Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly

ISSN: 1084-8959 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/umle18

Teachers' Perceptions of the Importance of an

Adolescent Development Knowledge Base for
Instructional Practice

Sharon E. Paulson, Barbara A. Rothlisberg & Gregory J. Marchant

To cite this article: Sharon E. Paulson, Barbara A. Rothlisberg & Gregory J. Marchant (1998)
Teachers' Perceptions of the Importance of an Adolescent Development Knowledge Base
for Instructional Practice, Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly, 22:2, 25-38, DOI:
10.1080/10848959.1998.11670142

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10848959.1998.11670142

Published online: 16 Feb 2016.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 19792

View related articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=umle20
Teachers' Perceptions of the Importance of
an Adolescent Development Knowledge Base
for Instructional Practice

Sharon E. Paulson
Barbara A. Rothlisberg
Gregory J. Marchant
Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana

Abstract
Development during adolescence poses particular challenges for
students and for the teachers who instruct them. Although teachers may
be aware of the physical, social, and cognitive changes their students
are experiencing, they may be ill-prepared to integrate knowledge of
developmental processes into their instructional practice. To assess
teachers ' perceptions of the importance of general developmental prin-
ciples, their knowledge of such principles, and the influence increasing
knowledge would have on practice, 258 middle and high school teach-
ers responded to a questionnaire. The survey addressed their under-
standing ofadolescent development according to questions representing
content common to a developmental psychology course taught as part
of the teacher preparation sequence. Teachers noted the importance of
developmental concepts dealing with cognitive, diversity, and school
issues but recognized that their knowledge of such concepts was not as
extensive as it could be. Additionally, teachers perceived that their
behaviors would be influenced by their knowledge of developmental
constructs.

25
 Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly • Fall 1998

There should be little question that teachers need a solid grounding

in developmental psychology to be effective educators. Not only must
teachers master subject matter and teaching methodology, but it is
assumed that instruction can only be effective when students are under-
stood in terms of their physical, cognitive, social, and emotional needs
within our chronologically oriented school system (Sigel, 1990).
Teaching would seem to benefit from a teacher's understanding of the
intellectual processes of the learner as well as the social and other envi-
ronmental stressors influencing behavior. Likewise, it would be helpful
for developmental psychologists to know which developmental charac-
teristics teachers consider most important. It is surprising, therefore, that
little information exists in the literature that examines the status of
developmental knowledge in educators, particularly those involved with
youngsters during adolescence, a time when many developmental
changes occur.
A research emphasis in the field of adolescence exploring the
unique developmental needs of middle school students (Eccles et al.,
1993) has demonstrated that middle school teachers must understand
students' developmental characteristics in order to provide appropriate
classroom experiences (Mac Iver & Epstein, 1991 ; Tierno, 1991).
Adolescents undergo a number of significant developmental transitions,
most of which are in the greatest state of flux during early adolescence
(Harnett, 1991 ; Hill, 1980; Montemayor, Adams, & Gullotta, 1990). Not
only do adolescents physically mature, but their cognitive and social
developmental processes are in transition as well. Adolescent develop-
ment is characterized by an increased capacity for abstract thought,
exploration of identity, orientation toward peers, need for autonomy and
self-reliance, concern over dating and sexual relationships, and aware-
ness of individual abilities and achievements (Eccles & Midgley, 1989;
Hill, 1980). Additionally, adolescence is characterized by greater vari-
ability in development than is true during childhood, with adolescents
becoming especially sensitive to issues of gender and ethnic diversity.
Although aware of their students' shifting needs for social and emo-
tional support, teachers may not be prepared to address the specific
developmental needs of these students in transition. Eccles, Lord, and
Midgley ( 1991) pointed out that schools and teachers of early adoles-
cents often make fewer cognitive demands when students actually are
more cognitively capable, emphasize competition at the time when self-

26
 Teachers' Perceptions

focus is heightened, disrupt social networks when peer groups are most
important, decrease decision making at the time when needs for auton-
omy are greatest, and provide less emotional support when concerns
over emotionally-laden issues like dating and sexuality are highest.
Teachers also are likely to use lecture and whole class instruction at a
time when variability in learning needs is particularly important.
Perhaps part of the problem in securing a developmental back-
ground for teachers lies in the rapprochement between researchers' and
educators' views of development. New state and national standards sug-
gest that the principles of development and learning should be the foun-
dation of teacher preparation; however, the research upon which these
courses are based appears removed from the practice of teaching.
KJiebard ( 1993) discussed the difficulty of research to consider the con-
ditions under which teachers function as well as the perspectives of
teachers in practice. Developmental psychologists search for universals
whereas teachers want to know specifically about variables that can be
changed through instruction or are related to students' openness to learn-
ing-motivation, affect, or social setting (Strauss, 1993a). It may not be
clear to teachers how an understanding of general developmental
processes like self-esteem or relations with parents are applicable to
their instruction in the classroom. It is critical to assess teachers' per-
ceptions of how important it is for them to understand general develop-
mental principles thought to be relevant to the teaching of adolescents,
and which teaching practices would be most influenced by their
increased knowledge of adolescent development. This information
could help psychologists bridge the gap between a knowledge of devel-
opmental characteristics to classroom practices.
Another problem in providing teachers with the necessary knowl-
edge base for effective instruction is that what teachers are taught about
development has little impact on preexisting "mental models" they hold
regarding students' development. It has been shown that students in ado-
lescent development courses (Holmbeck & Hill, 1988) and practicing
teachers (Buchanan et al., 1990) hold prior beliefs which are contrary to
research evidence regarding the general development of adolescents.
Specifically, it is commonly believed that adolescence is a difficult time
of development although research has typically refuted this "storm and
stress" myth. Such general models influence teachers' beliefs about spe-
cific behaviors as well, making it difficult for them to learn "new" infor-

27
 Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly • Fall 1998

mation in a developmental psychology course. To affect pedagogy, one

must know how individuals interpret developmental principles within
the framework of their own mental models (Strauss, 1993b). It is imper-
ative before changing the way development is taught to teachers to
determine how they perceive development within the context of learn-
ing and instruction. And in order to effect change in their existing
beliefs, it is necessary to understand what it is that teachers already
know (or think they know) about development.
The purposes of the current study were threefold. First, teachers
were asked to assess which developmental principles taught in a typical
course in adolescent development are important for them to know.
Second, teachers were asked to rate the knowledge level of teachers on
the same developmental principles. Also, teachers' adherence to com-
mon myths about adolescent behaviors was assessed. And third, teach-
ers' were asked to rate the influence that an increased knowledge of ado-
lescent development would have on specific teaching behaviors known
to be critical to the achievement of students. The research has suggest-
ed that the application of developmental principles to teaching practice
is imperative in the education of middle and secondary grade students.
If teachers do not think they are adequately prepared to provide devel-
opmentally appropriate instruction, where does the problem lie?
Perhaps information presented in developmental psychology courses
could not overcome the existing mental models held. Perhaps the rele-
vance of developmental content was not made evident to instructional
practice. Any of these possibilities have ramifications for the content of
developmental coursework and effective integration of developmental
research into teacher preparation programs and practice. The findings of
this study are an essential first step in determining how, when, and
where to make changes in the relation of developmental psychology to
effective teacher preparation.

Method

Participants
A sample of 258 middle and secondary school teachers from five
rural and suburban school districts in the Midwest responded to the sur-
vey. Middle school teachers (grades 5-8) made up 73% of the sample (n
= 188) whereas 27% (n =70) were high school teachers. Teaching expe-

28
 Teachers ' Perceptions

rience (M = 16.18 years, SD = 9.60) ranged from I year (7 teachers) to

56 years (I teacher), with 33% of the teachers having I 0 years or less
experience and 33% having more than 20 years experience (median=
16 years). The teachers' primary instructional areas were representative
of those in the schools. For example, 19% self-identified as
English/Language Arts, 13% as mathematics, and II% as social stud-
ies/history. Other educational areas represented included science, health,
music/band, and special education. About 60% of the teachers had par-
ented an adolescent themselves.

Measures
A questionnaire was developed by a team of researchers that includ-
ed representatives from developmental psychology, educational psy-
chology, school psychology, middle and secondary teaching, and pre-
service teaching. The items were refined through a pilot study of experts
in the fields of developmental, educational, and school psychology who
were involved in pre-service teaching programs (Marchant & Paulson,
1997). The questionnaire was made up of four sections measuring the
following components (see Table I for sample items).
Importance. Teachers were asked to rate 33 adolescent develop-
ment concepts (chosen to represent the content of a typical develop-
mental psychology course required in most teacher preparation pro-
grams) on how important each concept is for middle and secondary
teachers to know. Responses were given on a 5-point Likert-type scale
ranging from not important to very important. Items were categorized
into seven scales representing specific content areas of adolescent devel-
opment: biological development included items about pubertal develop-
ment and its effects of behavior; cognitive development included items
related to characteristics of adolescents' thinking and social cognition;
social development included items about identity development, parent
relationships, and autonomy; friendship included items about the devel-
opment of peer groups, popularity, and the nature of friendships; dating
included items about dating behaviors and sexual development; school
included items about achievement motivation and effects of tracking
and school size; and diversity included items about gender, ethnic, and
social class differences. The make-up of the scales was confirmed using
principal components analysis with varimax rotation. The analysis
revealed five orthogonal factors which verified the item loadings of the

29
 Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly • Fall 1998

Table 1 Sample Items from Importance, Knowledge, and Influence Scales

Importance for Teachers to Know and Perceptions of Teachers ' Knowledge

Biological Development scale (3 items)

Physical changes associated with puberty
Effects of early and late maturation
Effects of changes in hormonal activity

Cognitive Development scale (5 items)

Characteristics of adolescents ' thinking
Variability in cognitive development
Changes in perspective taking

Social Development scale (7 items)

Differences in parenting methods
Stages of identity development
Development of independence

Friendship scale (4 items)

Changes in cliques and friendship groups
Factors related to popularity
Changes in the nature of friendships

Dating scale (4 items)

Development of sexual behaviors
Influences on sexual behavior
Issues of dating

School scale (7 items)

Changes in achievement motivation
Effects of academic tracking
Effects of different grade configuration

Diversity scale (4 items)

Gender differences in adolescent development
Cultural/ethnic differences
Impact of social class

Influence on Teachers' Behaviors

Student Communication scale (4 items)

Informal communication with students
Interaction with students in the classroom
Discipline practices in the classroom

Assignments scale (4 items)

Types of assignments given
Difficulty of tasks and assignments
Amount of homework assigned

Teacher Effectiveness scale (3 items)

Teacher sense of effectiveness
Evaluation practices
Expectations of individual performance

Lesson Planning scale (3 items)

Long-term lesson planning
Choice of teaching methods
Grouping of students for class activities

30
 Teachers' Perceptions

biological, cognitive, school, and diversity scales. Although the social,

friendship, and dating items loaded on the same factor, separate scales
were created for the purpose of assessing teachers' perspectives of more
specific developmental concepts. Scaled scores were computed as the
means of the defining items.
Knowledge. Teachers were asked to rate the same 33 adolescent
development concepts on how knowledgeable they believed middle and
secondary teachers to be about each concept. Responses were given on
a 5-point scale ranging from not knowledgeable to very knowledgeable.
The same seven categories were used to group the knowledge items.
Difference scores between teachers' perceptions of the importance of
each concept and their perceptions of teachers' knowledge of the con-
cepts were computed for each item. A negative difference score meant
that teachers' rating of the topic's importance was greater than their rat-
ing of teachers' knowledge about the topic.
Influence. Teachers were asked to rate 14 teaching behaviors on
how much they believed middle and secondary teachers' behavior
would be influenced by an increased knowledge of adolescent develop-
ment. Responses to each behavior ranged from no influence to very
much influence on a 5-point scale. Four subscales were created and con-
firmed using principle components analysis: student communication
included items about interactions with students and discipline practices;
assignments included items about the types of class and homework
assignments given; teacher effectiveness included items about teacher
efficacy and student evaluation practices; and lesson planning included
items about teaching methods and student grouping practices.
Myths. Participating teachers' knowledge of adolescent develop-
ment was assessed through a rating of common myths. The myths were
written as statements and participants responded to each item as com-
pletely false, more false than true, don't know, more true than false, com-
pletely true.
Myth statements included items like "The adolescent experience is
different for boys than girls" (diversity), "Tracking has a positive influ-
ence on the achievement of most students" (school), and "Most adoles-
cents feel emotionally close to their parents" (social). Credit was given
for each item to which the response was correctly assessed at either the
true or false end of the continuum. No credit was given for a response
of don't know.

31
 Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly • Fall 1998

Procedures
School districts were asked for permission to distribute the ques-
tionnaire to random samples of teachers and staff in middle and high
school buildings. Questionnaires were then distributed to districts who
gave approval with the proviso that materials would be returned to a
specified teacher, building administrator, or pick-up point in approxi-
mately one week after dissemination. Surveys took about 15 to 20 min-
utes to complete.

Results

To determine which aspects of adolescent development teachers

thought were most important to know, a multivariate analysis of vari-
ance (MANOVA) assessed the within subject differences among the
seven importance scales (biology, cognitive, social, friendship, dating,
school, and diversity). Results revealed that teachers perceived signifi-
cant differences among the different aspects of adolescent development
in their importance for teachers (F = 16.52, p < .00 I). Post hoc com-
parisons of the means of the seven scales revealed that teachers per-
ceived cognitive and biological concepts to be most important for them
to know, followed by social and diversity concepts (see Table 2 and
Figure I). Friendship, school, and dating concepts were perceived to be
least important. (It should be noted that initial analyses had revealed no
significant differences between middle and secondary teachers on their
perceptions of any of the factors, therefore only the combined sample
was used in all of the analyses in order to maintain greater statistical
power.)
The aspects of adolescent development of which teachers thought
their colleagues were most knowledgeable also were determined by a
multivariate analysis using the seven comparable knowledge scales.
Teachers perceived significant differences among teachers ' knowledge
of the seven areas of development (F = 13.80, p < .00 I). Post hoc com-
parisons showed that teachers were perceived to be most knowledgeable
about biological and friendship concepts, followed by social, cognitive,
and dating concepts and least knowledgeable about diversity and school
concepts (see Table 2 and Figure I).
Associated with the previous findings is the idea of the perceived
difference between what teachers view as important and what they think

32
 Teachers ' Perceptions

Significant Differences Among Teachers' Perceptions of Importance Table 2

and Knowledge of Adolescent Development Concepts

Development Importance for Development Perception of

Concept Teachers to Know Concept Teachers Knowledge

Cognitive 4.19a (.641 Biology 3.78a (.77)

Biology 4.15a,b (.791 Friendship 3.71a (.801

Social 4.10b,c (.64) Social 3.62b (.68)

Diversity 4.04c (.741 Cognitive 3.59b (.731

Friendship 3.92d (.80) Dating 3.55b,c (.84)

School 3.92d (.73) Diversity 3.51c.d (.79)

Dating 387d (.86) School 3.45d (.731

Development Difference
Concept (knowledge-importance)

Cognitive -.60a (.92)

Diversity - 53a ,b (1 03)

Social ·.48b.c (.87)

School -.46b,c (.971

Biology -.37c.d (.991

Dating - 32d (1 .09)

Friendship -.22e (.941

Note: N=258. Significant differences within each analysis are represented by subscripts. Within
each column , means carrying the same subscript are not significantly different. Scores for
Importance and Knowledge ranged from 1 (not important, not knowledgeable) to 5 (very impor-
tant, very knowledgeable).

teachers know about development. A MANOVA revealed significant

differences among the "difference" scores (knowledge- importance) of
each scale (F =11.1 0, p < .001; see Table 2). The greatest difference was
found between teachers' perceived knowledge about cognitive concepts
and the importance for them to know about these concepts. Although
teachers perceived cognitive development to be most important to
know, they reported that teachers had only moderate levels of knowl-
edge about cognitive development. A similarly large difference was

33
 Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly • Fall 1998

Figure 1
Means of Teachers' Perceptions of Importance and Knowledge of Adolescent
Development Concepts

4 .2 '

4 .1

3.9
• Importance
3.8
• Knowledge
3.7
I
3.6
I
3.5

3.4 •
Q) > m ~ c. 0 01
:.c:::>e :.c
01 ·u 0 c:::
0
0
iii <J) .<:: ·~
0 (/) Q; TI u
01 c:ii > c::: (/) 0
0 Q)
u i5
~

found between knowledge about diversity concepts and the importance

of teachers to know about diversity. In this case, diversity was perceived
to be moderately important to know, but teachers were perceived as
knowing less about those concepts than others. Smaller differences were
found on the social, school, biology, and dating scales showing a closer
correspondence between teachers' perceptions of the importance of the
concept and teachers' knowledge of the concept. Specifically, both
importance and knowledge of biological concepts were perceived as
higher than other concepts, both importance and knowledge of social
concepts were perceived as moderate, and both importance and knowl-
edge of school and dating concepts were perceived as lower than other
concepts. The smallest difference existed between the perceived impor-
tance and perceived knowledge of friendship concepts. This difference
reflects that although teachers perceived friendship concepts as less
important to know, they perceived teachers to have higher knowledge of
these concepts than of other concepts.
The influence of developmental concepts on teaching practice was
the third major component to be addressed by the study. A MANOVA
of the influence scales (student communication, assignments, teacher
effectiveness, and lesson planning) revealed a significant difference
among the teacher behaviors that would be influenced by an increased
knowledge of adolescent development (F = 23.85 , p < .001). Post hoc

34
 Teachers' Perceptions

Significant Differences Among Teachers' Perceptions of Behavior that Would be Table 3

Influenced by Knowledge of Development Concepts
Teacher Behavior Influenced by Knowledge

Student Communication 4.20a 161)

Teacher Effectiveness 4.09b 172)
Lesson Planning 398c 172)
Assignments Given 3.85d (75)

Note: N=258. Significant differences are represented by subscripts; means carrying the same
subscript are not significantly different. Scores ranged from 1 (no influence) to 5 (very much
influence).

analyses showed that student communication would be most influenced,

followed by teacher effectiveness and lesson planning. Assignments
given would be least influenced (see Table 3).
Furthermore, multiple regression analyses revealed that teachers'
perceptions of the importance of having knowledge about the seven
developmental content areas significantly predicted their perceptions of
the influence such knowledge would have on each of the four areas of
teaching. Specifically, teachers' perceptions of the importance of the
developmental concepts predicted 20% of the variance in their percep-
tions of the influence such knowledge would have on student commu-
nication (R = .44, p < .00 I), 24% of the variance in their perceptions of
the influence on assignments given to students (R = .49, p < .00 I), 23%
of the variance in their perceptions of the influence on teacher effec-
tiveness (R =.48, p < .00 I), and 25% of the variance in their perceptions
of the influence on long-term lesson planning (R = .50, p < .00 I).
Finally, in terms of the myths held by teachers regarding adolescent
behavior, teachers were most knowledgeable about the items related to
diversity (correct responses were given by more than 90% of the teach-
ers), moderately knowledgeable about school items (correct responses
were given by about 50% of the teachers on each item), and least knowl-
edgeable about social relationships, especially those involving parents
(correct responses were given by less than 20% of the teachers on each
item). In general, teachers adhered to common myths about adolescent
development. There were no significant correlations between percep-
tions of teachers' knowledge in each area and their responses to the
myth items. It is important to note that the myth items were not repre-
sentative of a solid knowledge base in each area, but assessed only com-
monly held (but erroneous) beliefs about adolescent behavior.

35
 Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly • Fall 1998

Discussion

Research has established the importance knowledge of adolescent

development has for the instructional practice of middle and high school
teachers. Sensitivity of teachers to the changing cognitive and emotion-
al needs of adolescents in school is seen as a critical factor for student
success. Yet, despite the arguments of developmental researchers to use
this knowledge base to improve the educational environment in the
nation's middle and high schools, little has been done to investigate the
attitudes teachers hold about the relation of developmental knowledge
to daily practice. This study was designed to begin the process and pro-
vide insight into the perceptions of teachers regarding developmental
concepts.
For the survey, teachers reported their perceptions of the importance
of certain concepts for teachers to know as well as teachers' knowledge
in the same areas. Not unexpectedly, biological concepts about adoles-
cence were noted as both important and an area in which teachers were
perceived to be knowledgeable. However, the relative status teachers
gave to other concepts such as those addressing cognitive growth, diver-
sity, or school issues was striking. Cognitive concepts were reported by
these teachers as having the greatest importance for teachers to know,
yet these same concepts were not viewed as an integral part of the teach-
ers' perceived knowledge base. Similarly, diversity and school concepts
were seen as relatively important, but also as areas where teacher
knowledge was not as well developed.
Possibly, the recognition of the relative importance and relative
knowledge teachers' possess speaks to the need for improving the devel-
opmental training of teachers so that they are more aware of the partic-
ular needs of their students. Teachers recognized that behaviors in areas
such as student communication and teacher effectiveness would be
influenced by improved knowledge about adolescence. Certainly, this
finding supports the argument of Eccles et al. ( 1991 ), that states that
schools and teachers often are not as aware of the needs of adolescents
as they should be to maximize student achievement. Awareness of the
differences in cognitive performance and importance of social and emo-
tional support to students could vastly improve the classroom environ-
ment and instructional effectiveness. Teachers appeared to recognize the
disparity between importance and knowledge but they may not know

36
 Teachers ' Perceptions

effectively how to improve the situation. Indeed, some types of knowl-

edge may be seen as beyond teachers' sphere of influence and therefore
relatively unimportant For example, school concepts addressing moti-
vation, tracking, or different grade configurations within the school
might be seen as areas beyond the teachers' obvious control and there-
fore less likely to affect day to day experiences. As Strauss ( 1993a) stat-
ed, teachers may be more receptive to developmental concepts for
which they see direct application and less likely to consider those ele-
ments they perceive as abstract or global.
One additional issue of note is related to the presence of myths
about adolescents in the sample. These teachers were on the whole very
experienced (72% having 10 or more years experience), yet the pres-
ence of erroneous beliefs seemed to suggest that teachers' experience in
schools surrounded by adolescents did not prove to be an effective
method of correcting all myths. This result speaks to the strength of
some beliefs that run counter to general developmental knowledge (see
Holmbeck & Hill, 1988; Buchanan et al., 1990) and to the "mental mod-
els" that teachers may have about their students. Although this study
does not provide a clear method of countering the mythology of adoles-
cence, it does imply that belief systems in place must be challenged.
Perhaps a logical extension of this research would be to assess the
knowledge and opinions of preservice teaching students in a develop-
ment class and follow-up with a survey of their knowledge once they
begin work. This could help determine how to make the knowledge base
of development more applicable to the practicing teacher.
Attention to developmental issues is important because teachers
believed that knowledge of adolescent development would influence
their teaching practices. It is important to know that teachers recognize
the links between their knowledge about their students and effective
practices in the classroom. Emphasis must continue to be placed on
including development and learning as the foundation of teacher educa-
tion and teaching.

37
 Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly • Fall 1998

References
Buchanan. C. M., Eccles, J. S., Flanagan, C., Midgley, C., Feldlaufer, H., & Harold, R.
D. ( 1990). Parents' and teachers' beliefs about adolescents: Effects of sex and expe-
rience. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 363-394.
Eccles, J. S., & Midgley, C. (1989). Stage/environment tit: Developmentally appropri-
ate classrooms for early adolescents. In R. E. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research
on motivation in education (Vol., 3, pp. 139-186). New York: Academic Press.
Eccles, J. S., Lord, S .. & Midgley, C. ( 1991 ). What are we doing to early adolescents?
The impact of educational contexts on early adolescents. American Journal of
Education. 99. 521-542.
Eccles, J. S. , Midgley, C. , Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C.M .. Reuman, D., Flanagan, C. , &
Mac Iver, D. ( 1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-envi-
ronment fit on young adolescents' experiences in schools and in families.
American Psychologist, 48, 90-10 I.
Harnett, A. M. ( 199 I). Preparation of middle school teachers. (Report No. EDO-SP-90-
1) Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 335 356).
Hill, J. P. (I 980). Understanding early adolescence: A framework. Carrboro, NC: Center
for Early Adolescence.
Holmbeck, G. N., & Hill, J. P. (1988). Storm and stress beliefs about adolescence:
Prevalence, self-reported antecedents, and effects of an undergraduate course.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17, 285-306.
Kliebard, H. M. ( 1993). What is a knowledge base and who would use it if we had one?
Review of Educational Research, 63, 295-303.
Mac Iver, D. J., & Epstein, J. L. ( 1991 ). Responsive practices in middle grades: Teacher
teams, advisory groups, remedial instruction, and school transition programs.
American Journal of Education, 99, 587-622.
Marchant, G. J., & Paulson. S. E. ( 1997, October). Researchers· perspectives on what
teachers know and should know about adolescent development. Paper presented at
the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, Chicago. IL.
Montemayor, R. , Adams, G. R., & Gullotta, T. P. ( 1990). From childhood to adoles-
cence: A transitional period? Advances in adolescent development. Vol. 2.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Sigel, I. E. (I 990). What teachers need to know about development. In D. D. Dill (Ed.),
What teachers need to know: The knowledge, skills, and values essential to good
teaching (pp. 76-93). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Strauss, S. ( 1993a). Theories of learning and development fur academics and educators.
Educational Psychologist. 28. 191-203.
Strauss, S. ( 1993b). Teachers' pedagogical content knowledge about children's minds
and learning: Implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist. 28.
279-290.
Tierno, M. J. (1991). Responding to the socially motivated behaviors of early adoles-
cents: Recommendations for classroom management. Adolescence. 26. 569-577.

38