parallel lines converge at the same rate as with a normal
lens, but converge more due to the wider total field. For example, buildings appear to be falling
backwards much more severely when the camera is pointed upward from ground level than they would
if photographed with a normal lens at the same distance from the subject, because more of the subject
building is visible in the wide-angle shot.

Because different lenses generally require a different camera–subject distance to preserve the size of a
subject, changing the angle of view can indirectly distort perspective, changing the apparent relative size
of the subject and background. If identical field size is maintained, wide-angle lenses make subjects
appear larger by introducing size differences along with the converging lines mentioned above, and they
make rooms and spaces around the subject appear vaster by increasing the distance between subject
and background (expanded perspective)

Q5 Write Notes on the following –

a) Depth of field

b) Properties of light

Ans: a) Depth of Field: In optics, particularly as it relates to film and photography, depth of field (DOF) is
the distance between the nearest and farthest objects in a scene that appear acceptably sharp in an
image. Although a lens can precisely focus at only one distance at a time, the decrease in sharpness is
gradual on each side of the focused distance, so that within the DOF, the sharpness is imperceptible
under normal viewing conditions. In some cases, it may be desirable to have the entire image sharp, and
a large DOF is appropriate. In other cases, a small DOF may be more effective, emphasizing the subject
while de-emphasizing the foreground and background. In cinematography, a large DOF is often called
deep focus, and a small DOF is often called shallow Focus.

Factors affecting Depth of Field:

Factors, such as subject matter, movement, camera-to-subject distance, lens focal length, selected lens f
number, format size, and circle of confusion criteria also influence when a given defocus becomes
noticeable. The combination of focal length, subject distance, and format size defines magnification at
the film / sensor plane. DOF is determined by subject magnification at the film / sensor plane and the
selected lens aperture or f-number. For a given f-number, increasing the magnification, either by moving
closer to the subject or using a lens of greater focal length, decreases the DOF; decreasing magnification
increases DOF. For a given subject magnification, increasing the f-number (decreasing the aperture
diameter) increases the DOF; decreasing f-number decreases DOF.

If the original image is enlarged to make the final image, the circle of confusion in the original image
must be smaller than that in the final image by the ratio of enlargement. Cropping an image and
enlarging to the same size final image as an un cropped image taken under the same conditions is
equivalent to using a smaller format under the same conditions, so the cropped image has less DOF.
When focus is set to the HYPER focal distance, the DOF extends from half the hyper focal distance to
infinity, and the DOF is the largest possible for a given f-number.

Camera movements and DOF

When the lens axis is perpendicular to the image plane, as is normally the case, the plane of focus (POF)
is parallel to the image plane, and the DOF extends between parallel planes on either side of the POF.
When the lens axis is not perpendicular to the image plane, the POF is no longer parallel to the image
plane; the ability to rotate the POF is known as the Scheimpflug principle. Rotation of the POF is
accomplished with camera movements (tilt, a rotation of the lens about a horizontal axis, or swing, a
rotation about a vertical axis). Tilt and swing are available on most view cameras, and are also available
with specific lenses on some small- and medium-format cameras.

Effect of lens aperture

For a given subject framing and camera position, the DOF is controlled by the lens aperture diameter,
which is usually specified as the f-number, the ratio of lens focal length to aperture diameter. Reducing
the aperture diameter (increasing the f-number) increases the DOF because the circle of confusion is
shrunk directly and indirectly by reducing the light hitting the outside of the lens which is focused to a
different point than light hitting the inside of the lens due to spherical aberration caused by the
construction of the lens; however, it also reduces the amount of light transmitted, and increases
diffraction, placing a practical limit on the extent to which DOF can be increased by reducing the
aperture diameter

Diffraction and DOF

If the camera position and image framing (i.e., angle of view) have been chosen, the only means of
controlling DOF is the lens aperture. Most DOF formulas imply that any arbitrary DOF can be achieved by
using a sufficiently large f-number. Because of diffraction, however, this isn't really true. Once a lens is
stopped down to where most aberrations are well corrected, stopping down further will decrease
sharpness in the plane of focus. At the DOF limits, however, further stopping down decreases the size of
the defocus blur spot, and the overall sharpness may still increase. Eventually, the defocus blur spot
becomes negligibly small, and further stopping down serves only to decrease sharpness even at DOF
limits There is thus a tradeoff between sharpness in the POF and sharpness at the DOF limits. But the
sharpness in the POF is always greater than that at the DOF limits; if the blur at the DOF limits is
imperceptible, the blur in the POF is imperceptible as well.

Digital techniques affecting DOF

The advent of digital technology in photography has provided additional means of controlling the extent
of image sharpness; some methods allow extended DOF that would be impossible with traditional
techniques and some allow the DOF to be determined after the image is made. Focus stacking is a digital
image processing technique which combines multiple images taken at different focus distances to give a
resulting image with a greater depth of field than any of the individual source images. Available
programs for multi-shot DOF enhancement include Adobe Photoshop

Lens DOF Scales

Many lenses for small- and medium-format cameras include scales that indicate the DOF for a given
focus distance and f-number; the 35 mm lens in the image above is typical. That lens includes distance
scales in feet and meters; when a marked distance is set opposite the large white index mark, the focus
is set to that distance. The DOF scale below the distance scales includes markings on either side of the
index that correspond to f-numbers. When the lens is set to a given f-number, the DOF extends between
the distances that align with the f-number markings.
b) Properties of Light: Video & Photography, both use light, reflected from subject to create images.
Therefore light is a key element. In earlier days, its main function was to provide image on film. But
today, illumination to subject essential for capturing lighting can be used to express (or even repress)
chosen aspects of subject, such as texture, form, depth, detail & mood.

Characteristics of Lighting: Following are the key features of lighting to bear in mind:

• Direction

• Quality / Intensity

• Evenness

• Contrast

• Colour

• Source

SOURCE OF LIGHTING:

1) Natural Lighting

2) Artificial Lighting

Natural Lighting:

Natural light comes in a wide range & difference between them can be enormous. The main source of
natural light is sun. However it varies in characteristics at different times of the day & weather
conditions, turning it into different forms ranging from hard & warm to soft and cool lighting. Reflected
Daylight etc.

Artificial Lighting:

Artificial Lighting: Light indoors has a different character to that found outside. With human beings in
control of light source there is an added twist; that a light is often designed for a specific purpose. e.g.
household lights are to give appealing, generally diffused lighting light whereas office is more functional
& cost-effective. Generally, most artificial light sources are diffused (major exception being spotlights) to
soften light & shadows it produce. Even sunlight indoors is diffused as it bounces between walls, floors &
ceilings. Household tungsten lights are most commonly encountered form of indoor lights. These use
incandescent bulbs & can be found in overhead bulbs to lamps and side lights. The colour of these
tungsten lights is strong yellow/orange.

Quality / Intensity:

Light Quality is used to label effect light has on photograph. Light quality breaks down into two basic
types - HARD and SOFT. Hard Light is very bright and hence creates harsh, hard shadows on a subject. As
a result of this, range of details seen of the subject is diminished.Also depending on the direction of the
light, hard shadows make a major impact on the texture and shape of a photo; affecting the mood of a
photo dramatically.

Lighting Contrast / Lighting Ratio:

• It is difference between amount of light falling on shadow areas & areas of subject that are
brightly lit. It is usually measured in stops & sometimes expressed as a ratio.

• Low contrast images (or images with high key lighting) will not have a high amount of difference
in light (usually 2 f-stops or lesser) while in a Low key / High contrast image the amount of light
difference will be too high (5 to 7 f-stops).

Q6. Lighting is a key element in making a good quality video production. Justify the statement with
suitable examples. Also describe the various accessories of lighting

Ans: Video & Photography, both use light, reflected from subject to create images. Therefore light is a
key element. In earlier days, its main function was to provide image on film. But today, illumination to
subject essential for capturing lighting can be used to express (or even repress) chosen aspects of
subject, such as texture, form, depth, detail & mood.

Characteristics of Lighting: Following are the key features of lighting to bear in mind:

• Direction

• Quality / Intensity

• Evenness

• Contrast

• Colour

• Source

Direction:

FRONT LIGHTING:

Here light source is directly behind the viewer's point of view. This type of lighting is often unappealing
if the light source is hard - there are exceptions and in some situations very attractive images can come
from soft frontal lighting. Front lighting doesn’t substantially helps in revealing form or texture since the
shadows are mostly hidden from view, as a result it can make things look flat. It can help conceal
wrinkles and blemishes and so is quite often used in product shoot. It is good for showing form &
texture and lends a three-dimensional quality to objects. Shadows are prominent & contrast can be high
as a result. lighting is generally attractive & is often used to great effect: it is the kind of lighting
encountered at beginning & end of the day & as such is often seen in photographs Potential drawbacks:
areas of the image can be lost in shadow, and it can reveal imperfections such as wrinkles.

BACK LIGHTING:

Back lighting is where the viewer is looking into the light source. It is usually a high contrast situation
and can often look very atmospheric & dramatic. Back lighting can make most mundane subjects look
appealing. Silhouettes are a common feature of backlit scenes

TOP LIGHTING:

It is slightly more unusual situation. It can be encountered in sunshine at midday, in some interiors & in
situations such as stage lighting. In soft light it is an effective way of showing form. But underneath hard
lights one will have black holes for eyes since their eye sockets will be in total shadow. It is rarely used
by artists. The very fact that it's not often seen, it can be used to create an uncomfortable feeling

BOTTOM LIGHTING:

Lighting from directly below the subject is even more unusual, than top lighting. In a natural context this
might happen if someone is standing over a campfire, or holding a torch. It would definitely lend a
strange appearance to even the most familiar things since what is usually seen in light & shade would be
reversed. Think of a person shining a torch onto their face from below: the shadows appear to be upside
down. In the very rarity, this kind of lighting can be used to creative effect

SOURCE OF LIGHTING:

2) Natural Lighting

2) Artificial Lighting

Natural Lighting

Natural light comes in a wide range & difference between them can be enormous. The main source of
natural light is sun. However it varies in characteristics at different times of the day & weather
conditions, turning it into different forms ranging from hard & warm to soft and cool lighting. Reflected
Daylight etc.

Artificial Lighting

Artificial Lighting Light indoors has a different character to that found outside. With human beings in
control of light source there is an added twist; that a light is often designed for a specific purpose. E.g.
household lights are to give appealing, generally diffused lighting light whereas office is more functional
& cost-effective. Generally, most artificial light sources are diffused (major exception being spotlights) to
soften light & shadows it produce. Even sunlight indoors is diffused as it bounces between walls, floors &
ceilings. Household tungsten lights are most commonly encountered form of indoor lights. These use
incandescent bulbs & can be found in overhead bulbs to lamps and side lights. The colour of these
tungsten lights is strong yellow/orange.

Quality / Intensity:

Light Quality is used to label effect light has on photograph. Light quality breaks down into two basic
types - HARD and SOFT. Hard Light is very bright and hence creates harsh, hard shadows on a subject. As
a result of this, range of details seen of the subject is diminished. Also depending on the direction of the
light, hard shadows make a major impact on the texture and shape of a photo; affecting the mood of a
photo dramatically.

Lighting Contrast / Lighting Ratio:

• It is difference between amount of light falling on shadow areas & areas of subject that are
brightly lit. It is usually measured in stops & sometimes expressed as a ratio.

• Low contrast images (or images with high key lighting) will not have a high amount of difference
in light (usually 2 f-stops or lesser) while in a Low key / High contrast image the amount of light
difference will be too high (5 to 7 f-stops).

Lighting Equipment

Finding a video lighting kit for an upcoming film can be a daunting task. There are many different kinds
of lights you can use, and each has their own strengths and weaknesses.

But understanding the different forms of film and videography lighting gives you a solid start. Learning
their various strengths and weaknesses in different environments will get you more comfortable with
which specific lights to choose for your own film lighting kit.

For today’s post we looked to great minds in the field, and professional cinematographers as well, to
shine a light on the types of film and video lighting kits you need to know about.

The first step to painting cinematic pictures with light knows the types of light. Then you can pick-and-
choose what’s best for your own production lighting choices.

Which lighting kit should you use?

There is no “best film lighting kit” to cover every shoot. So, when planning your film lighting kit for a
shoot, you’ll probably use some combination of these different lighting packages. This means that good
understanding of mixed sources is very important. Before cinematographers think about production
lighting, they have to “see” the story. Armed with that vision, they are then brought into the early  stages
of pre-production.

Having thorough pre-production materials, like equipment lists, allows for maximum control over their
film and videography lighting setups. Using film production software like Studio Binder is a great way to
stay efficient. In it, you can add your equipment as early as the script breakdown process. There are
some Basis studio lights we use: like Flag or Gobo, Diffuser, Cookie & accessories like Barn Door &
Reflectors

Q7. Write short notes-

a) Lavalier Microphone

b) Lighting for outdoor production

Ans a) Lavalier Microphone: A lavalier microphone or lavalier (also known as a lav, lapel mic, clip mic,
body mic, collar mic, neck mic or personal mic) is a small microphone used for television, theatre, and
public speaking applications in order to allow for hands-free operation. They are most commonly
provided with small clips for attaching to collars, ties, or other clothing. The cord may be hidden by
clothes and either run to a radio frequency transmitter kept in a pocket or clipped to a belt, or routed
directly to the mixer or a recording device.
These miniature microphones are often supplied with a choice of push-on grilles of differing lengths that
provide gentle high-frequency boost by forming a resonant cavity. A peak of approximately 6 dB at 6–8
kHz is considered beneficial for compensating loss of clarity when chest-mounted, as is a peak of a few
decibels at 10–15 kHz when mounted in the hair above the forehead. This method of boosting high
frequencies does not worsen noise performance, as electronic equalization would do.

Mounting Techniques: Lavalier microphones are attached differently depending on the nature of their
use. In theater applications where the microphone is used to amplify an actor or a singer's voice, lavs are
typically concealed in the performer's hair; this placement eliminates the possibility of scratching against
their clothing while they move, which would result in the amplification of the scratching sounds as well.
It also adds to the suspension of disbelief, since the characters themselves would not be wearing
microphones, especially if the plot is set in a time before lavalier microphones existed. Occasionally,
specially designed skin-color headsets known as "headworn microphones" are used in stage applications
when actors spend a good deal of their performance singing and moving around quickly, such as in stage
musicals and in lecture or presentation scenarios. A headworn microphone is essentially a lavalier on a
stiff wire mount that loops over the performer's ear.

In television and documentary applications, the lavalier will typically be clipped to an article of the
subject's clothing, such as a tie, jacket or collar. In narrative motion picture usage, lavs are almost always
hidden under clothing to conceal the fact that the person is mic'ed. The boom microphone typically
sounds "better" and more natural than a lavalier mic and is always a soundperson's first choice;
however, for exterior location shooting, it often may be more practical to use a lavalier. One such
situation would be during a wide shot that forces the boom operator to keep a distance from the
speaker that isn't close enough to achieve a good signal-to-noise ratio with the microphone. In that
instance, a lav mic hidden on the speaker due to its proximity would achieve good signal-to-noise ratio
for recording of speech. When lavalier microphones need to be concealed under clothing, the possibility
of material scratching against the microphone is a certain risk. To minimize this problem, sound
recordists sometimes wrap the head of the microphones in moleskin or place it inside a hollow-
centered, column-shaped sponge and place it under a placard, behind a button, or within the knot of a
tie.

The transmitter pack to which the microphone is attached may also need to be hidden under a person's
clothing. Transmitter pouches are held on with elastic straps and serve to keep the transmitter hidden in
various places where clothing provides a non-revealing space, such as high around the waist in the space
created at the spine just above the belt line, inside the thigh under a skirt or dress, about the ankles
under a pant leg, or even on the inside of a boot.

Ans. b) Lighting for outdoor production: Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve
practical or aesthetic effects. Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light
fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight. Day lighting (using windows, skylights, or
light shelves) is sometimes used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings. This can save
energy in place of using artificial lighting, which represents a major component of energy consumption
in buildings. Proper lighting can enhance task performance, improve the appearance of an area, or have
positive psychological effects on occupants.

Indoor lighting is usually accomplished using light fixtures, and is a key part of interior design. Lighting
can also be an intrinsic component of landscape projects. Street Lights are used to light roadways and
walkways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an
energy-efficient alternative to traditional street light fixtures. Floodlights are used to illuminate outdoor
playing fields or work zones during nighttime. Floodlights can be used to illuminate work zones or
outdoor playing fields during nighttime hours. The most common type of floodlights are metal halide
and high pressure sodium lights. Beacon lights are positioned at the intersection of two roads to aid in
navigation.

Sometimes security lighting can be used along roadways in urban areas, or behind homes or commercial
facilities. These are extremely bright lights used to deter crime. Security lights may include floodlights
and be activated with PIR switches that detect moving heat sources in darkness.

Entry lights can be used outside to illuminate and signal the entrance to a property. These lights are
installed for safety, security, and for decoration. Underwater accent lighting is also used for koi ponds,
fountains, swimming pools and the like. Neon signs are most often used to attract attention rather than
to illumine.

Q8 Define sound and describe various sound elements used in video program. Also explain the role of
Audio mixer in multi camera video production?

Ans: The sound wave: Sound begins when an object vibrates and sets into motion molecules in the air
closest to it. These molecules pass on their energy to adjacent molecules, starting a reaction - a sound
wave - which is much like the waves that result when a stone is dropped into a pool. The transfer of
momentum from one displaced molecule to the next propagates the original vibrations longitudinally
from the vibrating object to the hearer. As a vibrating object moves outward, it compresses molecules
closer together, increasing atmospheric pressure. Compression continues away from the object as the
momentum of the disturbed molecules displaces adjacent molecules and so produces a crest in the
sound wave. When a vibrating object moves inward, it pulls the molecules farther apart and thins them,
creating a rarefaction. This rarefaction also travels away from the object in a manner similar to
compression, except that it decreases pressure, thereby producing a trough in the sound wave.

• When a vibration passes through one complete up-and-down motion, from compression
through rarefaction, it has completed one cycle.

• The number of cycles that a vibration completes in one second is expressed as its frequency.

• If a vibration completes 5O cycles per second (cps), its frequency is 50 hertz (Hz); if it completes
10,000 cps, its frequency is 10,000 Hz, or 10 kilohertz (kHz).

• We have noted that vibrations in objects stimulate molecules to move in pressure waves at
certain rates of alternation (compression/rarefaction) and that rate determines frequency. The greater
the number of molecules displaced, the greater the height and depth of the sound wave. The number of
molecules in motion, and therefore the size of a sound wave, is called amplitude. Amplitude is
measured in decibels

• The Decibel The decibel (dB) is a unit of measure used to compare the ratio of two quantities
usually in relation to acoustic energy, such as sound pressure, and electric energy, such as power and
voltage.

Audio Control Devices: Boards, Consoles, & Mixers

Various sources of audio must be carefully controlled and blended during a production. Beyond this,
audio sources must also be carefully & even artistically blended to create the best possible effect. The
control of audio signals is normally done in a TV studio or production facility with an audio board or
audio console.

Audio boards and consoles are designed to do five things.

1. Amplify incoming signals

2. Allow for switching & volume level adjustments for a variety of audio sources

3. Allow for creatively mixing together and balancing multiple audio sources to achieve an
optimum blend

4. Route the combined effect to a transmission or recording device

5. Manipulate specific characteristics of audio (including left-to-right "placement" of stereo

sources, altering frequency characteristics of sounds, and adding reverberation)

For video field production smaller units called audio mixers provide the most basic controls over audio.

Audio Mixer Controls

Audio mixers & consoles use 2 types of controls: selector switches & faders.

Faders (volume controls) can be either linear or rotary in design. Faders are also referred to as
attenuators, gain controls, or pots (for potentiometers). A rotary fader is shown here

Level Control and Mixing

Audio mixing goes up to the total subjective effect as heard through the speakers or earphones. E.g. if an
announcer's voice & background music are both set at 0dB, music will interfere with the announcer's
words. Using your ear as a guide, you will probably want dominant narration with supporting but non-
interfering background music. During long pauses in narration you will probably want to increase the
level of the music somewhat, and then bring it down just before narration starts again. In selecting
music to go behind narration, instrumental music is always preferred. If the music has lyrics sung by a
vocalist (definitely not recommended as background to narration) they would have to be much lower so
as not to compete with the narrator's words.