INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
Introduction
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map About the book The main objective of this book is to provide
With 111 species of reptiles (96 terrestrial an updated account on the systematics,
and 15 marine), Oman harbors approximately diversity and distribution of Oman reptiles. Importance of conserving reptile diversity
50% of the total number of reptile species This work is based on 16 years of intensive
Introduction in the Arabian Peninsula, ranking as one field and laboratory work by the authors, the Oman geography and climate
of the countries with the highest reptile work of many past and present collaborators
diversity. Due to an increased interest in the (see acknowledgements), and all the previous Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
knowledge compiled by several researchers richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles systematics of Oman’s reptiles, the pace
of species descriptions and taxonomic in books, book chapters, scientific journals
knowledge has increased exponentially and other publications, some of which have Ecology of Oman reptiles
within the last 10 years and shows no sign been listed in the bibliographic section at the
Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles
of reaching a plateau (Fig 1). Because of end of the book. Although the book includes
the recent interest in Oman’s herpetology, accounts for all the 111 currently described
the country’s current level of taxonomic species of Oman reptiles, the reptile diversity Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles knowledge ranks among the highest in Asia. analyses by governorate and using a 10 arc- of Oman
Most of the groups have been investigated minute grid are presented for the 96 described
using an integrative approach, including both species of Oman terrestrial reptiles. The 15 Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps morphological and molecular data, analyzed marine reptiles include 10 sea snakes and 5
with multivariate, phylogenetic, population marine turtles that visit the Oman territorial
genetic, genomic, and geospatial methods. waters and the immediate sand beaches
This approach has uncovered considerable sporadically for breeding (marine turtles), or
Glossary levels of undescribed diversity, including get stranded on the beach after storms or
several remarkable examples of cryptic when they are weak, ill or disoriented (sea
diversity. snakes).
Selected references
and further reading

100
Number of species

75
Number of species

50

 25


 0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

YearYear
 Fig 1: Number of species displayed in a cumulative way. Dots represent the years with species descrip-
tions. Dashed lines divide the graph into intervals of 25 years.

 13
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start Anguimorpha 1% (1)
A Testudines 4.5% (5) Anguimorpha 0.9% (1) B
Serpentes 21.9% (21) The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map Serpentes 27.9% (31)
Gekkota 36.9% (41)
Gekkota 42.7% (41) Importance of conserving reptile diversity
Scincoidea 7.3% (7)

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Scincoidea 6.3% (7)

Lacertoidea 13.5% (13) Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles Lacertoidea 11.7% (13) Iguania 11.7% (13)
Iguania 13.5% (13)
Ecology of Oman reptiles
C
Terrestrial Reptiles Gekkota 81.3% (13) Conservation status of Oman reptiles
Fig 2: Percentage of the main taxonomic
groups of Oman reptiles; A: all 111
reptile species, including marine reptiles; Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles B: the 96 terrestrial reptiles; C: the 16 of Oman
endemic reptiles. The number of species of
Iguania 12.5% (2)
each group is shown between brakets.
Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps
Lacertoidea 6.3% (1)

Glossary The 111 Oman reptiles are classified into are a major component of the vertebrate
seven main groups and the 96 terrestrial fauna of Oman and in the records obtained
reptiles into six main groups. The number and by S.Carranza’s research team there was not
Selected references
proportion of species within each group for all a single grid that had been visited without
and further reading
the Oman reptiles, including endemic species, success (no observations). This suggests
is shown in Fig  2. that most of the grids without presence data
are the result of the lack of exploration rather
The dataset used for the analyses of than lack of reptile presence. The sampled
species richness, endemicity, conservation, grids cover the entire Hajar Mountains and
ecology, and for the species accounts of all adjoining areas (the coastal Batinah plain and
96 terrestrial reptiles of Oman covered by the the inland areas) and the Dhofar Mountains
book includes 5,986 records. As can be seen in (including both the lush south-facing side and,
the spatial distribution of the samples using a to a lesser extent, the dry north-facing side
 grid of 10 arc-minutes of latitude and longitude of the mountains) (see Fig 3 on page 15
covering the entire country, 429 (38.72%) out
 of 1,108 grids have information (Fig  3 on page
& Fig 4 on page 16). The eastern coastal
area of the Arabian Sea is also well sampled.
 15). As a result of the origin of our data, it The less sampled areas are the Rub’ Al Khali
is impossible to differentiate between grids Desert in the western part of the country, in the
 that have been visited without success (no border area with Saudi Arabia, and the barren
observations) and grids that have not been desert areas of Jiddat Al Harasis.
 visited (unsampled grids). In any case, reptiles

 14
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The distribution of all 5,986 observations in Component Analysis of 12 climatic variables.
the two-dimensional climatic space of Oman However, when the area is divided into clusters The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
(Fig  3B) indicates that the samples are wide- grouping 10% of the explained climatic functioning
Oman Map spread across the whole climatic space de- variance by PC1 and PC2 (see Fig  5A & B), not
fined by annual precipitation and mean annu- all 20 resulting clusters include observations. Importance of conserving reptile diversity
al temperature, with no important gaps. The Some of the clusters, such as clusters 18 and
Introduction maximum number of observations cluster 19, cover very large areas across the whole Oman geography and climate
around the area of the graph defined by high country (Fig 5C), including the Rub’ Al Khali
annual mean temperatures and low values of Desert, Jiddat Al Harasis and the Al Sharqiyah Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
annual precipitation, which is also the most Sands. Other clusters are only present in richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles dominant climate in Oman. The area of Oman northern or southern Oman (clusters 6 and
with lower mean annual temperatures (10– 13, respectively) and some, such as clusters Ecology of Oman reptiles
15 ºC) and relatively higher values of precipi- 15 and 16, are present in both areas of Oman.
Terrestrial Reptiles tation (around 350 mm/year), include fewer The highest number of clusters is found in the Conservation status of Oman reptiles
observations but also have less area available Hajar Mountains, with 15 clusters, including
and are, thus, proportionally well sampled. clusters 1 and 4, both with just 2.52 km2, the
Medically important venomous snakes
smallest of all 20 clusters. In the South, the
Marine Reptiles As shown in Fig 5 on page 17, the
of Oman
highest number of clusters is found in the
observations are also well distributed across Dhofar Mountains and the Salalah Plain.
the climatic space defined by the Principal Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps
A
B

Glossary

Selected references
and further reading

Fig 3: A: Map of Oman indicating the sampling effort.

Grids of 10 arc-minutes (~18km) with observations (red
 dots). Empty grid cells are either due to no observation or
no sampling; B: Two-dimensional climatic space of Oman
 (gray dots; 1x1 km) defined by total annual precipitation
(BIO12) and mean annual temperature (BIO1). Red dots
 represent the distribution of the 5,986 observations in this
climatic space. From Carranza et al. (2018) with updated
 number of records.


 15
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning

P e nins ul a
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

da m
sa n
F
UL

Mu
Introduction ARABIAN G Oman geography and climate

GU
F

L
OF
OM Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
AN

West
richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles

B a ti
e

na
rn
Pl

h
ain S awa Ad Dimaniyat
Ecology of Oman reptiles
Isl

Ha
di Is an
land
s
rs

ja

ds
Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles
Easte
rn
aj Je H

H
b el
ar A k h d ar
Medically important venomous snakes

aj
M ou

ars
Marine Reptiles n tains of Oman

QIYA H SANDS
Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps

AR
SH
LI DESERT

L
A
KHA
Glossary

AL

d
sla n
B’
RU
s

hI
nd
i

ra
as

Isla
M

Selected references

sta
Al Wu
and further reading
E RT
ES
LI D
KHA
RUB’ AL JIDDAT AL HARASIS

Mountains Al-Hallaniyah
ofar
Dh amhan
A l- S a w d a

 el Qar a
Jeb
eb
el S Khuriya Muriya Islands
J

h Plain
amar lala
el Q Sa
Jeb

ARABIAN SEA

 Fig 4: Physical map of Oman showing the topographical relief and names of the most relevant toponymies
 mentioned in the book.

 16
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
Reptile diversity and systematics
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
With 11,570 species (August 2021), rep- nomic hypothesis based on the most recent functioning
Oman Map tiles represent the world’s most diverse group phylogenetic results is necessary for a cor-
of terrestrial vertebrates and a major compo- rect interpretation of the biogeography, ecolo- Importance of conserving reptile diversity
nent of the global biodiversity, remarkable gy, behavior, and evolution of reptiles and has
Introduction from an ecological and evolutionary point of also played an important role in the organiza- Oman geography and climate
view. Despite their relevance, their evolution- tion of the present book. These relationships
ary relationships and their taxonomy have are summarized in the phylogenetic tree pre- Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
been very contentious and could not be clari- sented in Fig  6 on page 18. richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles fied until genetic and, more recently, genomic
data have been available. An updated taxo- Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

A
C Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles of Oman

Snake bite first aid

Distribution maps

Glossary

Selected references B
and further reading


 Fig 5: A: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the climatic space of Oman (gray dots) using 12 BIOCLIM variables.
Dashed lines delimit the climatic clusters that group 10% of the explained variance by PC1 and PC2. Red dots represent
the distribution of the 5,986 observations in the PCA of the climatic space; B: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the
 climatic space of Oman using 12 BIOCLIM variables showing the 20 climatic clusters that group 10% of the explained
variance by PC1 and PC2 painted in different colors and numbered from 1 to 20 with the following order: from left to right
 and from bottom to top; C Map showing the geographic distribution and extension of the 20 climatic clusters of Oman
that group 10% of the explained variance by PC1 and PC2. From Carranza et al. (2018) with updated number of records.

 17
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 INTRODUCTION

Sphenodontidae Rhynchocephalia
Dibamidae
Phyllodactylidae
Reptile diversity and systematics
Start Gekkonidae

Gekkota
Sphaerodactylidae
Eublepharidae
Pygopodidae
Carphodactylidae
Diplodactylidae
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning

Scincoidea
Cordylidae
Gerrhosauridae
Oman Map Xantusiidae
Scincidae
Amphisbaenidae
Trogonophiidae Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Lacertoidea
Cadeidae
Blanidae
Bipedidae
Rhineuridae
Introduction Lacertidae
Gymnophthalmidae
Oman geography and climate
Teiidae
Anguidae
Anniellidae
Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

Anguimorpha
Diploglossidae
Helodermatidae
Xenosauridae
richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles Shinisauridae
Lanthanotidae
Varanidae
Tropiduridae
Iguanidae Ecology of Oman reptiles
Leiocephalidae
Crotaphytidae

Terrestrial Reptiles
Phrynosomatidae
Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Iguania
Polychrotidae
Hoplocercidae
Opluridae
Leiosauridae
Liolaemidae
Corytophanidae
Dactyloidae
Squamata Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles Chamaeleonidae
Agamidae
of Oman
Grayiidae
Calamariidae
Colubridae
Sibynophiidae
Snake bite first aid
Natricidae
Distribution maps

Toxicofera
Dipsadidae
Pseudoxenodontidae
Elapidae
Pseudoxyrhophiidae
Lamprophiidae
Atractaspididae
Psammophiidae
Glossary Prosymnidae
Pseudespididae
Homalopsidae

Serpentes
Viperidae
Pareidae
Xenodermatidae
Selected references Acrochordidae
Bolyeriidae

and further reading Boidae

Calamariidae
Cylindrophiidae
Anomochilidae
Uropeltidae
Pythonidae
Loxocemidae
Xenopeltidae
Xenophidiidae
Aniliidae
Tropidophiidae
Typhlopidae
Xenotyphlopidae
Gerrhopilidae
Leptotyphlopidae
Anomalepididae

Pleurodira
Podocnemidaee
Pelomedusidae
Chelidae
Trionychidae

 Carettochelyidae
Kinosternidae
Testudines
Cryptodira

Dermatemydidae
Chelydridae


Cheloniidae
Dermochelyidae
Geoemydidae
Testudinidae

 P
Platysternidae
Emydidae
Gavialidae
Crocodylidae Crocodylia
 Alligatoridae
Aves Aves
Fig 6: 4Phylogenetic tree of Sauropsioda showing the evolutionary relationships between the different families of
 Rhynchocephalia, Squamata, Testudines and Crocodilia. Notice that crocodiles (Crocodilia) are more closely related
to birds (Aves) than to the rest of reptiles. All the different reptile families with representatives in Oman are indicated
 18
in bold and with red silhouettes.
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start Present-day reptiles consist of
four major Orders:
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
1.- Turtles, belonging to the order Testudines, functioning
Oman Map include approximately 361 species. They are
one of the easiest groups of reptiles to recog- Importance of conserving reptile diversity
nize, because all of their representatives have
Introduction a shell composed of two parts: the ventral Oman geography and climate
plastron and the dorsal carapace, which pro-
tect the animal’s trunk. There are turtles living Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
on land (tortoises), in fresh water (freshwater richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles turtles), and a few groups that have conquered
the seas (marine turtles). Ecology of Oman reptiles
Crocodylus acutus, American Crocodile.

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

cerebral cortex is more developed than that of
other reptiles.
Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles 3.- Tuataras, with only one extant species of Oman
belonging to the genus Sphenodon, are the
only survivors of the order Rhynchocephalia. Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps The order includes diverse families and a great
number of genera and species, now extinct,
that diversified during the Mesozoic Era.
Because the tuataras have changed very little
Glossary morphologically, they are considered living
Geochelone elegans, Indian Star Tortoise. fossils, which makes them very interesting
from an evolutionary point of view. Noteworthy,
Selected references
2.- Crocodiles, alligators, and gharials, among the unique characteristics of tuataras
and further reading belonging to the order Crocodilia, include 26 are the presence of two or three teeth fused to
species of aquatic predators, among which is the bone of the premaxilla, a double row of
the largest reptile on earth - Crocodylus teeth in the upper mandible (maxillary and
porosus, the saltwater crocodile of southeast palatine teeth) and the absence of a copulatory
Asia and North Australia, which can reach over organ in males.
6 meters and weigh over 1,200 kg. Crocodiles
are oviparous, and their habits are generally
crepuscular and nocturnal. Interestingly, they
are more related to birds (Class Aves) than to
 other reptiles (see Fig 6), a relationship that
 makes reptiles a paraphyletic group. To solve
this systematic problem, it has been suggested
 to abandon the term “reptiles” and use the
more inclusive term Sauropsida (sauropsids)
 to refer to the monophyletic group formed by
“reptiles” and birds. Like birds, Crocodilia have
 a heart divided into four chambers and their Sphenodon punctatus, the Tuatara endemic to New
Zeland.
 19
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
4.- The order Squamata (squamates) is the
most numerous group of reptiles, with 11,182 The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
described species (August 2021). Their taxon- functioning
Oman Map omy has changed in recent years and the fol-
lowing groups are now recognized: Dibamidae Importance of conserving reptile diversity
(25 species), Gekkota (2,095 species), Scin-
Introduction coidea (1,870 species), Lacertoidea (1,029 Oman geography and climate
species), Anguimorpha (239 species), Iguania
(2,003 species), and Serpentes (snakes) Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
(3,921 species) (see Fig 6). They are charac- richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles terized by a diapsid-type skull in which some The pit viper Trimeresurus albolabris showing the left pit
structures have been lost and others have underneath the preocular scales, in the anterior part of the
eye. It connects interiorly to the sensory organ that allows Ecology of Oman reptiles
been modified, converting the skull into a pit vipers to perceive infrared radiations.
Terrestrial Reptiles moveable structure with equally moveable Conservation status of Oman reptiles
joints that help them to capture and better ma- squamate groups present internal fertilization,
nipulate prey. The skull modifications and es- and are the only group of reptiles in which the
Medically important venomous snakes
pecially the appearance of venom more than males have hemipenes (paired copulatory or-
Marine Reptiles of Oman
100 million years ago in the ancestor of the gans).
clade Toxicofera (Fig 6), venom glands, and
There are oviparous, ovoviviparous, vivipa- Snake bite first aid
specialized structures to inject venom and
Distribution maps subdue prey without fighting in some snake rous, and parthenogenetic species. Sex-deter-
groups, are considered one of the major fac- mining mechanisms in reptiles are broadly di-
tors of their great diversification. vided into two main categories: genotypic sex
determination (GSD) and temperature-depen-
Glossary
Squamates have lost limbs partially or dent sex determination (TSD). In tempera-
completely in more than 25 occasions during ture-dependent sex determination, it is the en-
Selected references their evolution, and have developed viviparous vironmental temperature during a particular
reproduction about 100 times independently. point of the embryonic development that de-
and further reading
In summary, they present a high level of mor- termines whether an egg becomes a female or
phological and physiological plasticity that a male. This thermosensitive period occurs
has allowed them to colonize very different after the egg has been laid, so sex determina-
habitats. They have a skin with epidermal ke- tion in these reptiles depend on the thermal
ratinized scales that is replaced with time. All conditions affecting the eggs. Moreover, new





 Naja arabica, Arabian Cobra hatching. Naja arabica, Arabian Cobra shedding the skin.

 20
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start The importance of reptiles
evidence indicates that both sex chromo-
somes and temperature can be involved in the for ecosystem functioning The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
sex determination of some reptile species. functioning
Oman Map Reptiles are major components of current bio-
The most successful group of squamates, tas globally. They have successfully colonized
all continents of the world (with the exception Importance of conserving reptile diversity
the snakes, is the group of reptiles with more
modifications to their general body plan. of Antarctica), including the continental and
Introduction marine waters and thousands of islands. Rep- Oman geography and climate
This group with 3,921 species is an example
of adaptive radiation, having conquered tiles have played a crucial role in the origin and
subsequent radiations of amniote vertebrates, Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
nearly all environments. There are marine,
richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles freshwater, and terrestrial snakes and they and in the function of past and modern day
are distributed through all continents with ecosystems. The role of reptiles as main eco-
logical players in our planet started a long Ecology of Oman reptiles
the only exception of Antarctica. All snakes
have elongated bodies, absence of limbs, ear time ago, when reptiles acquired water-inde-
Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles
canal, outer ear (no eardrum but inner ear) pendent reproduction that resulted in their es-
and left lung (due to elongation). Jaws join tablishment as the first fully-terrestrial verte-
at the anterior side by an extensible ligament brates, and triggered their diversification Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles and have a very flexible skull. Their eyelids are during the Mesozoic Era, between the Triassic of Oman
fused into a transparent membrane with little (245 million years ago) and the end of the Cre-
eye mobility. They have a forked (bifid) and taceous (65 million years ago), when reptiles Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps extensible tongue that carries the captured ruled the earth for 150 million years. Within
scent molecules to the vomeronasal organ the reptile lineage appeared some of the most
(Jacobson’s organ) located on the roof of incredible animals that have ever lived on our
the mouth that acts as an organ of smell to planet, including many different dinosaur spe-
Glossary cies, very large marine reptiles like the mosa-
complete the olfactory areas of the nose.
Some vipers (pit vipers) have sensory organs saurs and plesiosaurs, and a radiation of fly-
to perceive infrared radiations from warm ing reptiles, the pterosaurs, which included the
Selected references
bodies, allowing them to locate prey even in largest animal that has ever flown, Quetzal-
and further reading
the most absolute darkness. Pythons and coatlus northropi, with a wing span of 10 m.
boids also have infrared receptors
on their lips but are thought to be
of independent origin than those of
vipers. All snakes, like all members
of the Toxicofera clade, are thought
to have toxins and many groups
of snakes have developed teeth
 specialized in venom inoculation
that cause more than a million
 envenomations and 100,000 deaths
worldwide every year.

One of several specimens of the Jebel Akhdar endemic Asaccus
 montanus Mountain Leaf-toed Gecko found preying on insects
on a hotel wall at night.

 21
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start The 5th mass extinction (occurred approxi-
mately 65 million years ago) brought the reign The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
of the dinosaurs to a sudden end and also trig- functioning
Oman Map gered the extinction of all flying reptiles and
the large marine reptiles. This catastrophic Importance of conserving reptile diversity
event, opened a window of opportunity for
several groups of small vertebrates. Thanks to
Introduction Oman geography and climate
the extinction of most large reptiles, mam-
mals (constituted by small, nocturnal species
Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
at that time), birds, and small reptiles, had the richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles opportunity to radiate and diversify.
Representative of a highly diverse genera, Hemidactylus
As a result of radiations occurring over alkiyumii, Al-Kiyumi’s Gecko, Dhofar, Oman. Ecology of Oman reptiles
hundreds of millions of years, reptiles have
Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles
accumulated a vast diversity of morphologi- 436 species known from tropical America, the
cal, behavioral, ecological, life history, and de- geckos of the genus Cyrtodactylus, with 314
fensive strategies to cope with the selective species distributed across Southeast Asia, or Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles pressures that they have encountered. Since the geckos of the genus Hemidactylus, with of Oman
the last mass extinction, reptiles have consol- 173 species widely distributed across the
idated as the most successful lineage among world, including 14 species in Oman. Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps terrestrial vertebrates in terms of species rich-
ness, morphological and ecological diversity. Apart from the high number of species, some
Indeed, with 11,570 species, reptiles represent reptile species also have large populations
the world’s most diverse group of terrestrial and therefore play an even more vital role in
Glossary vertebrates and include some of the most re- ecosystems functioning. For instance, the
markable examples of vertebrate evolutionary most abundant terrestrial vertebrate in the
radiations. Particularly notorious cases are Hajar Mountains is a very small gecko of the
Selected references genus Pristurus (P. rupestris), which preys on
the hyper diverse iguanian genus Anolis, with
and further reading






Representative of a highly diverse genus, Anolis porcatus, Cuban Green Anole, Cuba.
 22
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
ants and other small insects that can harm
crops, and therefore it is a natural source The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
of pest control. Some snakes can also live functioning
Oman Map close to human settlements, preying on rats
and mice, keeping their populations in check. Importance of conserving reptile diversity
At the same time, reptiles fall prey to a large
Introduction number of other vertebrates, including birds Oman geography and climate
and small mammals, being a very important
food source for them. Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles Some species of geckos of the genus
Hemidactylus and other genera live in or
Ecology of Oman reptiles
around human habitations and are usually
Terrestrial Reptiles seen at night by lights preying on insects,
Conservation status of Oman reptiles
therefore acting as a natural source of pest
control and even as a control of vector-borne
diseases transmitted by some mosquito Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles species. Other terrestrial groups also
of Oman
consume other insects like grasshopers that,
depending on their abundance, can pose a Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps serious threat to cultivated areas.

Apart from the important role of reptiles

in the food web of ecosystems as both The Socotran endemic species Hemidactylus
Glossary predators and prey, there are other less dracaenacolus, Dragon Blood Tree's Gecko, on the
studied and less known roles of reptiles tree trunck of the endemic Socotran tree Dracaena
cinnabari, Dragon’s Blood Tree.
that have a pivotal role for ecosystem
Selected references
functioning, at least in some particular These large lizards eat plant material
and further reading
environments where reptiles are one of the on a regular basis, consuming seeds. It has
major components (or the only component) been shown that seeds of some Canary
of the terrestrial vertebrate faunas, as for Islands’ endemic plants that passed through
instance in remote archipelagos. Under these the guts of lizards had a better chance of
circumstances, reptiles can play a crucial germinating, and did so faster, than plants
role as both pollinators and seed dispersers that were not consumed by lizards. One of the
for endemic plants. For instance, it has been main characteristics of islands is that they
recently discovered that an endemic gecko, show low species richness, sometimes being
Hemidactylus dracaenacolus from Socotra
 Island, acts as a pollinator of the Dragon’s
devoid of any terrestrial mammals and with
very few bats and birds. That means there are
 Blood Tree (Dracaena cinnabari), a unique tree few species that could potentially take the
endemic to the Socotra Archipelago, highly place of lizards. If plants lose a pollinator or a
 valuable from a natural and economic point of disperser, they probably do not have another
view. Another well-studied example includes species to fall back on.
 the lacertid lizard radiation of the genus
Gallotia endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain.

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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles
Pristurus rupestris, Rock Semaphore Gecko, one
Terrestrial Reptiles of the most abundant terrestrial vertebrates of the Conservation status of Oman reptiles
Hajar Mountains. They can be very useful as pest
control and, at the same time, they are an important
source of food for other animals.
Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles of Oman

Snake bite first aid

Distribution maps The snake Echis carinatus sochureki, Sindh
Saw-scaled Viper, eating a mouse in a garden.
It can help to keep rodent populations in check.

Glossary

Selected references
and further reading

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 24
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Stenodactylus doriae, Dune Sand Gecko, preying on Conservation status of Oman reptiles
a grasshopper. These insects sometimes cause im-
portant damages to cultivated areas.
Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles of Oman

Snake bite first aid

The snake Spalerosophis diadema cliffordii, Clifford's Diadem
Distribution maps Snake, eating a Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) in a farm. This
snake species is usually found close to cultivated areas and
helps to control rodent populations.

Glossary

Selected references
and further reading

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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Uromastyx aegyptia microlepis, Small-scaled Spiny-tailed Lizard. An Arabian reptile species adapted to live in
extremely arid conditions, central Oman. Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles of Oman
Like islands, extremely arid areas or sand tailed Lizards of the genus Uromastyx; pic-
dune deserts show low levels of species rich- tured above) are also plant eaters and there- Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps ness, not only of terrestrial mammals but also fore their role as seed dispersers remains to
of birds and bats. Under these extreme condi- be studied.
tions that constitute a large part of the Arabi-
an Peninsula, reptiles thrive. They have been Importance of conserving
Glossary able to adapt and diversify, pushing to the lim- reptile diversity
its their physiology and modifying their be-
Reptiles play an important role in natural
havior to cope with these extreme conditions.
Selected references ecosystems, as predators, prey, grazers,
Therefore, reptiles have become the main ver-
and further reading seed dispersers, commensal species, and as
tebrate component of the world’s arid ecosys-
natural pest control. This role is even more
tems in terms of both species numbers and
accentuated in arid environments and islands,
individuals. Some of these reptiles (the Spiny-
with overall low levels of species richness but
high levels of reptile diversity.

Apart from the obvious affectation to the

ecosystem, conserving reptile diversity can
also have important benefits for our medical
 health. Modern science gives us the ability
to investigate the chemistry of compounds
 in search of more powerful pharmaceutical
drugs, and even build them from scratch, but
 nature continues to be a huge source of drug
discovery. In fact, the World Wildlife Fund says
 that of all small molecule drugs introduced
Phrynocephalus sakoi, Sako’s Toad-headed Agama,
 is an endemic species of the Sharqiyah Sands, Oman, in the last 25 years, at least 70% were
adapted to live in extremely arid conditions. derived from natural sources. For instance,
 26
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
a hormone in the saliva of the Gila Monster A key factor in conservation are endemic
(Heloderma suspectum), a venomous lizard species. Endemic species are species that The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
from southwestern USA and northwestern do not live anywhere else in the world and functioning
Oman Map Mexico, produces insulin to keep the animal’s therefore their protection and global survival
blood glucose levels in check. A synthetic falls completely in the hands of the country Importance of conserving reptile diversity
version of this hormone called exenatide is where they are found. If the country fails to
Introduction now used to treat type 2 diabetes in humans. protect them, they can go extinct, meaning Oman geography and climate
The Gila Monster, meanwhile, is classified as that we would lose a branch in the tree of
Near Threatened as a result of climate change life (see Fig 6 on page 18). Depending Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
and habitat loss resulting from development on the depth of the branch, we could loose richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles in southwestern USA. from a few thousand to millions of years of
evolutionary change and, with it, many unique Ecology of Oman reptiles
Other pharmaceutical drugs have been de- adaptations to the particular ecological
Terrestrial Reptiles veloped from snake venoms. Venoms are not and environmental conditions. This would Conservation status of Oman reptiles
composed of single toxins but cocktails of consequently affect the ecosystem and the
complex chemical mixtures of pharmacolog- food web, with the added danger of losing
ically active components including proteins, Medically important venomous snakes
compounds of medical relevance.
Marine Reptiles peptides, and enzymes with specific biolog-
of Oman
ical activities, as well as some non-protein Reptiles have the highest level of endemici-
compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, ty of all Oman vertebrates. As a result of its Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps metal ions and other unidentified substanc- geographical position in southeastern Ara-
es. Despite their medical interest, less than bia, surrounded by sea to the North, East
0.01% of these toxins have been identified and South, and especially its varied climat-
and characterized. For instance, Captopril® ic conditions and the presence of very high
Glossary
(Enalapril), Integrilin® (Eptifibatide), and Ag- mountain ranges, Oman presents high levels
grastat® (Tirofiban) are drugs used to treat of reptile diversity and especially endemicity.
Selected references cardiovascular diseases based on snake Out of the total of 111 species of reptiles, 16
and further reading venoms. Many more compounds beneficial are endemic. This represents a proportion of
for humans are awaiting to be discovered, 14.4% of species that do not live anywhere
reinforcing the necessity of preserving reptile else in the world and therefore their conser-
diversity, and especially venomous snakes. vation falls completely in the hands of Oman.


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
 Heloderma suspectum, Gila Monster. Crotalus atrox, Western Diamondback Rattle Snake.


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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start Oman geography and climate
The high level of endemicity found in reptiles
contrasts with other terrestrial vertebrate The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
Oman borders with the UAE to the North and
groups. In birds, there are about 494 species, functioning
northwest, with Saudi Arabia to the West and
Oman Map but none of them are endemic to Oman,
with Yemen to the southwest (Fig  7 on page
and there are about 60 species of terrestrial Importance of conserving reptile diversity
29). The country is divided into 11 gover-
mammals of which there is only one endemic
norates, Musandam being the smallest, with
Introduction species. This highlights the relevant role Oman geography and climate
just 1,805 km2, and Dhofar the largest, with
of reptiles as surrogates for conservation
104,498 km2 and covering nearly 33% of the
studies in Oman and other arid countries. Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
country.
They can play a very important role in defining richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles priority conservation areas and to evaluate the The population in the country is mainly con-
coverage of the current network of protected centrated in the capital, Muscat, and surround- Ecology of Oman reptiles
areas. As a result of that, more resources ing areas, making Muscat the most populated
Terrestrial Reptiles should be devoted to study the Oman reptile governorate, with approximately 1,421,409 in- Conservation status of Oman reptiles
fauna, especially the 16 endemic species in habitants in 2019. The country does not have
order to know more about their population a large network of tarmac roads and motor- Medically important venomous snakes
structure, biology, ecology and threats. ways but there is an extensive and excellent
Marine Reptiles of Oman
network of off-road trails that communicates
Reptiles are of paramount importance
villages, sometimes across desert areas, and Snake bite first aid
for the health of the environment. However,
connects oil refineries from the interior of the
Distribution maps their small home ranges, high levels of
country with the main harbor in the Al Wusta
endemicity, thermoregulatory constraints,
Governorate. Some of these roads have been
and morphological specialization, mean
used to survey the biodiversity of remote and
that they are especially sensitive to some of
Glossary previously inaccessible areas, sometimes re-
the alterations that humans make to their
sulting in unexpected discoveries.
habitats. However, some reptile species
Selected references are very resilient and can adapt well and About 60% of the approximately 330,000 km2
and further reading even thrive in man-modified environments of Oman consist of flat arid areas below 250
and man-made structures, such as tunnels m (Fig  4). These vast areas are mostly barren,
and buildings. A study of the threats and vegetated by small areas of widely spaced low
conservation status of all the Data Deficient perennial shrubs, interspersed between much
and Not Evaluated species of Oman reptiles broader areas of bare sand, gravel and rocks.
(see page 45) would be very important in order The mean annual temperatures are high
to plan the appropriate conservation actions (28 ºC) and annual precipitation is very low
and to tackle any threats, especially threats (<150 mm).
that might affect the endemic species.
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© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman

Snake bite first aid

Distribution maps

Glossary

Selected references
and further reading





 Fig 7: Political map of Oman showing the limits of the 11 governorates.

 29
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman

Rub' Al Khali Desert, western Oman,

Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps autumn 2013 expedition.

Sand Dune Deserts

Glossary The hot arid environment of Arabia, with arabicus, several species of Acanthodactylus,
evaporation exceeding rainfall by more than Trigonodactylus arabicus, and Stenodactylus
one hundred times, has triggered the origin of doriae, among other taxa that thrive in this
Selected references several types of deserts. The great sand dune extreme and hostile environment.
and further reading deserts of Arabia are amongst the largest
in the world. In Oman there are two sand
dune deserts that are very important from a
biodiversity point of view:

The Rub’ Al Khali (Empty Quarter) is the

world’s largest continuous sand desert, with
sand dunes extending for hundreds of Km
and up to 250 m in elevation, covering an area
 of over 640,000 Km2. It is mainly distributed
across southern Saudi Arabia and southern
 UAE. In Oman, the Rub’ Al Khali desert occupies
a relatively small area in the western side of
 the country, right next to the western border
with Saudi Arabia and the UAE (Fig  4). Despite
 its extreme aridity, there are several species of
Rub' Al Khali Desert, western Oman,
sand desert adapted reptiles such as Scincus
 autumn 2013 expedition.
mitranus, Eryx jayakari, Phrynocephalus
 30
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman

Northern edge of the Sharqiyah Sands, Oman,

Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps autumn 2010 expedition.

The Sharqiyah Sands is a relatively small Although sand dunes occupy 27% of the
Glossary aeolian sand dune desert situated in the Arabian Peninsula and a large part of Oman,
extreme northeast of the country, between the vast areas are occupied by gravel plains. One
Hajar Mountains and the Arabian Sea (Fig  4). of the largest is the Jiddat Al Harasis.
Selected references It extends across an area of approximately
and further reading 12,500 km2. The eastern side of the desert
lies very close to the coast and therefore
this side of the desert receives important
amounts of fog that have a positive impact
into its biodiversity. The sands are arranged in
a mega-ridge sand system on a North-South
line believed to have been formed by the
monsoons. The largest dunes in the northern
part of the desert can reach up to 100 m in
 elevation. This desert was the subject of a
thorough exploration organized by the Royal
 Geographic Society between 1985 and 1987
and the published reports indicated the
 existence of a rich reptile fauna. More recent
surveys and analyses have resulted in the
 description of two endemic reptiles to the
 Sharqiyah Sands (Phrynocephalus sakoi and Northern edge of the Sharqiyah Sands, Oman,
Trigonodactylus sharqiyahensis). autumn 2013 expedition.
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman

Snake bite first aid

Gravel plain in the Jiddat Al Harasis, Oman,
Distribution maps autumn 2016 expedition.
Gravel Plains and Sabkha
The Jiddat Al Harasis is a limestone plateau Sabkhas can occur by the sea or far inland.
Glossary ranging between 100 and 150 m in elevation, Despite being an inhospitable habitat, some
covering a very large area of approximately reptiles have been able to adapt to these con-
27,000 km2. It is situated between the ditions and one of them, Pseudoceramodacty-
Selected references lus khobarensis, has become a specialist and
Arabian Sea in the East and the Rub’ Al Khali
and further reading is mainly found in this harsh environment.
in the West (Fig 4). It is an extremely arid,
flat area with very low levels of rainfall. Like
the Sharqiyah Sands, the fog plays a very
important role in the areas close to the Arabian
Sea coast, supporting some vegetated areas
with trees. Despite its extreme aridity, it is
inhabited by several reptile species, including
some endemic species such as Hemidactylus
inexpectatus endemic to Al Wusta Governorate
 and Uromastyx thomasi.
 Sabkhas (salt flats) are another important
 habitat type in Oman and are one of the harsh-
est environments on the planet. They are hy-
 persaline areas of sand or slit often containing
layers of gypsum or anhydrite. Crusts of halite Sandy plain near the coast, Jiddat Al Harasis, Oman,
 and gypsum may be present in some parts. autumn 2013 expedition.

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© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman

Snake bite first aid

Sabkha in the Rub' Al Khali Desert, western Oman, autumn 2013 expedition.
Distribution maps

Glossary
Sabkha in the Rub' Al Khali Desert, western Oman, autumn 2013 expedition.

Selected references
and further reading

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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman

Area of white sands in southeastern Masirah Island, Oman, Snake bite first aid
autumn 2010 expedition.
Distribution maps Islands
Islands represent outstanding examples Khuriya Muriya Islands, off the coast of south-
of biodiversity, endemicity and species eastern Oman, are much smaller (less than 60
Glossary km2 each), and have a remarkable diversity of
extinctions. Island species are often
unique, yet are highly vulnerable to novel reptiles, although there are no endemics. The
disturbances, such as invasive species. As Ad Dimaniyat Islands, off the Batinah Plain
Selected references coast of North Oman, are a group of 9 small
the risk of extinction is highest on islands, it is
and further reading islands (1 km² of total area) with rather low
very important to know their diversity in order
to monitor and conserve it. One of the most levels of reptile diversity, although they in-
important islands of Oman is Masirah Island. clude a population of the rare skink Heremites
septemtaeniatus.
Masirah Island is the largest island in Oman
(approx. 700 km2). It is situated in the Arabian
Sea, approximately 15 km off the east coast of
Barr Al Hikman and has relatively large hills of
ophiolitic origin, especially on its eastern side.
 It is the Oman island with the highest number
of reptile species, 21, which represent 21.8%
 of Oman’s terrestrial reptiles. Only two reptile
 species, Hemidactylus masirahensis and Pris-
turus masirahensis, are island endemics and
 both of them are endemic to Masirah Island.
Other islands like Al-Hallaniyah or Al-Sawda,
 the first and second largest islands of the Rocky area in southern Masirah Island, Oman,
 34
autumn 2010 expedition.

© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados

 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman

Al-Hallaniyah Island, Oman, autumn 2013 expedition. Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps

Glossary
Ad Dimaniyat Islands, Oman, spring 2013 expedition.

Selected references
and further reading





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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman
Wadi As Sarin Nature Reserve, Eastern Hajars, Oman,
autumn 2014 expedition. Snake bite first aid
Mountains
Distribution maps
If aeolian deserts, gravel flat plains, sabkhas ed wall of mountains that rises dramatically
and islands harbor moderate levels of reptile from the ocean below. The Hajars run north-
diversity in arid areas, mountains represent west to southeast in a 650 km continuous arc
Glossary hotspots of biodiversity. Mountains offer paralleling the Oman and UAE coast of the
essential vertical environmental gradients for Gulf of Oman and are surrounded by the sea
life over short areas otherwise only seen over to the East and by a very large desert to the
Selected references West. Cut by deep canyons, these arid moun-
several thousands of kilometers of horizontal
and further reading tains have a complex topography and can be
distance. A steep diverse topography provides
opportunities for species diversification, divided into three distinct areas or blocks, the
leading to high levels of biodiversity and Western Hajars, the Jebel Akhdar massif, and
endemicity. Mountains are at the same the Eastern Hajars; separated by some topo-
time centers of speciation and refugia of graphical discontinuities (Fig  4). With a maxi-
diversity and, given the wide spectrum of mum elevation of 3,009 m, Jebel Shams in the
environmental conditions that they cover, Jebel Akhdar massif is the highest peak in the
they are key to conservation, containing half Hajar Mountains, although high mountains
of the currently defined biodiversity hotspots also occur in the Western (2,087 m at Jebel
 in the world. In Oman, there are two mountain Harim) and Eastern (2,200 m at Jebel Khadar)
Hajars. The Hajar Mountains are the only area
 ranges with high levels of reptile diversity and
in eastern Arabia with habitats above 2,000 m
endemicity. The Hajar Mountains in the North
 of the country and the Dhofar Mountains in in elevation and with an annual mean temper-
the South. ature of 13 ºC at the highest peaks. Despite
 the altitude, annual rainfall is low (between
The Hajar Mountains are the highest in 250–300 mm), evapotranspiration is high, and
 eastern Arabia, forming a spectacular isolat- the almost treeless, barren nature of the ter-

 36
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman
Jebel Shams and Wadi Gul canyon, Jebel Akhdar massif, Oman,
summer 2017 expedition.
Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps rain has made some scientists to consider the in varied animal and plant groups, including an
Hajars a mountain desert. However, recently endemic genus and species of mountain goat
published analyses using a Principal Compo- (Arabitragus jayakari). The Hajar Mountains
Glossary nent Analysis (PCA) of the climatic space of contrasts sharply with the Dhofar Mountains
Oman using 12 environmental variables, indi- of southern Oman.
cate that the Hajar Mountains are one of the
Selected references most climatically variable areas in Oman .
and further reading
The Hajar Mountains have a complex
geological history and have long been known to
have more structural and petrological features
in common with the Zagros Mountains of
southwestern Iran than with neighboring parts
of Arabia. They originated around 200 million
years ago, with orogeny taking place during the
Oligocene and Miocene, triggered due to the
 tectonic motions that resulted in the opening
of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. The final
 uplift probably occurred approximately 4–6
Mya. Owing to its old geological origin, high
 elevations, very deep canyons, geographic
isolation from other mountains, and relative
 diversity of ecological niches, high levels of
 species richness and endemicity are recorded Wadi Shab, Eastern Hajars, Oman, autumn 2008
expedition.
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles Tawi Attair sink hole, south-facing side of the Dhofar
of Oman
Mountains, Oman, summer 2017 expedition.
The Dhofar Mountains are bound to the North Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps by the Rub’ Al Khali (also known as the Empty mm per year. Clouds only occasionally spill
Quarter), the largest desert in Arabia, to the over the top of Jebel Qamar but on the much
South by the Arabian Sea, and are separated lower Jebel Qara they ride up to the summit.
from the rest of Oman in the northeast by However, the northern slopes across the
Glossary the gravel desert plain of Jiddat Al Harasis whole mountain range are in a rain shadow.
(Fig  4). The summit of the mountain range is As a result, the north-facing (inland) side of
a relatively wide (10–25 km) flat plateau that the Dhofar Mountains is much drier and less
Selected references
runs for about 150 km, mostly between 700 vegetated than the lush south-facing side.
and further reading
and 900 m in elevation, from Jebel Qamar in These climatic differences have played an
the West, through Jebel Qara in the central important role in shaping the flora and fauna
part, to Jebel Samhan, an independent massif of this interesting biodiversity rich region.
that can be considered an eastern extension
of the Dhofar Mountains. The highest point
is over 2,000 m in elevation in Jebel Samhan,
where temperatures reach the lowest values
in southern Oman. The Dhofar Mountains
lie within the monsoon belt, and most rain
 falls in July and August, during the summer
 monsoon season. This results in the unique
green vegetation on the south-facing (sea)
 side of the mountain range, where the clouds
form a variable belt along the coast from
 Jebel Qamar to Jebel Samhan that press
against the mountain ridges causing frequent
 fog and light rain that does not surpass 200
Wadi Ayun, northern side of the Dhofar Mountains,
Oman, autumn 2005 expedition.

 38
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start Patterns of terrestrial reptile species In total, 16 species are endemic to Oman.
richness in Oman The governorate with the highest endemicity The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
is Ash Sharqiyyah South, in the extreme functioning
The 96 species of terrestrial reptiles, including
Oman Map northeast part of the country, which has 8
endemic species, are not equally distributed
out of the 16 endemic Oman reptiles (50%). Importance of conserving reptile diversity
across the whole territory of Oman. If we
It is followed very closely by Ad Dakhliyyah
analyze species richness by governorate,
and Al Wusta, with 5 endemic species (31.2%)
Introduction Dhofar has the highest diversity, with 60 Oman geography and climate
(Fig 9A on page 40; Table 1 on page 41).
species, and is followed by Ash Sharqiyyah
However, when the endemicity richness is
South with 48. The remaining governorates Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
analyzed at a finer scale (10 arc-minutes grid), richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles have 42 or less species, being Musandam
the areas with the highest values are found
(21), Al Buraymi (29) and Al Batinah North (27)
in the Hajar Mountains in northern Oman and,
the governorates with the lowest number of Ecology of Oman reptiles
more specifically, in the Jebel Akhdar massif,
species (Fig  8A). When the species richness
Terrestrial Reptiles that contains as many as 5 endemic species
is analyzed using the 10 arc-minutes grid, Conservation status of Oman reptiles
in some grids. Other grids with relatively high
the highest number of species appear in the
levels of endemicity richness are found in the
high elevation parts of the Hajar Mountains Medically important venomous snakes
northeast of the country, including Masirah
Marine Reptiles (Jebel Akhdar), the coastal area and wadis of Oman
Island. Endemicity is not very high in Dhofar,
around the capital (Muscat), and in the Dhofar
with the highest values of grid endemicity
Mountains and the Salalah Plain in the South Snake bite first aid
being two grids situated in the south-facing
Distribution maps (Fig 8B).
sea side of the Dhofar Mountains, and one
grid in the north-facing land side of the
mountains (Fig 9B on page 40).
Glossary A B

Selected references
and further reading





 Fig 8: Maps of species richness of the 96 Oman terrestrial reptiles. A: Species richness by governorate; B: Species
richness by grids of 10 arc-minutes of latitude and longitude.
 39
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
A B
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles of Oman

Snake bite first aid

Distribution maps
Fig 9: Maps of endemic species richness. A: Endemic species richness by governorate; B: Endemic species
richness by grids of 10 arc-minutes of latitutde and longitude.

Glossary
Most of the grids with the highest values of richness are around the capital, Muscat, and
species richness are situated in the Hajar and most probably result from the combination of
Selected references the Dhofar Mountains. Two very contrasting two factors: 1) it is a diverse and ecologically
and further reading areas within the same country that highlight rich area, including well preserved beaches,
the incredible diversity of landscapes in plains, wadis, mountains and wetlands, and
Oman, with very arid mountains in the North 2) as a result of its proximity to the capital,
and lush tropical mountains in the South. it has been surveyed very thoroughly or
many records were assigned generically to
The Hajar Mountains of Oman and the UAE Muscat. In the South, the highest diversity is
are one of the most biodiversity rich regions concentrated in the Dhofar Mountains, where
in Arabia and have 19 described endemic the climatic differences between the lush
species of reptiles and several other species south-facing sea side and the dry north-facing
in the process of being described. Of all the land side of the mountains have played an
 species endemic to the Hajar Mountains, six important role in shaping the flora and fauna
 are endemic to Oman (are not found in the of this interesting biodiversity rich region.
UAE).
 The pattern of endemic species richness in
The highest levels of species richness Oman changes dramatically and is mainly
 within the Omani part of the Hajar Mountains concentrated in the Jebel Akhdar massif
concentrate in the Jebel Akhdar massif. (Fig 9B), with some areas with relatively high
 Interestingly, some areas of high species endemic species richness in the Eastern
 40
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
Hajars and especially in Masirah Island. page 40). All these species found in the
Interestingly, Dhofar has very low levels of Dhofar Mountains of Oman that also occur The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
endemicity. This pattern does not match with elsewhere in Yemen and Saudi Arabia (and functioning
Oman Map the map of species richness, where it's much are therefore not endemic) include:
higher in Dhofar than in the north (compare Acanthocercus adramitanus, Chamaeleo arabicus, Importance of conserving reptile diversity
Figs 8B and 9B). This can be explained by the Pseudotrapelus dhofarensis, Uromastyx benti,
Introduction fact that some species in the Omani side of Hemidactylus alkiyumii, H. festivus, H. lemurinus, Oman geography and climate
the Dhofar Mountains extend their range to H. minutus, Ptyodactylus dhofarensis, Trachydactylus
the Yemeni side of the mountain range, and spatalurus, Tropiocolotes scorteccii, Acanthodactylus Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
other species have disjoint distributions in felicis, Mesalina austroarabica, M. ayunensis, richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles Dhofar and the Western Mountains of Yemen Atractaspis andersonii, Bitis arietans, Echis coloratus,
and Saudi Arabia (similar to the situation in E. khosatzkii, Naja arabica, Platyceps thomasi, and Ecology of Oman reptiles
the Hajar Mountains, where many species Rhynchocalamus arabicus.
Terrestrial Reptiles also occur in the UAE side and are therefore Conservation status of Oman reptiles
not considered endemic to Oman; Fig 9 on

Table 1: Endemic species by governorate. From left to right ordered from higher to lower Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles diversity. The three governorates without endemic species (Musandam, Al Buraymi, and Al of Oman
Batinah North) are not represented in the table.
Snake bite first aid

Al Batinah South
Ash Sharqiyyah

Ash Sharqiyyah
Distribution maps

Ad Dakhliyyah
Adh Dhahirah
SPECIES

Al Wusta

Muscat
Dhofar
South

North
Glossary
Acanthodactylus masirae ✔ ✔ ✔
Asaccus arnoldi ✔ ✔ ✔
Selected references Asaccus montanus ✔ ✔
and further reading Asaccus platyrhynchus ✔ ✔
Hemidactylus endophis ✔
Hemidactylus hajarensis ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Hemidactylus inexpectatus ✔
Hemidactylus luqueorum ✔ ✔ ✔
Hemidactylus masirahensis ✔
Hemidactylus paucituberculatus ✔
Phrynocephalus sakoi ✔ ✔ ✔
 Pristurus gallagheri ✔ ✔ ✔
Pristurus masirahensis ✔
 Tropiocolotes confusus ✔

 Trigonodactylus sharqiyahensis ✔ ✔ ✔
Uromastyx thomasi ✔ ✔ ✔


 41
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start The Dhofar and the Western Mountains Telescopus dhara, and Platyceps rhodorachis,
of Yemen and Saudi Arabia are partially the latter having the greatest elevational The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
or totally affected by the moisture-laden range (from sea level up to 2,600 m) and a dis- functioning
Oman Map southwestern monsoon winds that blow tribution across the entire climatic space of
against the sea-facing cliffs between July and Oman. The remaining species of reptiles are Importance of conserving reptile diversity
August. These are responsible for the unique more restricted in elevation, climatic space,
Introduction green vegetation on the coastal side of the and land cover preferences and are linked to Oman geography and climate
mountain ranges, creating an ecosystem specific areas, such as coastal deserts, inland
similar to a tropical forest with a patchy deserts, arid mountains (high and low eleva- Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
distribution across more than 2,000 km that tion), tropical mountains, islands, and coastal richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles has facilitated the dispersal of tropical taxa. plains, among others.
Ecology of Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles Within Iguania, there are the families
Terrestrial Reptiles Agamidae and Chamaeleonidae. Within
The Oman reptiles include some generalist Agamidae, the genus Phrynocephalus is Conservation status of Oman reptiles
and specialist species. For instance, the skink restricted to the arid areas of Oman with
Trachylepis tessellata is distributed across the high temperatures and low precipitation Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles Hajar and Dhofar Mountains in the North and and has never been found above 400 m in of Oman
South of the country, respectively, and in Ma- elevation. The genus Pseudotrapelus has
sirah Island. The species is found from sea lev- two morphologically very similar species Snake bite first aid
el up to 1,900 m in elevation, and covers most
Distribution maps with very different bioclimatic and elevation
of the bioclimatic area defined by the mean preferences. Pseudotrapelus dhofarensis is
annual temperature and annual precipitation. found in the Dhofar Mountains and some arid
It is the only lizard species with such gener- areas to the North, mainly at low elevation,
Glossary alist ecological preferences. Of the 21 spe- while P. jensvindumi is mainly restricted to the
cies of terrestrial snakes, three show a simi- Hajar Mountains of North Oman, with many
lar generalist pattern: Psammophis schokari,
Selected references
and further reading





 Trapelus flavimaculatus, Yellow-spotted Agama.

 42
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles Cerastes gasperettii gasperettii, Arabian Horned Viper burying itself in the desert sand to ambush passing by prey. of Oman

records at high elevation. Nevertheless, both (six species); Ptyodactylus (three species); Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps species seem to have similar preferences for Stenodactylus (two species); Trigonodactylus
the land cover type (bare areas with gravel (two species); Trachydactylus (two species)
and rocks). The two subspecies Uromastyx and Tropiocolotes (two species). At the
aegyptia leptieni and U. a. microlepis also have generic level, Hemidactylus, Pristurus, and
Glossary
completely different ecological preferences Trachydactylus independently cover most
in Oman, the latter inhabiting the Hajar of the climatic space of Oman, but at the
Mountains between sea level up to 1,000 m in specific level many ecological specializations
Selected references
elevation with preference for bare areas with are found, such as Pristurus gallagheri or P.
and further reading
gravel and rocks, and the former inhabiting minimus, restricted to high elevation areas of
mainly lowland (up to 500 m in elevation) the Hajar Mountains and to the lowland hot
hot and dry desert areas of the interior, with and dry desert areas, respectively. The genus
preference for bare areas with gravel and Asaccus is only found in the rocky and arid
rocks or sand. The only Chamaeleonidae Hajar Mountains of North Oman and the genus
in Oman, Chamaeleo arabicus, is mainly Tropiocolotes is restricted to the tropical
distributed across the monsoon affected Dhofar Mountains and some arid areas of
areas of Dhofar up to 1,400 m, but it has an southern Oman. As a result, both genera
introduced population in Masirah Island. This show very different ecological preferences.
 population is within a private fenced area The genus Stenodactylus is restricted to low
 dedicated to water purification with high trees elevation (usually below 800 m in elevation)
and bushes. The population seems stable. in hot and dry desert areas, with preference
 for bare areas with gravel and rocks or sand.
With 41 species, Gekkota are the most The three species of the genus Ptyodactylus
 diverse terrestrial reptile group in Oman inhabit mountainous areas in both the North
and include the genera Hemidactylus (14 (Hajar Mountains) and the South (Dhofar
 species); Pristurus (seven species); Asaccus Mountains). The two species from the North
 43
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Medically important venomous snakes

Marine Reptiles The introduced gecko Cyrtopodion scabrum, Rough Bent-toed Gecko. of Oman

(P. orlovi and P. ruusaljibalicus) and the Varanus griseus is the largest Oman terrestrial
Snake bite first aid
southern species (P. dhofarensis) occupy a lizard (more than 1.2 m including the tail) and
Distribution maps very similar habitat, but a rather different exploits a very particular habitat characterized
climatic space. by low elevation (up to 600 m), hot and dry
bare and rocky areas with sparse vegetation.
The 13 species of Lacertoidea include two
Glossary
families and four different genera: Family Tro- The 21 species of terrestrial snakes
gonophidae, genus Diplometopon (one spe- compose the most ecologically heterogeneous
Selected references cies), and the Family Lacertidae with Acan- group. Three of them are generalists (see
thodactylus (seven species), Mesalina (three above); others such as Cerastes gasperettii
and further reading
species), and Omanosaura (two species). gasperettii only dwell at elevations below
Acanthodactylus and Mesalina are mainly re- 500 m, in hot and dry sandy areas, and
stricted to elevations usually below 1,000 m others such as Pseudocerastes persicus
in hot and dry desert areas, while the two spe- are only found in the highest parts of the
cies of Omanosaura are restricted to the Hajar Hajar Mountains (between 500 and 2,500
Mountains, with some populations reaching m in elevation), under relatively cold and
up to 2,800 m in elevation in environments humid conditions, and associated with rocky
with relatively high precipitation and low tem- environments.
perature. Diplometopon is a sand-dweller, re-
 Finally, of the 96 species of terrestrial
stricted to low elevation areas in sand dune
reptiles, five have been introduced into Oman.
 deserts.
Three originally from India: the Agamidae
 The Scincoidea inhabit the entire ecological Calotes versicolor, and the Gekkonidae
space of Oman and, with the exception of the Hemidactylus flaviviridis and H. leschenaultii.
 generalist Trachylepis tessellata (see above), The Gekkonidae Cyrtopodion scabrum and the
the other species are restricted to particular Typhlopidae (snake) Indotyphlops braminus
 areas with different ecological preferences. are of unknown origin. The introduced snake
 44
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start is the most widespread snake species aegyptia microlepis, Uromastyx thomasi,
in the world and is parthenogenetic. It is Asaccus montanus, and Acanthodactylus
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
now present in at least 118 countries, in all felicis, and the marine turtles Caretta caretta,
functioning
Oman Map continents except Antarctica and South Lepidochelys olivacea, and Dermochelys
America, and in more than 543 islands. It gets coriacea), one EN species (the marine turtle
Importance of conserving reptile diversity
transported in the soil of commercial plants Chelonia mydas), and one CR (the marine
all over the world. turtle Eretmochelys imbricata). The remaining
Introduction taxa include six DD, 70 LC, one NT (Pristurus
Oman geography and climate
Conservation status of Oman reptiles gallagheri) and 24 NE species. Importantly, 11
endemic species are classified as NE and one Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
The IUCN Red List categories of all 111 Oman richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles endemic species as DD, one LC, one NT, and
reptiles (terrestrial and marine) include species
two VU. Therefore, 12 species out of the 16
under the following categories (Fig 10):
(75%) Oman endemics do not have an IUCN Ecology of Oman reptiles
NE (Not Evaluated), DD (Data Deficient),
category. As a result of the small distribution
Terrestrial Reptiles LC (Least Concern), NT (Near Threatened), Conservation status of Oman reptiles
of most of the endemic NE and DD species,
VU (Vulnerable), EN (Endangered), and CR
some of them will be assessed in the future
(Critically Endangered). There are no EW Medically important venomous snakes
as threatened species through the B criteria
Marine Reptiles (Extinct in the Wild) or EX (Extinct) species. of Oman
(geographic range) in the red listing process.
Therefore, in Oman, the only threatened taxa
are eight VU species (the terrestrial reptiles Snake bite first aid
Uromastyx aegyptia leptieni, Uromastyx
Distribution maps A B C

A B
LC 64.2% (70)
Glossary LC 63.5% (61)

Selected references DD 5.2% (5)

and further reading DD 5.5% (6)

NT 0.9% (1) NE 25% (24)

NE 22% (24)
NT 1% (1)
VU 7.3% (8)
VU 5.2% (5)
EN 0.9% (1)
CR 0.9% (1)

 NE 68.8% (11)
Fig 10: Percentage of the number of spe-
cies of Oman reptiles by IUCN conserva-
 DD 6.3% (1)
tion category according to the IUCN web
page at 18th of December 2020. A: all 111
reptile species, including marine reptiles;
 LC 6.3% (1) B: the 96 terrestrial reptiles; and C: the 16
endemic reptiles.
 NT 6.3% (1)

 VU 12.5% (2)

 45
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start Medically important the sea quickly. They usually get stranded on
venomous snakes of Oman the beach (sometimes in high numbers) after The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
storms or when they are weak, ill, disoriented, functioning
Oman Map As shown in the species accounts of both
or as a result of changes in water temperature,
terrestrial and marine snakes, there are 19
especially between seasons: April to June Importance of conserving reptile diversity
medically important venomous snakes in
and September to November.
Oman. In other words, snakes that have
Introduction enough venom that can cause serious medical Oman geography and climate
This can cause concerns, as sometimes
complications and require immediate medical there are several specimens stranded on the
attention in the unlikely event of being bitten Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
beach. Despite all 10 sea snakes that can be
richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles by one of them. Of these 19 species, 10 are found in Omani waters are highly venomous
sea snakes of the family Elapidae and nine and there is no antivenom available for them,
are terrestrial snakes of the Families Elapidae, Ecology of Oman reptiles
they have never caused a single reported case
Atractaspididae, and Viperidae. of envenomation. Globally, sea snake bites
Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles
are extremely rare with no recorded bites in
Sea snakes decades, with the exception of intentional
handling by snake catchers. That is because Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles The 10 Sea Snakes that can be found in they are very shy and docile, preferring to
of Oman
Omani waters are fully aquatic, which means swim away from humans and other creatures.
that they do not need to leave the sea to If they are in the water, they will almost never Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps breed (they are viviparous), drink (they drink bite unless you grab them and handle them
from the falling rain), mate (they mate in the with bare hands. When they are stranded on
water), or eat (they eat fish). In principle, if the beach they are vulnerable and more likely
they are found on the beach it is because they to bite, so it is very important not to handle
Glossary
are stranded and will die if not returned to them with bare hands.

Table 2: List of medically important venomous snakes of Oman separated by families.

Selected references TS = Terrestrial snakes; SS = Sea snakes.
and further reading
Family Elapidae Family Atractaspididae Family Viperidae
Naja arabica (TS) Atractaspis andersonii (TS) Bitis arietans (TS)
Hydrophis cantoris (SS) Cerastes g. gasperettii (TS)

Hydrophis curtus (SS) Echis carinatus sochureki (TS)

Hydrophis cyanocinctus (SS) Echis coloratus (TS)

Hydrophis gracilis (SS) Echis khosatzkii (TS)

Hydrophis lapemoides (SS) Echis omanensis (TS)

 Hydrophis ornatus (SS) Pseudocerastes persicus (TS)

 Hydrophis platurus (SS)

 Hydrophis schistosus (SS)

Hydrophis spiralis (SS)

 Hydrophis viperinus (SS)

 46
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
What to do if Sea Snakes are found
stranded on the beach The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map Like in the picture, sea snakes can be
removed from the beach using a large bucket
Importance of conserving reptile diversity
and a stick. They hardly move and are very
easy to handle. Trash pickers also work very
Introduction well. Once you have placed the snake in the
Oman geography and climate
bucket, it can be safely returned to the sea
Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
or transported to a marine rescue center for
richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles treatment.

Terrestrial Snakes Example on how to manipulate a sea snake, Ecology of Oman reptiles
Hydrophis platurus, Yellow-bellied Sea Snake,
Terrestrial Reptiles As a result of their relevance from a human stranded on the beach. Conservation status of Oman reptiles
health and conservation point of view, the
species richness of the nine species of terres- Echis omanensis, Al Buraymi is the gover- Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles trial venomous snakes of Oman is shown for norate with the lowest number of venomous of Oman
each governorate and each sampled grid of snakes (Fig  11A). The analyses at a finer
10 arc-minutes (Fig 11). At the governorate scale (10 arc-minutes grid) reveal that spe- Snake bite first aid
level, Dhofar has the highest number of ven- cies richness is also highest in Dhofar; more
Distribution maps omous species (six species), followed by Al specifically in some areas of the eastern Dho-
Wusta (four species). With just one species, far Mountains (Fig  11B).

A B
Glossary

Selected references
and further reading





 Fig 11: Maps of medically important venomous snake species richness. A: Venomous snake species richness by
governorate; B: Venomous snake species richness by grids of 10 arc-minutes of latitude and longitude.
 47
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Defensive behavior of Bitis arietans, Puff adder, Dhalkut, Oman.

Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles of Oman
Of the nine terrestrial venomous snakes, The venoms of these nine species have dif-
Naja arabica, Atractaspis andersonii, and ferent effects. Although terrestrial venomous Snake bite first aid
Bitis arietans are only found in Dhofar. Echis snakes are more aggressive than sea snakes,
Distribution maps
coloratus and E. khosatzkii are found in they will always try to escape and will warn
Dhofar and Al Wusta. Cerastes gasperettii before striking. It is recommended not to ap-
gasperettii and E. carinatus sochureki have proach them or handle them, especially when
Glossary wider distributions. Finally, E. omanensis and they are in defensive (warning) mode. Among
Pseudocerastes persicus are restricted to the venomous snakes, different groups express
Hajar Mountains and immediate surrounding various defensive behaviors to deter potential
Selected references areas. threats:
and further reading






Defensive behavior of Cerastes gasperettii gasperettii, Arabian Horned Viper, Sharqiyah Sands Oman.
 48
© CSIC © del autor o autores / Todos los derechos reservados
 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
functioning
Oman Map
Importance of conserving reptile diversity

Introduction Oman geography and climate

Patterns of terrestrial reptile species

richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
Ecology of Oman reptiles

Terrestrial Reptiles Conservation status of Oman reptiles

Defensive behavior of Naja arabica, Arabian Cobra, Asir Mountains, Saudi Arabia.
Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles of Oman
• Bitis arietans and Pseudocerastes persicus • Naja arabica will expand the sides of the
will hiss loudly by exhalating air through neck if threatened, showing the character- Snake bite first aid
the nostrils, as warning before striking. istic cobra hood.
Distribution maps
• Cerastes g. gasperettii, Echis carinatus • Atractaspis andersonii may try to confuse
sochureki, Echis coloratus, Echis khosatzkii, the attacker with spasmodic movements
Glossary and Echis omanensis will make a warning to direct the attack to the tail.
rasping hiss with the serrated scales on
the flanks of the body.
Selected references
and further reading






Defensive behavior of Atractaspis andersonii, Arabian Small-scaled Burrowing Asp, Wadi Dharbat, Dhofar, Oman.
 49
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 INTRODUCTION

Reptile diversity and systematics

Start
Snake bite first aid
The importance of reptiles for ecosystem
It is very important that the bitten person is transported to a medical facility as functioning
Oman Map quickly as possible. The following guidelines are only essential first-aid procedures.
Importance of conserving reptile diversity
1. Move the victim to safety from the area where people might be bitten again. It
Introduction is important to bear in mind that all venomous snakes are capable of biting and Oman geography and climate
envenomating repeatedly. If possible, take a picture of the snake for identification
or try to remember some characteristics such as size, head shape and coloration. Patterns of terrestrial reptile species
richness in Oman
Key to Oman reptiles
2. It is VERY IMPORTANT to calm down and reassure the victim, who may be
terrified as a result of the snakebite. This step is crucial and is justified as in many Ecology of Oman reptiles
occasions venomous snakes give “dry bites”, in which venom is not injected and
Terrestrial Reptiles therefore they do not produce any medical complications. Even if the victim is Conservation status of Oman reptiles
envenomed, there should be enough time to arrive to the nearest medical facility
in Oman. Medically important venomous snakes
Marine Reptiles of Oman
3. Immediately remove constricting clothing, rings, bracelets, bands, socks, shoes,
etc. from the bitten limb, as in most occasions swelling occurs after the bite. Snake bite first aid
Distribution maps 4. Immobilize the patient, especially the bitten limb, using a sling and try to keep
the bitten limb below the level of the patient’s heart. Muscular contractions
anywhere in the body, but especially in the bitten limb help to spread the venom
Glossary from the site of the bite, thus it is very important that the patient does not move
excessively.
Transport the patient to a medical facility without any further delay.
Selected references
and further reading

IT IS VERY IMPORTANT THAT AFTER A BITE

• DO NOT give the victim any food, water or medication until

reaching a medical facility. If there is a considerable delay before
reaching medical aid (several hours to days) then give clear fluids
by mouth to prevent dehydration.

 • DO NOT use tourniquets, cut, suck, scarify, press or touch the
wound, or apply ice, hot water, chemicals or electric shocks.
 These measures are useless and potentially dangerous.

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