CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Definitions
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids behaviour under the
influence of forces. The study can be put under two major topics i.e.
fluid static’s and fluid dynamics. Fluid static’s deals with forces that
keep fluids in static equilibrium while fluid dynamics deals with the
motion of fluid and the forces that keep them in motion.
Matter exists as solids, liquids and gases and can be converted
from one form to another by changing its temperature and pressure. A
solid can become liquid when melted while liquid can also become gas
when evaporated. The closeness of particles is important in
differentiating between fluid and solid i.e. the mean distance between
two adjacent molecules varies in different forms of matter and the mean
distance between two adjacent molecules is smallest in solids and
largest in gases.
A fluid is a substance that may flow i.e. its constituent particles
may change their positions relative to one another. Examples of fluids
are liquids and gases. The major difference between fluids and solids is
that a solid does not flow no matter how plastic it is, unless the net shear
force exceeds a certain value while any fluid no matter how thick or
viscous begins to flow under the slightest net shear force.

1
Preamble: 1.2
Matter is anything, such as a solid, liquid or gas that has weight (mass)
and occupies space. For anything to occupy space, it must have volume.
Thinking about it, everything on earth has weight and takes up space,
and that means everything on earth is matter including you. Mass is the
quantity of matter in a body regardless of its volume or of forces acting
on it.
Mass is always constant at any place and at any time. Mass is expressed
in kilogram (kg), grams (g), and milligram (mg). Weight is a measure
of the gravitational force acting on object. The weight of an object is its
mass times the acceleration due to gravity. Weight is expressed in
Newton (N). A solid is a state of matter that has a definite shape and
volume while a liquid is a state of matter that has volume but no
definite shape. 2. A liquid takes the shape of the container that holds it
while a solid has a shape of its own. Solids are strong, tough, elastic,
ductile, and flexible while liquids are not.
Force is a physical cause (pull or push) that can change the state of
motion or the dimensions of an object. Tensile force is the stretching
forces acting on the material and has two components namely, tensile
stress and tensile strain. Compressive force is a force which presses
inward on an object, causing it to become compacted. Shear forces are
forces pushing one part of a body in one specific direction that is
parallel to the upper plane of the body.

2
Simply put a fluid is any matter that can flow e.g. water, oil, milk juice,
oxygen, CNG gas. They can flow easily. FLUID is a substance in the
liquid or gas phase
MECHANICS is a branch of physical science that deals with behavior
of stationary and moving bodies when subjected to forces.
What is Fluid Mechanics?
FLUID MECHANICS is the branch of physical science that deals with
behavior of fluid at rest or in motion. It is divided into 2 broad
categories depending on whether the fluid under consideration is at rest
or motion.
FLUID STATICS - Fluid at rest FLUID DYNAMICS –
Fluid in motion
Fluid mechanics helps us understand the behavior of fluid under
various forces and at different atmospheric conditions, and to select the
proper fluid for various applications. This field is studied in different
disciplines of Engineering. Engineering applications is enormous:
breathing, blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes,
ships, rivers, windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs, engines, filters, jets,
and sprinklers, to name a few. When you think about it, almost
everything on this planet either is a fluid or moves within or near a fluid.
Differences between Solid and Fluid
The technical distinction between solid and fluid lies with the reaction
of the two to an applied shear or tangential stress. A solid can resist a
shear stress by a static deformation; a fluid cannot. Any shear stress

3
applied to a fluid, no matter how small, will result in motion of that
fluid. The fluid moves and deforms continuously as long as the shear
stress is applied.
As an illustration, if we have 2 plates, an upper and a lower plate and a
solid matter e.g rubber is tightly held between the 2 plates. If a force F is
applied the rubber will start deforming and acquire a new shape. The
magnitude of deformation can be measured by an angle β(beta). When
the force is removed, the rubber will partially or fully regain its original
shape. The applied force is known as Shear force because its line of
action is parallel to the upper plane of the rubber. The angle of
deformation is directly proportional to the amount of force applied at
the upper plate. The more the magnitude of the force the more the
deformation. Solid can resist shear force under static condition.
However, a fluid is a substance that continuously deforms under the
action of a shear force however small the force may be. Fluid cannot
resist shear force under static condition. Solid do not keep on
deforming under the action of a shear force. Fluid do keep on
deforming continuously under the action of shear force. Solid can
regain its original shape fully or partially when the shear force is
removed. Fluid can never regain its original shape when the shear
force is removed.

4
1.2.1 Continuum
Continuum concept is a way of looking at matter as consisting of
continuously distributed particles at any given point i.e. the concept
assumes that there is a continuous distribution of matter without a void.
The properties of a fluid, although molecular in origin may be
accurately accounted for in their overall effect by going to the
continuum attributes such as temperature, thermal conductivity,
pressure, viscosity etc. Quantities such as velocity, acceleration and the
properties of fluid are assumed to vary continuously or remain constant
from point to another in the fluid.
1.2 Nature and Types of Fluids
There are two types of fluid namely:
(a) Ideal fluid
(b) Real or Non-Ideal fluid.
The ideal fluid is that which does not exhibit viscous properties,
cannot sustain frictional and shear stresses and cannot dissipate
mechanical energy into heat. On the other hand, the real fluid possesses
viscous properties, sustains friction and shear stresses and dissipates
mechanical energy into heat. For mathematical ease in describing flow
in which the influence of viscosity is small, a hypothetical fluid having
zero viscosity may be postulated i.e. a fluid whose viscosity is zero is
called an ideal fluid.
In reality this does not exist, but it is convenient to treat fluid with
very low viscosity as non viscous.

5
1.3 Classification of Actual Fluids
When a fluid is sheared, the shearing stress  varies with the rate of
shearing du/dy. If the variation is linear and the plot of  as ordinate
against du/dy as abscissa passes through the origin, the fluid is
Newtonian. Other fluids that do not behave in this manner are called
non-Newtonians e.g. pseudo-plastics. The ideal fluid on the other hand
is non viscous and hence cannot resist flow or deformation.
All fluids shown in fig 1.1 are time independent because their
viscosities are dependent only on the rate of shearing and not the
duration of shearing.
1. Plastics
Shear stress in plastic must reach a certain value before flow can
start. After this, shear stress increases with the rate of shear according to
the relation.
n
 du 
       ………………………………… 1.1
 dy 
Where A, B and n are constants and n = 1 for Bingham plastic (e.g.
sewage sludge).
2. Pseudo - Plastics
Dynamic viscosity decrease as the rate of shear increases in
pseudo-plastics (e.g. clay, milk, cement).
3. Dilatant
Dynamic viscosity increase as the rate of shear increases in
dilatant (e.g. concentrated sugar solution in water)

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 Fig 1.1: Variation of Shear Stress with Velocity gradient

1.4 Fluid Properties

1.4.1 Density
The density of a fluid at any given temperature and pressure can be
defined in two ways, in terms of mass and weight. The mass density is
defined as mass per unit volume while specific weight is defined as
weight per unit volume. The value of density can vary widely between
different fluids, but for liquids, variations in pressure and temperature
generally have only a small effect on the value of  Using the symbols
 and W for density and specific weight respectively, the expressions
are
m
 ……………………………………………….. 1.2
v
And
mg
W …………………………………………….. 1.3
v
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 W  g ……………………………………………….. 1.4
The unit for  is kg/m3 while that of W is N/m3 and by deduction
from the unit of W, one can say that  also has the unit of Ns2/m4
Relative density can be classified under density, because it is the
ratio of the density of the substance, to some standard density. The
standard density is the density of water i.e.
Density of substance
Relative density of a substance 
density of water
subs
i.e. subs  ……………………………………………….. 1.5
 water
Relative density is therefore without unit.

Specific gravity is the ratio of specific weight or density of the liquid to

the specific weight or density of the fluid (usually water) at specified
temperature. It is dimensionless and has no unit.

Example 1.1: Calculate the specific weight, specific mass, specific

volume and specific gravity of a liquid having a volume of 6m3 and
weight of 44KN.
Solution
Volume of the liquid = 6 m3
Weight of the liquid = 44KN
weight of liquid 44
Specific weight, w   w = 7.333kN/m3
Volume of liquid 6

8
 w 7.333 x1000
Specific mass or mass density,   ,   747.5kg / m
g 9.81
Specific volume,
Volume of fluid V 1 1 3 1 3
v   = m m
3 3

Mass of fluid m  747.5 kg 747.5 kg

Specific weight of liquid Wliquid

Specific gravity = 
Specific weight of pure water Wwater

= 7.333kN/m3
9.80kN/m3
1.4.2 Pressure
A fluid always has pressure. As a result of molecular collisions
any part of the fluid might experience force exerted on it by the
surrounding fluid or by the solid boundaries containing it. Pressure is
force per unit area having units N/m2 or kg/ms2, is given as
F
P ……………………………………………….. 1.6
A
Fluid pressure cannot be measured directly. All instruments said
to measure it only indicate a difference of pressure and the difference is
usually that between the pressure of the fluid under consideration and
the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere. The pressure of the
atmosphere is therefore commonly used as the reference or datum
pressure which is the arbitrary starting point of the scale of
measurement. The difference in pressure recorded by the measuring
instrument is termed gauge pressure while absolute pressure is the

9
pressure considered relative to that of a perfect vacuum. Absolute
pressure is given in the relation below.
Pabs  Pguage  Patm …………………………………….. 1.7

Note:
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge
pressure is positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and
negative for pressures below it. In most cases the absolute pressure in
fluids cannot be negative.

1.4.3 Properties of the Perfect Gas

No actual gas is perfect but the assumed properties of a perfect gas are
closely matched by actual gases. The molecules of a perfect gas would
likely behave like tiny perfectly elastic sphere in random motion and
would influence each other only when they collide. Their total volume
would be negligible in comparison with the space in which they move.
Gases are highly compressible in comparison to liquids, with
changes in gas density directly related to changes in pressure and
temperature. From these hypotheses, kinetic theory of gases indicates
that for equilibrium conditions, the absolute pressure P, the volume V
occupied by mass m and having an absolute temperature T can be
related by the expression.
PV = mRT ………………………………………… 1.8a
if m = nM, PV = nMRT …………………………………………. 1.8b
and P= ρRT ……………………………………… ….. 1.9
or ρ = P/RT (Ideal gas law)
10
 Where n is the number of molecules, M is the molecular weight,
 is the density of the fluid and R is the gas constant.
According to Avogadro’s law, equal volumes of gases at the
same absolute temperature and pressure contain the same number of
molecules. Hence the product MR in equation (1.8b) must be the same
for two different gases of equal volume which are at the same
temperature and pressure. The product MR is called the universal gas
constant which has value of 8.312 kJ/kgmol k. for any gas, constant can
easily be calculated when the molecular weight of the gas is known.

Example 1.2: The pressure and temperature of carbon-dioxide in a

vessel are 600 kN/m2 abs and 30OC respectively. Find its mass density,
specific weight and specific volume.
Solution
Pressure of CO2 = 600 kN/m2 abs
Temperature of CO2 = 30 + 273 = 303k
Molecular weight of CO2, M = 12 + 2(16) = 44
Universal gas constant, RO = 8314.3 Nm/mole K
R0
 Characteristic gas constant, R 
M ;

8314 .3
R  189 Nm / kgK
44
(i) Mass density,ρ:

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 m P 600 x103
We know, PV =mRT   ,  10.14kg / m3
V RT 189 x313
(ii) foolscap sheet Specific weight,
w  g  10.14  9.81  99.47 N / m3
1
(iii) Specific volume, v  1   0.0986 m3 / kg
 10.14

Example 1.3: Calculate the density of air when the absolute pressure
and temperature are 140KN and 500C.
Solution PV =mRT, If R = 0.287KJ/kgk
P 140
 ,   1.51kg / m 3
RT .287 x323

1.4.4 Viscosity
All real fluids resist any force tending to cause one layer to move over
another and the resistance is offered only when the movement is taking
place such that when the external force is removed, the flow subsides
because of the resisting forces. However, when the flow stops the
particles of fluid stay in position they have reached and have no
tendency to revert to their original positions. This resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent one is called viscosity
of the fluid i.e. viscosity is a measure of fluids resistance to flow as a
result of the cohesive forces of its particles. Viscosity is the property of
a liquid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses.

12
 Fig 1.2 shearing in a fluid
Fig 1.2 shows fluids flowing over a solid boundary. As a result
of the tendency of the fluid particles to cling to the surface of the solid,
the particles closest to the boundary are brought to rest such that the
fluid velocity increases gradually from zero from the wall to the free
stream velocity Uo far from the wall as shown in fig 1.2. Suppose the
velocity U varies with distance y, the velocity gradient, which is the
rate at which velocity changes with the distance across the flow is
given by du/dy and by du/dy if the limit dy tends to zero. The partial
derivative du/dy is generally used because velocity also varies in other
directions.
Consider two adjacent layers of a fluid AA and BB as show in
fig. 1.3.

Fig 1.3 Adjacent layers in a fluid

13
AA supposedly the faster of the two, tends to draw BB along with it by
means of a force F. Simultaneously BB tends to retard the faster AA by
an equal and opposite force according to Newton’s 3rd law of motion. If
the force F acts over an area A, we note that to resist the applied force,
F, a shearing stress, would be developed at the plate–material interface,
and for equilibrium to occur, F = A, such that the stress  is given by
F/A where A is the effective upper plate area.
There is a postulate by Newton that says that for the straight and
parallel motion of a given fluid, tangential stress between two adjacent
layers is proportional to the velocity gradient in a direction
perpendicular to the layers.
F du
i.e.   ……………………………………. 1.10
A dy
du
or   …………………… ………………. 1.11a
dy

where  is a constant for a particular fluid at a particular temperature

and is known as the coefficient of viscosity. Viscosity  is a property of
the fluid and a scalar quantity. Equation (1.11a) is the general form of
the momentum transport equation between layers of a flowing fluid in
which the origin of the coordinate which is perpendicular to the
direction of flow is chosen such that the velocity increase as y increases.
If the origin is chosen such that the velocity decreases as y increases, the
equation is modified to

14
 du
   ……………………………………………. 1.11b
dy

The units of  are Ns/m2 or kg/ms. sometimes, kinematic

viscosity is used in place of dynamic viscosity and these can be related
with following expression

v ………………………………. ………………. 1.12

where v is the kinematic viscosity,  is the dynamic viscosity and  is
the density. The unit of v is m2/s
Viscosity varies from fluid to fluid and how for a given fluid it
varies with temperature (fig. 1.4). Viscosity of liquids decreases with an
increase in temperature, whereas for gases an increase in temperature
causes an increase in viscosity. This difference in the effect of
temperature on the viscosity of liquids and gases can again be traced
back to the difference in molecular structure. There are different causes
of viscosity, one of which is the cohesive force of the fluid and that
migration of molecules causes forces of acceleration of deceleration in
such directions as to oppose the difference of velocity between the
layers. The liquid molecules are closely spaced, with strong cohesive
forces between molecules, and the resistance to relative motion between
adjacent layers of fluid is related to these intermolecular forces.

15
Fig 1.4 Dynamic (absolute) viscosity of some common fluids as a function of temperature

Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress () on a fluid
element layer is proportional to co-efficient of viscosity.
du
Mathematically,    where  = co-efficient of dynamic
dy ,

du
viscosity and = rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient
dy
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and
density of fluid. It is denoted as v (nu)
Classification of fluids based on viscosity
(1) Newtonian Fluid: is a fluid in which the viscous shear stress is
linearly proportional to the rate of shear strain. Water and oil are
common examples of Newtonian fluids. All Newtonian fluids
obey newtons law of viscosity.

16
 (2) Dilatant fluid: fluid in which the relationship between shear
stress and rate of shear strain is not linear and does not obey
newtons law of viscosity. It is also known as Non-newtonian
fluid. Viscosity is not as constant as in the case of Newtonian
fluids and it varies continuously with the rate of shear strain. The
relationship can be represented by the power law model.

Ʈ = k (du/dy)n where ; K= consistency index n= flow behavior

index
A dilatants fluid is one whose viscosity increase with the rate of
shear strain. It is also referred to as shear thickening fluid e.g
sugar solution.
3. Psedoplastic: example of non-Newtonian fluid. Relationship
between shear stress and rate of shear strain is not linear. It is
opposite to Dilatant fluid. Its viscosity decreases with the rate of
shear strain. It is also known as shear thinning fluid e,g blood,
milk, paint
4. Bingham plastic-fluid which resist or sustain certain shear
stress without significant deformation and does behave as a solid
but deforms continuously when the shear stress exceeds the yield
stress and thus behave as a fluid e.g toothpaste. Tooth paste will
not flow out until the shear stress exceeds certain final threshold
stress.
5. Ideal fluid: is a hypothetical flow having zero viscosity. It can
flow even when no shear stress is applied. It doesn’t actually
17
 exist in nature. The concept is used to achieve considerable
simplification in theoretical analysis of fluid motion where
viscous effect is negligible.

Fig. 1.5 Variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain for several
types of fluids, including common non-Newtonian fluids.

Example 1.4: A plate 0.05mm distant from a fixed plate moves at

1.2m/s and requires a force of 2.2N/m2 to maintain this speed. Find the
viscosity of the fluid between the plates.
Solution
Velocity of the moving plate, u = 1.2m/s,
Distance between the plates, dy = 0.05mm = 0.05 x 10-3m,
Force on the moving plate, F = 2.2N/m2
du
Viscosity of the fluid, µ: we know,   
dy

where  = shear stress or force per unit area = 2.2 N/m2

du = change of velocity = u – 0 = 1.2m/s and dy = change of distance =
0.05 x 10-3m

18
 12 2.2 x 0.05 x 10-3
2.2  μ x -3
μ   9.16 x10 5 N .s / m2
0.05 x 10 , 12

 1 N .S  4
1 poise  10 m 2   μ  9.16x10 poise
 

Example 1.5: A plate having an area of 0.6m2 is sliding down the

inclined plane 30O to the horizontal with a velocity of 0.36m/s. There is
a cushion of fluid 1.8mm thickness between the plate and the plane.
Find the viscosity of the fluid if the weight of the plate is 280 N.
Solution
Area of the plate, a = 0.6 m2, Weight of the plate W = 280N, Velocity of
the plate, u = 0.36m/s
Thickness of the film, t = dy = 1.8mm, Viscosity of the fluid, µ
Component of W along the plane = W sin  = 280 Sin 30O = 140N
Shear force on the bottom surface of the plate, F = 140 N and shear
stress,
F 140
   233.33 N / m 2
A 0.6
du
we know   
dy
where du = change of velocity = u -0 = 0.36m/s, dy = t = 1.8 x 10-3m
0.36
 233.33   x
1.8 x 10 -3 ,

233.33 x 1.8 x 10 -3
   1.166N.S/m 2
0.36
19
   11.66 poise

Example 1.6: The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled
with oil. Each side of the plate is 720 mm. The thickness of the oil film
is 15mm. The upper plate, which moves at 3 m/s requires a force of
120N to maintain the speed. Determine:
(a) The dynamic viscosity of the oil.
(b) The kinematic viscosity of oil if the specific gravity of oil is
0.95.
Solution
Each side of a square plate = 720 mm = 0.72m, The thickness of the oil,
dy = 15mm = 0.015m
Velocity of the upper plate, u = 3 m/s, Change of velocity between
plates, du = 3 – 0 = 3m/s
Force required on upper plate, F = 120N
force 120
 Shear stress,     231 .5 N / m 2
area 0.72 x 0.72
(i) Dynamic viscosity µ; we know that
du 3
  , 231.5   x
dy 0.015 ,

231.5 x 0.015
  1.16 N .s / m 2
3
(ii) Kinematic viscosity
Weight density of oil, W = 0.95 X 9.81 kN/m2 = 9.32 kN/m2 or
9320 N/m2
20
 w 9320
Mass density of oil,     950 kg / m3
g 9.81

 1.16
Using the relation:    =0.0122m2/s
 950
Example 1.7: A sleeve is to be removed from a shaft by applying a
linear force to one end of the shaft which is 100mm and the
clearance between the shaft and the sleeve is 0.2mm. The width of
the shaft is 75mm and the speed of the shaft is 0.1m/s. Determine
the magnitude of the applied force if the liquid viscosity is 0.5
NS/m2
F u Au
  , F 
A y y
.2rlu .5 x 2 x 22 x .05 x .075 x .1
A  2rl , F  , 
y 7 x.0002
2 x 22 x 25 x .075 x .1
F = 5.89N
14

Exam Example 1.8: The velocity distribution for flow over a plate is
given by u = 2y – y2, where u is the velocity in m/s at a distance y
metres above the plate. Determine the velocity gradient and shear stress
at the boundary and 0.15 m from it. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as
0.9 Ns/m2
Solution

21
 du du
U = 2y – y2 (given) ,  2  2 y (i) Velocity gradient,
dy , dy ,

At the boundary: At y = 0, = 2.0 s

At 0.15m from the boundary: i.e. y = 0.15 m,

 du 
   2 - 20.15  1.7 s 1
 dy  y 0.15m

(ii) Shear stress, 

  y 0    du 
  0.9 x2  1.8 N/m 2 and
 dy  y 0

 du 
  y 0.15m      0.9 x1.7  1.53 N/m 2
 dy  y 15

where   0.9 N.s/m ... given  .

1.4.5 Compressibility
Solids can be stretched or compressed and they will return to
their original shapes as long as the yield stress or elastic limit is not
reached. Fluid cannot be handled in the same way as solid but the
volume of a given mass of fluid can be changed by increasing or
decreasing the pressure on it. If a fluid is a gas, its volume can be
changed with change in its temperature. For practical purposes, liquids
are regarded as incompressible though when subjected to large pressure,

22
the compressibility cannot be ignored. If a liquid of volume V is
subjected to a sudden increase in pressure, dp with a corresponding
decrease in volume dV. The compressibility of liquid is given as
dp
k   dV ……………………………………………. 1.13
V
Where k is the bulk modulus of elasticity and the negative sign shows
that dV is negative. Bulk modulus k is the ratio of change of pressure to
volumetric strain.
(Note: Modulus = stress/strain. Strain is the ratio of the change in
volume to the original volume).
Equation (1.13) can also be expressed in terms of density as shown
below
m = ρV
When this is differentiated,
dm = ρdV + Vdρ ……………………………………….. 1.14
Since m is constant dm = 0, So ρdV = -Vdρ
dV d
i.e.   ……………………………………………. 1.15
V 
When this is substituted into eqn (1.13), it gives
dp
k …………………………………….…………. 1.16
d

Compressibility is a property by virtue of which fluid undergoes a
change in volume under the action of external pressure.

23
 Increase in pressure dp
K 
Volumetric Strain  dV / V ,
Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity (K).
Compressibility = 1/k

Example 1.9: When the pressure of liquid is increased from 3.5 MN/m2
to 6.5 MN/m2 its volume is found to decrease by 0.08 percent. What is
the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid?
Solution:
Initial pressure = 3.5 MN/m2 ,Final pressure = 6.5 MN/m2
 Increase in pressure dp = 6.5 – 3.5 = 3.0 MN/m2
dV 0.08
 Decrease in volume = 0.08 percent  - 
V 100
Bulk modulus (k) is given by
dp 3 10 6
k  3.75 109 N / m 2
 dV 0.08
V 100
Hence k = 3.75 GN/m2

Example 1.10: When a pressure of 20.7 MN/m2 is applied to 100 litres

of a liquid, its volume decreases by 1 litre. Find the bulk modulus of the
liquid and identify this liquid.

Solution

24
Net pressure applied, dp = 20.7 MN/m2s, Decrease in volume, dv = 1
litre
dV 1
Initial volume, V = 100 litre ,   
V 100
dP 20.7 x 10 6
Bulk modulus, K=   20.7 x 10 8
 dV 1
V 100
i.e. K = 2.07 GN/m2
At normal temperature and pressure, Kwater = 2.07 x 106 kN/m2, and
Kair = 101.3kN/m2
Hence the liquid is water.

1.4.6 Surface Tension

The molecules of a liquid act on each other with equal cohesive
forces inside the liquid and equilibrium is maintained. At liquid gas
interface, the molecules exhibit greater attraction for each other than the
molecule of the gas. As a result, the molecules at the interface are not in
equilibrium and an unbalanced force acts in the direction normal to the
surface. The surface behaves like a membrane which can support a
small weight gently placed on it. As a result of this membrane effect, the
liquid surface exerts tension (surface tension) on itself as well as on the
object with which it has contact. The surface tension may be cohesive or
adhesive and the magnitude of surface tension is defined as that of the
tensile force acting perpendicular to a short straight element of line
divided by the length of that line element i.e.

25
 force
Surface tension,   ……………………. 1.17
length
And the unit is N/m. Surface tension also varies with temperature
e.g. its value for water at 200C and 1000C are 0.74N/M and .059 N/M
respectively.
Surface tension () is caused by the force of cohesion at the free
surface. It is usually expressed in N/m.
Pressure inside:
4
(a) Water droplet; p
d
8
(b) Soap Bubble: p
d
2
(c) Liquid jet: p
d
(where d stands for diameter)

Example 1.11: In order to form a stream of bubbles, air is introduced

through a nozzle in a tank of water at 20OC. If the process requires 3.0
mm diameter bubbles to be formed, by how much the air pressure at the
nozzle must exceed that of the surrounding water. What would be the
absolute pressure inside the bubble if the surrounding water is at
100.3kN/m2. Take surface tension of water at 20OC = 0.0735N/m
Solution
Diameter of a bubble, d = 3.0mm = 3 x 10-3m,
Surface tension of water at 20OC,  = 0.0735 N/m.
26
The excess pressure intensity of air over that of surrounding water, p =
p.
Pressure inside a water droplet
4 4  0.0735
p   98 N / m2
d 3  10 3
Absolute pressure inside the bubble, Pabs, = P + Patm
= 98 x 10-3 - 100.3 = 100.398kN/m2

Example 1.12: A soap bubble 62.5 mm diameter has an internal

pressure in excess of the outside pressure of 20 N/m2. What is tension in
the soap film?
Solution
Diameter of the bubble, d = 6.25mm = 62.5 x 10-3 m
Internal pressure in excess the outside pressure, P = 20N/m2
8
Pressure inside a soap (or hollow) bubble, p 
d
8 20  6.25  10 3
i.e. 20  
6.25  10 3 8
Surface tension = 0.156 N/m

1.4.6.1 Cohesion and Adhesion

Molecules of a liquid are bound to each other by force known as
cohesive forces which give rise to a situation where there is a tendency
of the liquid to remain as one assemblage rather than behave as a gas
that fills the entire space where it is confined. Force between molecules
27
of a fluid and molecule of a solid boundary surface is known as
adhesive force. If the adhesive force between molecules of a particular
liquid and a particular solid is greater than the cohesive force between
the liquid molecules, the liquid tends to crowd toward the solid and the
area of contact between the liquid and the solid tend to increase. This is
why water wets glass but mercury will not and water will also not wet
wax or greasy surface.
Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of the
same liquid.
Adhesion means attraction between molecules of a liquid and the
molecules of solid bounded surface in contact with the liquid.

1.4.6.2 Capillarity

Fig 1.4 Capillary rise and capillary fall

Capillary rise in liquid with adhesive properties and the capillary
decrease in liquid with cohesive properties are caused by surface
tension. When a glass tube with small diameter is particularly immersed
in water and held vertically, surface tension will cause the liquid to rise
above the level of the liquid in the container such that a parabolic shape
28
is formed. If the liquid wets the glass, the parabolic is concave. On the
other hand, liquid such as mercury with cohesive properties will have
liquid level in the tube fall below the level in the container, and the
shape of the parabolic is a reverse of that of water.
Capillary is a phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon its
specific gravity) rises into glass tube or below its general level.
4 cos
The rise or depression, h 
wd
Where d = diameter of the capillary tube,  = angle of contact of
the water surface
= surface tension per unit length and w = weight
density ( g )

Example 1.13: Determine the minimum size of glass that can be used to
measure water level, if the capillary rise in the tube is not to exceed 0.3
mm. Take surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.0735 N/m
Solution
Capillary rise, h = 0.3mm = 0.3 x 10-3m, Surface tension, = 0.0735
N/m
Specific weight of water, w = 9810 N/m3, Size of glass tubing, d;
4 cos
Capillary rise, h 
wd
4 4  0.0735
Assuming h  ; 0.3  10 3  ( Given  = 0, for
wd 9810  d
water)
29
 4 x 0.0735
d   0.1m Size of glass tubing = 0.1m
0.3 x 10 -3 x 9810 ,

Example 1.14: Calculate capillary effect in millimeters in a glass of

4mm diameter, when immersed in (i) water and (ii) mercury. The
temperature of the liquid is 20OC and the values of surface tension of
water and mercury at 20OC in contact with air are 0.0735 N/m and 0.51
N/m respectively. The contact angle for water,  = 0 and for mercury 
= 130O. Take specific weight of water at 20OC as equal to 9790 N/m3.
Solution
Diameter of glass tube, d = 4 mm = 0.04m, Surface tension at 20OC, 
water = 0.0735 N/m, mercury = 0.051 N/m. Specific weight of water at
20OC = 9790 N/m3
The rise or depression, h of a liquid in a capillary tube is given by:
4 cos
h
wd
Where  = surface tension,  = angle of contact, and w = specific
weight.
(i) Capillary effect for water:
4 x 0.0735 cos 0 o
h ( water  0 O  given)
9790 x 0.004
= 7.51 x 10-3m = 7.51 mm (rise)
(ii) Capillary affect for mercury

30
 4 x 0.051 cos130 o
h ( mercury  130 O  given)
13.6 x 9790  x 0.004
= -2.46 x 10-3m = -2.46 mm, i.e. h = 2.46mm (depression).

Problems 1.1
1. Determine the mass density, specific volume and specific
weight of a liquid whose specific gravity is 0.85 [850kg/m3;
0.00118m3/kg, 8350 N/m3]
2. A liquid has a specific gravity of 1.9 and kinematic viscosity
of 6 strokes. What is its dynamic viscosity? (11.38 poise).
3. A plate has an area of 1m2. It slides down an inclined plane,
having angle of inclination 45O to the horizontal, with a
velocity of 0.5 m/s. The thickness of oil film between the
plane and the plate is 1mm. Find the viscosity of the fluid if
the weight of the plate is 70.72N (ass./Poise)
4. The velocity distribution over a plate is given by
3 1
u y  y 2 where u = velocity, m/s. if the viscosity of
2 2
the fluid is 8 poise, find the shear stress at the plate
boundary, and at y = 0.15m from the plate. [ 1.20N/m2,
1.08N/m2].
5. A flat plate weighing 0.45 KN has a surface area of 0.1m2. It
slides down an inclined plane at 30O to the horizontal, at a
constant speed of 3 m/s. If the inclined plane is lubricated

31
 with an oil of viscosity 0.1Ns/m2, find the thickness of the
oil film.
6. Determine the mass density, specific weight, and specific
volume of CO2 contained in a vessel at a pressure of 800
kN/m2 and temperature 25OC [14.2kg/m3; 139.4N/m3,
0.0703 m3/kg]
7. A soap bubble 50 mm diameter has an internal pressure in
excess of the outside pressure of 25 N/m2. Calculate tension
in the soap film. [0.156N/m]
8. Air is introduced through a vessel into a tank of water (at
20OC) to form a stream of bubbles. If the process requires
2.5mm diameter bubbles be formed, by how much the air
pressure at the nozzle must exceed that of surrounding water.
Take surface tension of water at 20OC = 0.0735 N/m [117.4
N/m2].
9. Determine the minimum size of glass tubing that can be used
to measure water level, if the capillary rise in the tube is not
exceeds 0.25 mm. Take surface tension of water in contact
with air as 0.0735 N/m.

32
1.5 Dimensional Analysis
It is a mathematical technique which makes use of the study of
the dimensions for solving several engineering problems. Each physical
phenomenon can be expressed by an equation given relation and
dimensions and non-dimensional.
Uses of dimensional analysis
1. To test the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid
motion.
2. To derive rational formular for a flow phenomenon.
3. To derive equation expressed in terms of non-dimensional
parameters.
4. To plan model test and present experimental results in a
systematic manner, it makes it possible to analyze the
complex fluid flow problem.
Advantages of dimensional analysis
1. It expresses the fundamental relationship between the
variables in dimensionless terms.
2. By the proper selection of variables, the dimensionless
parameters can be used to make certain logical deduction
about the problem.
3. It enables getting a theoretical equation in a simplified
dimensional form.

33
 4. Dimensional analysis provides partial solution to the
problems that are too complex to be dealt with
mathematically.
5. The conversion of units of quantities from one system to
another is facilitated.
Dimensions
The various physical quantities using fluid phenomenon can be
expressed in term of fundamental quantities which include; mass,
length, time and temperature, designated by the letters M, L, T, 
respectively.

Example 1.15: Determine the dimensions of the following quantities:

(i) Discharge
(ii) Kinematic viscosity
(iii) Force
(iv) Specific weight
(v) Pressure
(vi) Density
Solution
(i) Discharge = Area x Velocity
L L3
=L x 
2
 L3T 1
T T

(ii) Dimensional formula of Kinematic viscosity, v 


34
 du
where µ is given by   
dy

 shear stress force/Area

   
du L 1 1
x T
dy T L

L
Mx
mass x acceleration T2  ML
= 
area x 1 L2 x
1
L2 T 2 x
1
T
T T
M mass M
  ML1T 1 and      3  ML 3
LT density L

 ML1T 1
Kinematic viscosity (v) =   L 2T 1
 ML3
(iii) Dimensional formula of Force
= Mass x acceleration
length ML
= M x 2
 2
 MLT  2
time T
(iv) Dimensional formula of Specific weight
weigth force MLT -2
=   = MLT-2L-3 = ML-2T-
volume volume L3
2

(v) Dimensional formula of Pressure

force Mass x acceleration MLT -2
=   = ML-1T-2
Area L2 L2
(vi) Dimensional formula of Density

35
 mass m
=  3  ML3
Volume L
(vii) Dimensional formula of viscosity
F 2
 A  MLT L  MLT 1 L1
du L2 LT  2
dy

Problems 1.2
1.0: Determine the dimension of the following quantities.
(i) Modulus of elasticity, E. K.
(ii) Energy
(iii) Work, W
(iv) Torgue, T and
(v) Power, P.
2.0: The following data gives the relationship between shear stress and
velocity gradient du/dy for 4 different fluids. Classify the fluid.
Type du/dy 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
A A 0 1.5 4.0 6.0 9.5 13.5 21.0
B B 0 4.0 8.5 13.0 18.3 22.0 26.0
C C 0 8.0 16.0 23.0 28.0 3.20 -
D D 20.0 24.5 30.0 35.0 41.0 - -

(Ans. A is a dilatant, B is a Newtonian fluid, C is a pseudo-plastic and D

is a Bingham plastic)

36
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Fluid Static
Fluid static or hydrostatic is the study of force and pressure in a
fluid at rest with no relative motion between fluid layers. In both
instances there will be no shearing stresses in the fluid and the only
forces that develop on the surfaces of the particles will be due to the
pressure. Thus, our principal concern is to investigate pressure and its
variation throughout a fluid and the effect of pressure on submerged
surfaces.

2.1 Pressure at a Point

The term pressure is used to indicate the normal force per unit
area at a given point acting on a given place within the fluid mass of
interest.

Fig 2.1 Pressure at a point

Consider the free-body diagram above that was obtained by removing a
small triangular wedge of fluid from an arbitrary location within a fluid

37
mass. A relationship can be established between the pressure Px in the x
direction, Py the y direction, and Ps normal to an inclined plane at any
angle  to the horizontal.
Since the fluid is at rest all pressures will be normal to the faces on
which they act. Also there will be no shearing forces on the faces of the
element and the element will not be accelerating.
Hence, sum of the forces in any direction is zero.
Having established these facts, we can now conveniently resolve all
forces in any two mutually perpendicular directions.
From fig 2.1
y
Sin  ………………………………………. 2.1
s
and …………………………………. 2.2
Resolving forces in the x direction

 Fx = Force due to Px + force component due to Ps

= Px * AE x AB + [-(Ps x .AD x AB) Sinθ]
y
But,  Fx = 0,  p x yz  p s sz
s
0

 Px = Ps ……………………………………………. 2.3
Similarly in the y direction

 Fy = 0,  py xz  ps z cos  mg  0

But
mg  gv , where ρ = fluid density,
v = elemental fluid volume.
38
Now, for the prism element, volume = area of triangular base x height.
1 1
v  yx.Z , p y xz  Ps sz  yxzg  0
2 2
1
 p y  ps  1 yg  0 , or p y  ps  yg
2 2
In the limit as the elemental volume gets reduced to a point, y  0 ,
we have
Py = Ps = 0 …………………………………………… 2.4
Hence, from equations (2.3) and (2.4)
Px = Py = Ps …………………………………………… 2.5
Since Ps is the pressure on a plane inclined at any angle , the
axes x,y, and z have been arbitrarily chosen and the result in the
equation (2.5) has been got after reducing the elemental prism to a
point, it follows that equation (2.5) indicate that the pressure at a point is
the same in all directions. This is known as PASCAL’S LAW

39
 Fig. 2.2

2.2 Gravitation pressure variation from point to point in a static

fluid.
Consider a small cylindrical fluid element of constant cross-
sectional area A with pressure P and P + ∆P at opposite ends as
indicated in fig 2.2. Assuming the fluid system to be in static
equilibrium, the all forces on the element are normal to the faces on
which they act. Hence resolving forces along the axis as the cylindrical
element.

F s  0 ; PA - (P  P) A - mg cos  0

Since mg = ρgA∆s, we have

PA – (P + ∆P)A -ρgA∆s cos θ = 0
P
 - P - gs cos  0 ,   g cos
s
In the limit as ∆s0

40
dp
  g cos ……………………………………….. 2.6
ds
Taking the x – y plane as horizontal, if the axis of the element is also
horizontal, (Fig 2.3),
then θ = 90 and
dp  p p
    0 ………………………………. 2.7
ds  90o x y

(a) Horizontal (b) Vertical

Fig 2.3 Pressure Variation
Hence, in a static fluid, the pressure is constant everywhere in a
horizontal plane.
If the elemental axis is in the vertical z direction (fig 2.3b), then θ = 0
and
dp  p
   g ………………………………. 2.8
ds  0 z

41
 dp p p
And since   0 in this case, the partial derivative can be
dx y z
dp
replaced with the total derivative so that:
dz
dp
  g ………………………………………. 2.9
dz
The negative sign indicates that the pressure decrease as we
move upward in a fluid at rest.
Thus, the conditions for equilibrium under gravity are:
(i) The pressure at all points on the horizontal plane must be the
same.
(ii) The density at all points on the horizontal plane must be the
same.
(iii) The change of pressure with elevation is given by equation 2.9.

2.3 Incompressible fluid

Since the specific weight is equal to the product of fluid density
and acceleration due to gravity (γ = ρg), changes in γ are caused either
by a change in ρ or g. for most engineering applications the variation in
g is negligible, so our main concern is with the possible variation in the
fluid density. For liquids the variation in density is usually negligible,
even over large vertical distances, so that the assumption of constant
specific weight when dealing with liquid is a good one. For this
instance, eqn 2.9 can be directly integrated.

42
 P2 z2

 dp    dz
P1 z1

P2 – P1 = -(z2 – z1) …………………………………….. 2.10

or P1 – P2 = (z2 – z1)
Where p1 and p2 are pressure at the vertical elevations z1 and z2.
Equation 2.10 can be written in the compact form
P1 – P2 = h……………………………………………….. 2.11
Or P1 = h + P2 ……………………………………………….. 2.12
Where h is the distance Z2 – Z1, which is the depth of fluid measured
downward from the location of P2. This type of pressure distribution is
commonly called a hydrostatic distribution.
It can also be observed from eqn 2.11 that the pressure
difference between two points can be specified by the distance h since.
p1  p 2
h , where h = pressure head

As is demonstrated by eqn. 2.12, the pressure in a homogenous,
in compressible fluid at rest depends on the depth of the fluid relative to
some reference plane, and it is not influenced by the size or shape of the
tank or container in which the fluid is held.

43
2.3.1 Transmission of fluid pressure
The required equality of pressures at equal elevations
throughout a system is important for the operation of hydraulic jacks,
lifts and presses, as well as hydraulic controls on aircraft and other
types of heavy machinery.
The fundamental idea behind such devices and systems is
demonstrated in fig 2.4

Figure 2.4: Transmission of fluid pressure

A piston located at one end of a closed system filled with liquid,
such as oil, can be used to change the pressure throughout the system;
and this transmit an applied force F1 to a second piston where the
resulting force is F2. Since the pressure P acting on the faces of both

44
piston is the same (the effect of elevation changes is usually negligible
for this type of hydraulic device), it follows that
F1 F2
P1  P2   ……………………………………… 2.13
A1 A2
 F2   A2 A1 F1

2.4 Compressible Fluid

Gases are normally regarded as being compressible fluids since
the density of the gas can change significantly with changes in pressure
and temperature. Thus, it is necessary to consider the possible variation
in γ before the equation 2.9 can be integrated. Since the specific weight
of gases are comparatively small, it follows from eqn 2.9 that the
pressure gradient in the vertical direction is correspondingly small, and
even over distance of several hundred feet the pressure will remain
essentially constant for a gas.
For those situations in which the variations in heights are large,
attention must be given to the variation in the specific weight.
The equation of state for an ideal (or perfect) gas is
P = γRT
Where P is the absolute pressure, R is the gas constant, and T is the
absolute temperature.
This relationship can be combined with eqn. 2.9 to give
dp g
 , by separating variables
dz RT

45
 P2 Z
dp P2 g 2 dz
p
P1
 In
P1
 
R Z1 T
…………………………….. 2.14

Where g and R are assumed to be constant over the elevation change

from Z1 to Z2
Before completing the integration, one must specify nature of the
variation of temperature with elevation. For example, if we assume that
the temperature has a constant value To over the range Z1 to Z2
(Isothermal conditions).
It then follow from eqn 2.14, we have
 g Z 2  Z 1  
P2  P1 exp   …………………………….. 2.15
 RT0 
This equation provides the desire pressure-elevation relationship
for an isothermal layer. For non isothermal conditions a similar
procedure can be followed if the temperature elevation relationship is
known.

Example 2.1: A force P of 850 N is applied to the smaller cylinder of an

hydraulic jack. The area of the small piston is 15cm2 and the area A of
the larger piston is 150 cm2. What load W can be lifted on the larger
piston (a) if the pistons are at the same level, (b) if the large piston is
0.75 below the smaller? The mass density of the liquid in the jack is 103
kg/m3
Solution

46
 Fig. 2.5
P W
P1  and P2 
a A
P W a
If P1  P2   or P  W
a A A
Thus a small force P can raised a large load W. The jack has a
A
mechanical advantage of
a
(a) Putting P = 850 N, a = 15/10, 000m2, A = 150/10,000m2
P W A 1.5
 , W  P  850 *  8500 N
a A a 0.15
W 850
Mass lifted =   866.5kg
g 9.81
(b) If the larger piston is a distance h below the smaller, the pressure
P2 will be greater than P1, due to the head, h by an amount ρg,
where  is the mass density of the liquid.
P2 = P1 + gh
850
Putting P1  P / a   56.7 x104 N / m2 ,   103 kg / m3
15 x10 4
and h = 0.75 m

47
 P2 = 56.7 x 104 + (103 x 9.81) x 0.75
= 56.7 x 104 + 0.736 x 104 = 57.44 x 104 N/m2
and W = P2A = 57.44 x 104 x 150 x 104 = 8616N
8616
Mass lifted = w / g   878.3kg
9.81

2.5 Measurement of Pressure

Since pressure is a very important characteristic of a fluid field,
it is not surprising that numerous devices and techniques are used in its
measurement. The pressure at a point within a fluid mass is designated
as either an absolute pressure or a gauge pressure.
Absolute pressure is measured relative to a prefect vacuum
(absolute zero pressure) where as gauge pressure is measured relative to
the local atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressures are always positive,
but gauge pressures can either positive or negative depending on
whether the pressure is above atmospheric pressure (a positive value) or
below atmospheric pressure (a negative value). A negative gauge
pressure is also referred to as suction or vacuum pressure.
The concept of gauge and absolute pressure is illustrated
graphically in fig 2.6 for two typical pressure located at point 1 and 2.

48
 Fig 2.6 Graphical representation of gauge and absolute pressure.

2.5.1 Mercury Barometer

(a) Mercury barometer showing (b) Pressure measurement

Torricellian vacuum with barometer
Fig. 2.7 Barometer
A mercury barometer is an accurate and relatively simple way to
measure changes in atmospheric pressure. A basic mercury barometer

49
consists of a tube filled with mercury that is inverted, with the open and
being placed in a reservoir of mercury (fig 2.7).
The surface of the mercury in the reservoir represents the zero level of
the barometer. The space above this mercury contains mercury vapour
and this special vacuum (which contains mercury vapour) is called
Torricellian Vacuum. Hence, strictly speaking, a small error is
introduced into the pressure being measure with this barometer due to
the mercury vapour pressure is Pv and the atmospheric pressure is Pa
then.
Pa =h g + P V……………………………………….. 2.16
Although PV is a function of temperature, it is very small at normal
atmospheric temperature. Hence one can conveniently write.
Pa =h g …………………………………………….. 2.17

2.5.2 Piezometer

Fig 2.8 Piezometer attached to a pipe

The Piezometer is an open pipe-ended glass tube, which is

usually attached to the pipe for the purpose of measuring the pressure of
50
the liquid being conveyed by the pipe. By measuring the pressure of the
liquid column height above centre line of the pipe and then adding the
pipe radius, the gauge pressure of the pipe centre is simply the product
of this height and the specific weight of the liquid. That is
Pg = H = gH, where g is the gauge pressure measured by the
piezometer
and H = h + pipe radius.
The piezometer is accurate and simple, but it cannot be used to
measure high pressures especially if the liquid density is low. It is also
useless for pressure measurement in gases.

2.5.3 U – tube manometer

In this case, knowledge of the specific weight of both the manometric

liquid and the flowing fluid as well as that of the linear measurements
indicated in the figure is needed to calculate the pressure at the pipe
51
centre. Here, the first principle to be remembered is that the pressure
value at the same level in a continuous fluid of uniform density is
constant. Secondly, it should also be kept in mind that pressure increase
downwards and decreases upwards in a fluid.
Bearing these two principles in mind, consider the pressure in the
manometer liquid at the meeting level of the two fluids (i.e. along the
line x – x).
In the left limb of the tube.
Px = P1 + (a + h)
In the right limb of the tube
Px = P2 + mh + a
where Px and Px  pressures at level x – x, P1 and P2  pressures at pipe
centers 1and 2
  flowing fluid specific weight, m  manometeric liquid
specific weight
Hence, since Px = Px,,
P1 +  (a + h) = P2 + mh + a
Therefore, difference in pressure at the pipe centers is given by
P1 – P2 = (m - )h ……………………………………. 2.18

2.5.4 Differential Monometer

A differentiate manometer or a differential u-tube as it is
sometimes called, is used to determine the difference in pressures at two
points when actual pressure in the system cannot be determined. It can

52
be used to measure the pressure difference between two points in a pipe
or between two different pipes carrying the same or different fluids.

Fig. 2.10
Essentially, the expressions derived previously for u-tube
manometer can be used for different u-tube manometer when used in the
general sense.
Consider the figure below
A pressure balance along x – x gives
P1 – P2 = hm + a2 - 1 (a + h) ……………………………. 2.19
where 1, 2 and m are specific weights of fluids in pipes 1 and 2
and the manometric liquid

Fig. 2.11 Differential U-tube manometer

53
2.5.5 Inverted U-tube manometers
Inverted U-tube manometers is a special type of differential u-tube
manometer with the tube inverted (i.e turned aside-down). It is useful
for the situation when the manometer liquid is less dense than the
flowing liquid.

Fig. 2.12 inverted U-tube manometer installed between two pipes 1 and
2. For the left-hand limb.
Pxx = P1 – (a + h) 1.
Similarly for the right-hand limb: Pxx = P2 -hm - a2
Where fluids 1 and 2 are those flowing in pipes 1 and 2 with specific
weight 1 and 2 respectively, m is specific weight at the manometric
liquid with column length h.
Hence equating both sides
P1 – (a + h) 1 = P2 -hm - a2
P1 – P2 = (a + h) 1 -hm - a2 ………………………………. 2.20

54
2.5.6 Bourdon Gauge
This type of pressure gauge comprises a tube having an elliptical
cross-section, which is bent into a circular are as shown below. The tube
is closed at the free end and rigidly fixed to the frame at the other end
through which fluid enters.
When the internal pressure is increased, the tube to be
straightened pulling on a suitable mechanical linkage, which transmits
the movement of the free end to a pointer, thereby causing it (the
painter) to move over a scale.
The gauge measures pressure relative to the pressure of the
medium surrounding the tube, which is the local atmosphere. The
pressure that is thus measured is the so-called gauge pressure.

Fig. 2.13 Internal mechanism of a bourdon gauge

55
2.5.7 Aneroid Barometer
An aneroid barometer measures the difference in pressure
between the atmosphere and the evacuated box or tube in a similar
manner the bourdon gauge except that the tube is evacuated and sealed.
This arrangement makes it possible for the device to measure the
atmospheric pressure absolutely or relative to zero pressure as the
vacuum.

Fig 2.14 Aneroid Barometer

In an aneroid barometer, a partially evacuated metal drum
expands or contracts in response to changes in air pressure. A series of
levers and springs translates the up-and down movement of the drum
top into the circular motion at the points over the aneroid barometer’s
face

Example 2.2: A u-tube manometer measures the pressure difference

between two points A and B in a liquid of mass density 1, the u-tube
contains mercury of mass density 2. Calculate the difference in
pressure if a = 1.5m, b = 0.75 and h = 0.5m, if the liquid at A and B is

56
water. (1 = 103 kg/m3) and the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 that
2 = 13.61)

Fig.2.15
Solution
Since P and Q are at the same level in the same liquid at rest pressure Pp
at P = pressure Pq at Q.
For the left – hand limb; Pp = PA + 1ga
For the right – hand limb; PQ = PB + 1(b-h) + 2gh
Since PP = PQ, PA+ 1ga = PA + 1gb – 1gh + 2gh
Pressure difference PA - PB; PA-PB = 1g(b – a) + (2 – 1)gh
= 9.81 x 103(0.75 – 1.5) + 0.5(13.6 x 9.81 x 103) N/m2
= 9.81 x 103 (-0.75 + 0.5 x 12.6)
= 9.81 x 103 x 5.55 = 54.4 x 103 N/m2

Example 2.3: Figure 2.16 shows a u-tube differential manometer

connecting two pressure pipes at

57
A and B. The pipe A contains a liquid of specific gravity 1.6 under a
pressure of 110kN/m2. The pipe B contains oil of specific
gravity 0.8 under a pressure of 200 kN/m2. Find the difference of
pressure measured by mercury as fluid filled U-tube.

Fig. 2.16

Solution
Specific gravity of liquid at B, S2 = 0.8
PA 110
Pressure head at A, h A    11.21m of water.
W 9.81
PB 200
Pressure head at B, hB    20.38m of water taking X
W 9.81
– X as the datum line.
Pressure head above X-X in the left limb = hA + (2.6 + 1.0)S1 + h
x 13.6m of water.
Pressure head above X-X in the right limb = hB + (1.0 + h) x
S2m of water.
Equating the above pressure heads, we get
58
 hA + (2.6 + 1.0)S1 + h x 13.6 = hB + (1.0 + h) S2
11.21 + 5.76 + 13.6h = 20.38 + (1.0 + h) x 0.8
16.97 + 13.6h + 20.38 + 0.8 + 0.8h
12.8h = 4.21
h = 0.329m or 329mm

Example 2.4: Figure 2.17 shows a differential manometer connected at

two point A and B. At A air pressure is 100 kN/m2. Find the
absolute pressure at B.

Fig. 2.17

Solution
Pressure of air, at A.
PA = 100kN/m2
100
Pressure head at A, hA   10.2m
9.81
PB
Let the pressure at B is PB; Pressure head at B, h B 
W
Considering pressure heads above the datum line X-X, we have
59
 650
Pressure head in the left limb  h A = 0.65 + 10.2 =
1000 ,
10.85m
250 150
Pressure head in the right limb =. hB  * 0.85  *13.6
1000 1000
=. hB  0.212  2.04  hB  2.25
Equating the above pressure heads, we get
10.85 = hB + 2.25, hB = 8.6m
But
PB
hB  ; PB = WhB = 9.81 x 8.6 = 84.36kN/m2
W

Example 2.5: Figure 2.18 an inverted differential manometer having an

oil of specific gravity 0.8 connected to two different pipes carrying
water under pressure. Determine the pressure in the pipe B. The
pressure in pipe A is 2.0 metre of water.

Fig. 2.18

60
 Solution
Height of water in the left, Limb, h1 = 300m, Height of water in
the right
Limb, h1 = 100mm, Height of light liquid in right limb, h = 150
mm
Pressure in pipe A, hA = 2.0m of water
Let S1, S2 = 1 (sp gr. of water)
Pressure heads in the left and right limbs below the datum line
X-X equal pressure head in the left limb below X-X
300
= h A  h1 S1  2.0  x 1  1.7m
1000
Pressure head in the right limb below X-X
100 150
= hB  h2 S 2  hS  hB  x 1 x0.8
1000 1000
= hB – 0.1 – 0.12 = hB – 0.22
Also, PB = WhB = 9.81 x 1.92 = 18.8kN/m2

Example 2.6: An inverted differential manometer is connected to two

pipes A and B carrying water under pressure as shown in figure 2 .19.
The fluid in the manometer is oil of specific gravity 0.75. Determine the
pressure difference between A and B.

61
 Fig. 2.19

Solution
Specific gravity of oil, S = 0.75, Specific gravity of water, S1, S2
=1
Difference of oil in the two limbs = (450 + 200) – 450 = 200 mm
Pressure heads on the left and right limbs below the datum line
X-X are equal.
Pressure head in the left limb below X-X =
450
 hA  x 1  h A  0.45
1000
Pressure head in the right limb below X-X =
450 200
 hB  x 1 x 0.75 , = hB – 0.45 – 0.15 =
1000 1000
hB – 0.6
Equating the two pressure heads, we get
HA – 0.45 = hB – 0.6, -hB - hA = 0.15 m

62
 PB P
- A  0.15m or PB – PA = W x 0.15 = 9.81 x
W W
0.15 = 1.47kN/m2 .
Problems

1. A U-tube containing mercury is used to measure the pressure

of an oil of specific gravity 0.8 as shown in Figure 2.20.
Calculate the pressure of the oil, if the difference of mercury
level be 0.5m. [Ans. 14 m].

Fig. 2.20
2. Water in a pipeline was measured by means of a simple
*manometer containing mercury
3. A simple manometer (U-tube) containing mercury is
connected to a pipe in which an oil of specific gravity 0.8 is
flowing. The pressure in the pipe is vacuum. The other end
of the manometer is open to atmosphere. Find the vacuum
pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two
limbs is 200 mm and height of oil in the left-limbs is 200mm
and height of oil in the left-limb from the centre of the pipe
is 150 mm below. [Ans. -278.6 kPa].
63
 4. Calculate the pressure difference between two points A and
B in Fig. 2.21. [Ans. 13.83 kN/m2]

Fig. 2.21
5. Find the difference in pressure between point A and B in Fig.
2.22

[Ans. PB – PA = 17.66kN/m2]. Fig. 2.22

2.6 Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the
surface due to the fluid. The determination of these forces is important
in the design of storage ships, dams and other hydraulic structures.
From the definition of a fluid, if it is at rest, force will act at a
right angle to the boundary or plane at the point under consideration.
64
 For a horizontal surface, such as the bottom of a liquid-filled
tank, the magnitude of the resultant force is simply FR = PA
For the open tank P = h
We can consider two cases under this sub heading

Case A. Hydrostatic force on plane vertical surface

The hydrostatic force on one side of a vertical plane due to a
liquid of density  can be found from calculus.

Fig. 2.23: Gauge pressure P at depth h is given by,

P = gh
Hence, hydrostatic force on an elemental area dA of width dh of the
vertical plane submerged in the liquid is given by
dF = PdA
But dA = xdh, dF = pxdh
Therefore, total force on the vertical submerged area is given by the
integral sum at the elemental forces thus,

65
 h2

 dF   gxhdh
A h1

h2

 dF   pgxhdh
A h1

Since a liquid is incompressible and g is practically constant for

engineering purpose.
F  g  hdA ……………………………….. 2.21

The expression ∫hdA is the geometric definition of the first moment of

area A about the x – axis above, and integration is carried out over the
area. The x – axis in our case here is the free liquid surface line. If h is
the distance of the distance of the centroidal axis from the x-axis, then,
geometry shows that
hA   hdA ……….………………………….. 2.22

A
Or h 1 hdA ………………………………… 2.23

Substituting equation 2.23 into equation 2.21, we have

F = ghA
Or F = Ha ………………………………………… 2.24
This is expression for total hydrostatic force on a submerged vertical
surface; h is distance of centroid from free surface.
To determine the line of action of pressure, it hp is the location of line
of action of the resultant force with respect to the free liquid surface,
then from the principle of moments

66
 hdF =hpdF

hdF = hpF, hdF = hp h A


2
h dA
 hhdA = hp h A or hP ………….. 2.25
hA

h
2
Where dA is the second moment of area A about the x-axis, which is

the free liquid surface.

Which is the free liquid surface

I xx
hP  ; where I xx   hP dA
hA
From the parallel axes theorem: the moment of inertial of the axis
parallel to the centroidal axis is given by the sum of moment of inertia
about the centroidal axis and product of area and square of
perpendicular distance between the axes.
Ixx = I00 + h2dA ………………………………………….. 2.26
Also
I 00  AK G2 ………………………………………………. 2.27

Where KG = radius at gyration of the area A, from equations 2.26 and

2.27
Radius of gyration is the root mean square distance of the particles of
the body either from its center of mass or from the axis of rotation.
K = sq. root (I/A)
2
I 00  AK G2  Ah ………………………………… 2.28

67
Substituting equation 2.28 into 2.25
2
K G2  Ah
hP  A ,
hA
K G2
hP   h ………………………..…………………… 2.29
h
K G2
This implies that hp  h always, since is always positive.
h
hp – h is equivalent to distance of center of pressure below the centroid
of the element.

Case B Hydrostatic Force on a Submerged Inclined Plane Surface.

Let the plane in which the surface lies intersect the free surface at 0 and
make an angle  with this surface as in fig 2.24. The coordinate system
is defined so that 0 is the origin and y is directed along the surface as
shown. The area can have an arbitrary shape as shown. We wish to
determine the direction, location and magnitude of the resultant force
acting on one side of this area due to the liquid in contact with the area.
At any given depth, h, the force acting on dA (the differential area of fig
2.24) is dF = hdA and is perpendicular to the surface. Thus, the
magnitude of the resultant force can be found by summing these
differential forces over the entire surface. In the equation of the form.
FR   hdA   y sin dA
A A

68
Fig 2.24 Notation for hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface of
arbitrary shape.
Where h = y sin .
For constant  and 

FR   sin   ydA ……………………………………… 2.30

A

The integral is the first moment of the area with respect to x axis, so we
can write.

 dA  y
A
c A

Where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid measured from the x axis

which passes through 0
FR  yc sin A , FR  hc A ………………………………. 2.31
where hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of
the area. Note that the magnitude of the force is independent at the angle

69
 and depends only on the weight of the fluid, the total area, and the
depth of the centroid of the area below the surface.
The moment of the resultant force must equal to the moment of
the distributed pressure force, or (i.e y coordinate yR)
FR y R   A ydF   A  sin  y 2 dA

And therefore, since FR  Ay c sin 

 A y 2 dA
yR 
yc A

The integral in the numerator is the second moment of the area (moment
of inentia), Ix, with respect to an axis formed by the intersection of the
plane containing the surface and the free surface (x-axis). Thus, we can
write
Ix
yR 
yc A
Which can now be made of the parallel axis theorem to express Ix as
I x  I xc  Ay c2
Where Ixc is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis
passing through its centroid and parallel to the x axis. Thus,
I xc
yR   y c .....................................................2.32
yc A
Equation 2.32 clearly shows that the resultant force does not pass
through the centroid but is always below it, since Ixc/ycA>0

70
The x coordinate, XR for the resultant force can be determined in a
similar manner by summing moments about the y axis. Thus
FR X R   A  sin  xydA
And, therefore,
 A xydA I xy
XR  
yc A yc A
Where Ixc is the product of inertia with respect to the x and y axes.
Again, using the parallel axis theorem we can write
I xyc
XR   Xc
yA
Note that if the submerged area is symmetrical with respect to an axis
passing through the centroid and parallel to the x or y axis, the resultant
force must lie along the x = xc, since Ixyc is identically zero in this case.

71
 Fig. 2.24 Geometric Properties of some common shapes

Example 2.7: The 4m diameter circular gate of fig. 2.26 is located in the
inclined wall of a large reservoir containing water ( = 9.81 kN/m3). The
gate is mounted on a shaft along its horizontal diameter. For a water
depth of 10m above the shaft determine: (a) the magnitude and location
of the resultant force exerted on the gate by the water, and (b) the
moment that would have to be applied to the shaft to open the gate.

Fig. 2.26

Solution
(a) To find the magnitude of the force of the water we can apply
FR  h c A

72
 FR  (9.80 x 10 3 N/m 3 ) (10m) (4 m 2 )
 1230 x 10 3 N  123 MN
To locate the point (centre of pressure) through which FR acts, we use
expressions for XR and yR
I xyc Ic
R   c yR   yc
yc A yc A
For the coordinate system shown XR = 0 since the area is symmetrical,
and the center of pressure must lie along A –A. To obtain yR we have
fig 2.18
R 4
I xc 
4
10
And yc  from the fig 2.20
sin 600

yR 
 4 2m 4 
10

10m
sin 600
 4m 
2
sin 60 0
 0.0866 m  11.5  11.6m
And the distance (along the gate) below the shaft to the center of
pressure is
y R - y c  0.0866 m
(b) The moment required to open the gate can be obtained with the aid
of the free-body diagram. In this diagram W is the weight of the gate
and 0x and 0y are the horizontal and vertical reactions of the shaft on
the gate. We can now sum moments about the shaft

73
  mc  0
And therefore,
M  FR y R - y c  ,

 
 1230 x 10 3 N 0.0866 m 
 1.07 x 10 Nm
5

2.7 Hydrostatic Force on a Curve Surface

Many surfaces of interest are non-planer. Although the resultant
fluid force can be determined by integration, an alternative approach
will be taken which will consider the equilibrium of the fluid volume
enclosed by the curved surface of interest and the horizontal and
vertical projections of this surface.
For example, consider the curve section Bc of the open tank of
fig 2.27a. We wish to find the resultant force acting on this section,
which has a unit length perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
The magnitude and location of forces F1 and F2 can be
determined from the relationship for planar surface
Fv = F1 + W
W = Specific weight of the fluid times the enclosed volume.
The magnitude of the resultant is obtained from the equation.

FR  F H
2
 Fv 
2


74
 Fig 2.27 hydrostatic force on a curved surface
Example 2.8: The 6m diameter drainage conduit of fig 2.28 is half full
of water at rest. Determine the magnitude and line of action of the
resultant force that the water exerts on a 1m length of the curved section
BC of the conduit wall.

Fig. 2.28

Solution
75
We first isolate a volume of fluid bounded by the curved section BC, the
horizontal surface AB and the vertical surface AC.
The magnitude of F1 is found by the equation
  
F1  hcA  62.4N/m 3 3/2m  3m 2  281 N 
And this force acts 1m above C as shown. The weight, is


w  vol  62.4N/m 3
3

9
4m2
 1m  441N
And acts through the centre of gravity of the mass of fluid, which
according to fig 2.28 is located 1.27m to the right of AC
Therefore, to satisfy equilibrium
FH  F1  281N
Fv  w  441N
And the magnitude of the resultant force is

FR  FH 2  FV2
 281N 2  441N 2  523N
The force the water exerts on the conduit wall is equal, but opposite in
direction to the force FH and FV shown in fig 2.21b.
Thus, the resultant force on the wall is shown in fig 2.22C. This force
acts through the point 0 at the angle shown.

76
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Stability of Submerged and Floating Bodies
3.1 Buoyancy
The method of calculating the forces on a curved surface applied
to all shapes of surface and, therefore, to the surface of a totally
submerged object (fig 3.1)

Fig 3.1 Buoyancy

Considering any vertical plane VV through the body, the projected area
of each of the two sides on this plane will be equal and, as a result, the
horizontal force on F will be equal and opposite. The only force
executed by the fluid on an immersed body is vertical and is called
the buoyancy or upthrust.
Upthrust on body = upward force on lower surface ADEC
- Downward force on upper surface ABCD
upthrust on body = weight of fluid displaced by the body and will act
through the centroid of the volume of fluid displaced, which is known as
the centre of buoyancy. This result is known as Archimedes’ principle.

77
 Pressure increases with depth in a fluid. This means that the
upward force on the bottom of an object in a fluid is greater than the
downward force on the top of the object. There is a net upward, or
buoyant force on any object in any fluid. If the buoyant force is greater
than the object’s weight, the object will rise to the surface and float. If
the buoyant force is less than the object’s weight, the object will sink. If
the buoyant force equals the object’s weight, the object will remain
suspended at that depth. The buoyant force is always present whether
the object floats, sinks, or is suspended in a fluid.

Example 3.1: A rectangular pontoon has a width B of 6m, a length L of

12m, and draught D of 1.5m in fresh water (density 1000kg/m3).
Calculate (a) the weight of the pontoon (b) its draught in seawater
(density 1025 kg/m3) and (c) the load (in kN) can be supported by the
pontoon in fresh water if the maximum draught permissible is 2m.

Solution
When the pontoon is floating in an unloaded condition,
Upthrust on immersed volume = weight of pontoon.
Since upthrust = weight of fluid displaced, weight of pontoon = weight
of fluid displaced
w  gBLD  gV

(a) In fresh water,   1000kg/m 3 D  1.5m

 weight of pontoon, w  1000 x 9.81 x 6 x 12 x 1.5N

78
 = 1059.5N
(b) In sea water,   1025kg/m 3 ; therefore
Draught in sea water, D = w / gBL
1059.5 x 103
 = 1.46m
1025 x 9.81 x 6 x 12

For the maximum draught of 2m in fresh water

Total upthrust = weight of water displaced = gBLD
= 1000 x 9.81 x 6 x 12 x 2N = 1412.6kN
Load which can be supported = upthrust – weight of pontoon
= 1412.6 – 1059.5 = 353. 1KN

3.2 Equilibrium of Floating Bodies

Study of stability of floating bodies is a conventional subject in
fluid mechanics. Two forces act on a floating object; weight, that acts
on the center of gravity G, and buoyancy force that acts on the center of
buoyancy B (the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid). The
equilibrium of a body requires that these two forces be equal and
opposite and the joint line of these two points has to be in vertical
direction too.
When a body floats in vertical equilibrium in a liquid, the forces
present are the upthrust R acting through the center of buoyancy B (fig

79
3.2) and the weight of the body W = mg acting through its center of
gravity.

Fig 3.2 Body floating in equilibrium

For equilibrium R and W must be equal and act in the same
straight line.
R = Weight of fluid displace (gv)
 g  mg
mg
 
g
3.3 Stability of a submerged body

Fig 3.3 Stability of submerged bodies

It can be seen from fig. 3.3 that a small angular displacement  from the
equilibrium position will generate a moment W x BG x . If the center

80
of gravity G is below the center of buoyancy B (fig. 3.3(a)), this will be
a righting moment and the body will tend to turn to its equilibrium
position. However, if (as in fig. 3.3(b)) the center of gravity is above the
center of buoyancy, an overturning moment is produced and the body
is unstable.
3.4 Stability of Floating Bodies
Stability of a floating body is divided in two different types, vertical and
rotational. A floating body has vertical stability but its rotational
stability depends upon the positions of G and B. If G is below B the
equilibrium is stable. But if G is above B the equilibrium may or
may not be stable. The usual method in specification of stability of a
floating body is finding the metacenter point M, and then comparing its
position with G. The equilibrium is stable if the metacenter lies above G

Fig 3.4 Stable and unstable equilibrium

Fig. 3.4 (a) shows a body floating in equilibrium. The weight w = mg
acts through the center of gravity G and the upthrust R acts through the
center of buoyancy B of the displaced fluid in the same straight line as
W. When the body is displaced through angle  (fig 3.4(b)), W

81
continues to act through G; the volume of the liquid remains unchanged
but center of buoyancy moves relative to body from B to B1.
If M is the point at which the line of action of the upthrust R cuts
the original vertical through the center of gravity of the body G
X = GM sin  = GM x 
Provided that the angle of tilt is small, so that sin  =  in radian
The point M is called the metacenteric height. Comparing fig 3.4 (a) and
(d) it can be seen that:
(a) If M lies above G, a righting moment W x GM  is
produced, equilibrium is stable and GM is regarded as
positive.
(b) If M lies below G, an overturning moment W x GM  is
produced, equilibrium is unstable and GM is regarded as
negative.
(c) If m coincides with G, the body is in neutral equilibrium.

3.4 Determination of The Metacentric Height

The metacentric height of a vessel can be determined if the angle
of tilt  caused by moving a load P (fig 3.5) at known distance x across
the deck is measured

82
 Fig 3.5 Determination of metacentirc height
Overturning moment due to movement of load P = Px -------- 3.1
Righting moment = W x GM x  ---------------------------------3.2
For equilibrium in the tilted position, the righting moment must
equal the overturning moment so that
W x GM x  = Px

Metacentric height, GM = Px .........................................3.3

W
The true metacentric height is the value of GM as   0

3.5 Determination of the Position of the Metacentric Relative to

the Center of Buoyancy
In fig 3.6 AC is the original water line plane and B the center of
buoyancy in the equilibrium position. When the vessel is tilted through
a small angle , the center of buoyancy will move to B’ as a result of the
alteration in the shape of the displaced fluid. AC is the water line plane
in the displaced position. For a small angles of tilt,
BM = BB/
weight of wedge AOA = weight of wedge COC
83
 If a, is small area in the water line plane at a distance x from the
axis of notation 00, it will generate a swept volume, when the vessel is
tilted.

Fig 3.6
Volume swept out by a = DD x a = a x 
Summation of volumes, multiplied by the specific weight g of the
liquid
x  AO
Weight of wedge AOA’   gax .....................................3.4
x0

Similarly,
x  CO
Weight of wedge COC   gax .....................................3.5
x0

Since there is no change in displacement

x CO
g  ax  g  ax ,  ax  0
x0 x0

But  ax is the first moment of area of the waterline plane about

OO; the distance BB can now be calculated, since the couple produced
by the movement of the wedge AOA to COC must be equal to
couple due to the movement of R from B to B.
84
 Moment about 00 of the weight of fluid swept out by area, a
= gax x 
Total moment due to altered displacement = g   ax 2

But  ax 2 = I = second moment of area of water line plane

about OO,
Total moment due to altered displacement = gI ……….. 3.6
Moment due to movement of R = R x BB = g x BB
………..3.7
Where v = volume of liquid displaced.
gv x BB1  gI ,
BB1  I/ v
giving BM  BB/   I/V
The distance BM is known as the metacentric radius.
Strategy for solving buoyancy problems
(1) From geometry of body and density of fluid and body, equate weight of
displaced fluid to Total weight of body (U =W) This gives the depth of
immersion of the body (draught) or the weight of the body, whichever
is unknown.
(2) To assess stability, first find the location of the centre of gravity G of
the body.
(3) Then, find the location of the center of buoyancy B (centroid of
displaced volume). For a regularly shaped body this will be at half the
height of the immersed portion of the body.
(4) Calculate the distance GB.
4
(5) Calculate MB, using MB = I / V . Note I = π D /64 for a circular
S
3
section body and bd /12 for a rectangular section body (D is diameter,
b and d are the sides of the rectangle).

85
(6) Calculate metacentric height, MG (= z – z ), from MG = MB – GB. If
M G
MG > 0 then body is stable. If MG < 0 then body is unstable.

Example 3.2: A cylindrical buoy 1.35m in diameter and 1.8m high has
a mass of 770kg. Show that it will not float, with its axis vertical in sea
water of density 1025kg/m3 if a vertical chain is fastened to the base,
find the pull required just to keep the buoy vertical. The centre of
gravity of the buoy is 0.9 from its base.

Fig 3.6
(a) without the anchor chain fig 3.6a
Volume of water displaced = V = 770/1025 = 0.75m3
V 0.75
Depth of buoy immersed = d =  = 0.524m
r  x (0.675) 2
2

Height of centre of buoyancy above base = 1 d  0.262m

2
Height of center of gravity above base = 0.9
BG = 0.9 – 0.262 = 0.638m
 x 14 r 4 14  0.675 4
Also BM  I    0.218m
V V 0.75
Metacentric height GM = BM – BG = -0.42M
86
Negative metacentric height indicates that the buoy is unstable.
(b) With the anchor chain fig 3.6b. If T = pull in the chain in
Newtons
New upthrust R = T + W
R
g  1025 x 9.81 m
New displacement volume = R 3

R R
New draught , D = w / gBL =  m
1025 x 9.81 x  (0.675) 14400
2

R
AB=Height of centre of buoyancy above A (D/2) = m
28800
1  (0.675) 4
I 1635
BM   4  m
V R /(1025 x 9.81) R
R 1635
AM  AB  BM   m
28800 R
R 16.35
AG  0.9m and GM  0.9 - - m
28800 R
For equilibrium, taking moment about G,
 R 1635 
0.9 T  R  0.9 - - 
 28800 R  that is, Tx AG = R x GM

R2
0.9 (R - 770 x 9.81)  0.9R - - 1635
28800
Note: R = T + W thus T = R -W = R - mg
R 2  28800 (6800 - 1635)  149 x 10 6
R = 12202 = 12200
R = 28800 = 770 x 9.81 x 7 Newton ??

87
Tension in chain = T = 12200 – 7560 = 4640 N

Example 3.3: A trapezoidal channel 2 m wide at the bottom and 1 m

deep has side slopes
Determine: (i) Total pressure
(ii) Centre of pressure on the vertical gate closing the
channel when it is full of water.

Sol. Refer Fig. 3.11

(i) Total Pressure
For rectangle: Area, A1 = 2 x 1 = 2m2
x  1
2
 0.5m

P1 = wA x = 9.81 x 2 x 0.5 = 9.81kN

This acts at a depth, h1 .

But h1  IG
x
2 x   0.5  0.66m
13
12
Ax 2 x 0.5

For triangles: Area, A 2  2 x 12 x 1 x 1  1m 2 (there are two triangle);

x  1
3
m

P2  wAx  9.81 x 1 x 1
3
 3.27kN

This acts at a depth of h 2 .

But h 2  IG
x 2 x 13
36   1  0.5m ... from the top.
1x 1 3
Ax 3

i.e. h 2 = 0.5 m
Total pressure, P = P1 + P2 = 9.81 + 3.27 = 3.08 kN (Ans.)
88
(ii) Centre of pressure, h :

Taking moments about the top, we get P x h  P1 x h1  P2 x h 2

Hydrostatic Forces on surfaces
P1 h1  P2 h 2 9.81 x 0.66  3.27 x 0.5
h   0.62 m(Ans.)
P 13.08

Example 3.4: An isosceles triangle of base 3 metres and altitude 6

metres, is immersed vertically in water, with its axis of symmetry
horizontal as shown in Fig 3.12. if the head of water on it is 9 metres
determine
(i) Total pressure on the plate, and (ii) The position of the centre of
pressure.
Sol. Area of the triangle
A  1
2 x 3 x 6  9m 2
Depth of C. G. of the plate from the water surface,
x  9m

(i) Total pressure, P:

We know that, P =
P  wAx  9.81 x 9 x 9  794.6kN (Ans.)

(ii) Centre of pressure, h :

IG
Using the relation: h   x
Ax

89
But I G = moment of inertia of  ABD about AD + moment of inertia
of  ACD about AD.
6 x 1.53 6 x 1.53 3.375
   3.375 m 4 , h   9  9.04m (Ans.)
12 12 9x9
Example 3.5: Fig. 3.13 shows a tank containing water and liquid (sp.
Gravity = 0.9) upto height 0.25 m and 0.5 m respectively. Calculate
(i) Total pressure on the side of the tank
(ii) The position of centre of pressure from one side of the tank,
which is 1.5 m wide.
Example 3.9: A 1m wide and 1.5 m deep rectangular plane surface lies
in water in such a way that its plane makes an angle of 30O with the free
water surface. Determine the total pressure and position of centre of
pressure when the upper edge is 0.75m below the free water surface.
Solution. Width of the plane surface = 1 m, depth of the plane
surface = 1.5m
Inclination,   30 O , Distance of upper edge from free
water surface = 0.75m
(i) Total pressure, P:
Using the relation P  wAx , where w = 9.81kN/m3
Area, A = 1.5 x 1 = 1.5 m2 , x = LU + UM = 0.75 + MN sin 30O
1.5
= 0.75  x 0.5  1.125m = 9.81 x 1.5 x 1.125 = 16.55kN
2
(Ans.)
(ii) Centre of pressure, h
90
 I G sin 2
Using the relation, h   x
Ax
1x 1.5 3
Where IG   0.281 m 4
12

0.281 x (0.5) 2
h   1.125  1.166 m (Ans.)
1.5 x 1.125
Example 3.6: A circular plate 1.5 m diameter is submerged in water,
with its greatest and least depths below the surface being 2 m and 0.75
m respectively. Determine
(i) The total pressure on one face of the plate, and
(ii) The position of the centre of pressure
Solution. Diameter of the plate, = 1.5 m
Area of the plate,
 
A  d2  x 1.5 2  1.767 m 2
4 4
Distance SN = 0.75 m, UM = 2 m, Distance of C.g from free surface
x  SN  GN sin 
LM UM - UL 2 - 0.75
But sin sin    ,   0.8333
MN MN 1.5
x  0.75  0.75 x 0.8333 ,= 1.375 m
(i) Total pressure, P:
We know that, P  wAx  9.81 x 1.767 x 1.375 = 23.83kN
(Ans.)

91
(ii)Centre of pressure, h
I G sin 2
Using the relation, h   x
Ax

 64 x 1.5 4 x (0.8333) 2
h   1.375  1.446
1.767 x 1.375
h  1.446 m (Ans.)
Problems
1) A circular plate of diameter 1.5 m is placed vertically in
water in such a way that the centre of the plate is 3 m below
the free surface of water. Determine:
(i) Total pressure on the plate, and
(ii) Position of the centre of pressure [Ans. (i) 52kN, (ii)
3.0468 m]
2) A rectangular sluice gate is situated on the vertical wall of a
lock. The vertical side of the sluice is ‘d’ metres in length
and depth of centroid of the area is ‘p’ metres below the
water surface, Prove that the depth of pressure is equal to
 d2 
 P  .
 12 p 

3) A circular opening, 3 m diameter, in a vertical side of a tank

is closed by a disc of 3 m diameter which can rotate about a
horizontal diameter. Calculate:
(i) The force on the disc, and
92
 (ii) The torgue required to maintain the disc in
equilibrium in the vertical position when the head of
water above the horizontal diameter is 6 m. [Ans. 416
kN (ii) 39 kNm]
4) An isosceles triangular plate of base 5 m and altitude 5 m
immersed vertically in an oil of specific gravity 0.8. The
base of the plate is 1 m below the free water surface,
determine:
(i) The total pressure, and
(ii) The centre of pressure [Ans. (i) 261.93 kN (ii) 3.19
m]
5) Determine the total pressure and centre of pressure on an
isosceles triangular plate of base 4 m and altitude 4 m when
it is immersed vertically in an oil of specific gravity 0.9. The
base of the plate coincides with the free oil surface. [Ans.
94.15kN, 1.99 m]
6) A triangular plate of 1metre base and 1.5 metre altitude is
immersed in water. The plane of the plate is inclined at 30O
with free water surface and the base is parallel to and at a
depth of 2 metres from water surface. Find the total pressure
on the plate and the position of centre of pressure.
7) An inclined rectangular sluice gate AB 1.2 m by 5 m size as
shown 3.20 is installed to control the discharge of water. the

93
 end A is hinged. Determine the normal to the gate applied at
B to open it.
8) A stone weighs 400N in air and when immersed in water it
weighs 222N. Compute the volume of stone and the relative
density (v = 0.018,

94
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Fluid Dynamics
4.1 Basic Concept
A fluid contains millions of molecular particles which are in
continuous vibratory motion. The vibratory motion is in place whether
the fluid is stationary or flowing.
Due to the vibration and the viscous property of the fluid,
especially if it is a liquid, the path of each particle changes continually
as the fluid flows. As a result, it is not quite simple to predict the motion
of individual particles. In describing the motion of the particles in a
flowing fluid, two approaches have been developed – Lagrangain and
Eulerian approaches.

4.1.1 Lagrangian Approach

In this approach, the motion of each particle in the flowing fluid
is studied by tracing its position in the flow field and noting each
position against time. An origin of coordinates (xo, yo, zo) is selected at
an arbitrary time t, (usually t = 0), and then the position of each particle
relative to the origin is studied against time. The coordinates of the
position of the particle are therefore functions of time at any instance
that is,
X = f(t)
Y = g(t) ----------------------------------------------------4.1
Z = h(t)

95
The velocity of a particular can be obtained by differentiating its
position vector with respect to time

4.1.2 Eulerian Approach

In this approach, a point is selected in the fluid relative to an
origin and the velocities of particles passing through the point
are noted against time. Therefore, the velocities of particles
depend on the position of the point and time i.e.
 V  f (x, y, z, t) ............... 4.2
or
u  f 1 (x, y, z, t)
v  f 2 (x, y, z, t)
w  f 3 (x, y, z, t) ........................4.3
4.2 Types of flows
Depending on various characteristics associated with a flow,
fluid flows can be classified into many categories:
4.2.1 Laminar Flow
This is a type of flow in which particles maintain their relative
positions. That is, paths taken by individual particles do not cross one
another and they move along well defined paths.
4.2.2 Turbulent flow
This is a flow in which the paths of the particles are
continuously crossing one another. That is, particles move in zigzag
manner and do not follow any definite pattern.
4.2.3 Steady Flow
96
 This is a type of flow in which fluid characteristics like velocity,
pressure e.t.c. at a point do not change with time.
Mathematically,
 u   v   w 
   0,    0,    0, - - - - - etc. ........4.4
 t  x0 , y0 , z0  t  x0 , y0 , z0  t  x 0, y 0, z 0
i.e Velocity does not change with time
4.2.4 Unsteady Flow
This is a flow in which velocity, pressure e.t.c at a point changes
with time.

 u   v   w 
i.e    0,    0,    0, etc. ........4.5
 t  xo, yo, zo  t  xo, yo, zo  t  xo, yo, zo
4.2.5 Uniform Flow
This is a flow in which velocity at any given time does not
change with respect to space, i.e. the velocity remains the same for all
positions in the fluid. Mathematically
 u      w 
i.e    0,    0,    0 ...................4.6
 s t  cons tan t  s t  const  s t  const
4.2.6 Non-Uniform Flow
This is a flow in which the velocity at any given time changes
with respect to space.
i.e. the velocity changes from point to point in the fluid.

97
 Mathematically,
 u   v   w 
   0,    0,    0 ........................ 4.7
 s t  const  s t  const  s  t  const

4.2.7 Compressible Flow

This is the type of flow in which the density of the fluid in the
flow changes from point to point with time. Mathematically,
  
   0 ........................ 4.8
 s 
4.2.8 Incompressible Flow
This is the flow in which the density of fluid remains constant at
  
all points in the flow.    0 ........................ 4.9
 s  t  cons tan t
4.2.9 One, Two and Three – Dimensional Flow
Flow is described as one – dimensional if the factors or
parameters, such as velocity, pressure and elevation, describing the flow
at any given instant, vary along the direction of flow and not across the
cross section at any point.
In two-dimensional flow, the flow parameters may vary in the
direction of flow and in one direction at right angles to it.
A three-dimensional flow is one in which flow parameters vary
in the three orthogonal coordinate axes (i.e. x,y, and z axes).
In general, all fluid flow occurs in three dimensions. In some
problems, major changes occur in two directions or even in only one

98
direction. Changes along the other axis or axes can, in such cases, be
ignored without bringing in major errors, thus simplifying the analysis.

4.3 Discharge and Mass Flow Rate

Discharge is defined as the total quantity of fluid passing
through any particular cross section of a stream at a given time.
This quantity can be measured either in terms of mass, in which case it
is referred to as the mass flow rate, m and measured in units such as
kilograms per second, or in terms of volume, when it is known as
volume flow rate, Q, measured in units such as cubic meters per second.
In an ideal fluid, where no friction acts, the velocity u of the
fluid is constant. If the cross-sectional area normal to the direction of
flow is A, the volume passing would be Au.
Therefore
Q = Au ------------------------ 4.10
For a real fluid flowing through a pipe, if u is the velocity at any
radius r, the flow through an annular element of radius r and
Q  Area of element x velocity
thickness will be
 2rr x u

And hence,
R
Q  2  urdr ..........................................4.11
0

In many problems, the variation of velocity over the cross-section can

be ignored, the velocity being assumed to be constant and equal to the
mean velocity being assumed to be constant and equal to the mean
99
velocity U, defined as volume rate of discharge Q divided by the area of
cross-section A normal to the stream; i.e.
Q
Mean velocity, U  ....................................4.12
A

4.4 Continuity of Flow

Except in nuclear process, matter is neither created nor
destroyed. This principle is also applicable to fluid flow.
Considering any fixed region in a flow constituting a control
volume,
Mass of fluid entering = Mass of fluid + Increase of mass of
Per unit time leaving per unit time fluid in the control
Volume per unit time

Mass of
Mass of Fluid
Fluid leaving
entering
Control volume

Fig. 4.1: Continuity of flow

For steady state, the mass of fluid in the control volume remains
constant and the relation reduces to
Mass of fluid entering per unit time = Mass of fluid leaving per
unit time
100
Applying this principle to steady flow in a stream tube (fig 4.2) with
cross-sectional area small enough for the velocity to be assumed
constant over a given cross-section, for the region between 1 and 2,
Mass entering per unit time at section 1 = Mass leaving per unit time at
section 2

Mass entering per unit = Mass leaving per unit 2

time at section 1 time at section 2
A2
U2
2

Area = A1
Velocity =U1
Density = 1

Fig 4.2: Continuous flow through a stream point

Then, for steady flow,

m  1A1u1   2A 2 u2  constant .................................. 4.13

Equation 4.13 is the continuity equation for the flow of compressible
fluid through a stream tube. If the fluid is incompressible, so that 1 = 2
and having A1 and A2 as the total cross-sectional areas, then
A1u1  A 2u2  Q .................................. 4.14
Where u1 and u2 are the mean velocities at sections 1 and 2. The
continuity equation can be applied to determine the relation between the
flow into and out of a junction.

101
In fig 4.3 for steady conditions, Total inflow to junction = Total outflow
from junction

A2
V2
Q2

A1
V1
Q1

A3
V3
Fig. 4.3: Application of continuity equation Q3

Fig 4.3: Application of continuity equation.

For an incompressible fluid, 1 = 2 = 3 so that
Q1  Q 2  Q 3

or A1 1  A 2 2  A 3 3 ...............................................4.15

Example 4.1: Oil flows through a pipeline which contracts from

450mm diameter at A to 300mm diameter at B and then fork, one
branch being 150mm diameter discharging at C and the other branch
225mm diameter discharging D. if the velocity at A is 1.8m/s and the
velocity at D is 3.6m/s, what will be the discharges at C and D and the
velocities at B and C.

102
 C Vc
Dc
A
B
VA
DA

VD
Fig. 4.4: A contracting pipe DD
D

Solution
In pipe AB, if QA is the discharge at A and QB the discharge at B,
QA = QB or aAVA = aBVB
Where aA and aB are the cross-sectional areas at A and B. Similarly, if
Qc and QD are the discharges at C and D.

QA  DA2VA   0.45 1.8  0.286 m3 / s

1 1 2

4 4

QD  DD2VAD   0.225  3.6  0.143m3 / s

1 1 2

4 4
QA = QC + QD; aAVA = acVc + aD VD
QA - QD; = QC = 0.286 – 0.143 = 0.143m3/s
1 1
Discharge at A  QA  DB2VB  DA2VA
4 4
2
D 
2
 0.45 
 VB  VA  A   1.8    4.05m/s , but
 DB   0.30 

Qc  0.143m 3 /s  1 Dc2Vc
4
Q 0.143
 Vc    8.1m/s
1 Dc2 1  (0.15) 2
4 4
103
4.5 Continuity Equations for Three-Dimensional Flow Using
Cartesian Coordinates
For compressible flow, the continuity equation is generally
stated as

u    v    w  -  .............................4.16
x y z t

For incompressible flow, the density  is constant and the

equation reduces to
u  w
   0..........................................4.17
x y z
For two-dimensional incompressible flow, equation 4.17 further
simplifies to
u 
  0.....................................................4.18
x y
Examples 4.2: The velocity distribution the flow of an
incompressible fluid is given by
u  - 3ax (x 2 - 3y 2 )
v  ay (3x 2 - y 2 )
w ?
Find the missing component if the flow is to satisfy the
continuity equation.
Solution
The continuity equation for incompressible fluid is

104
 u  w
  0 (i)
x y z
u
  - 9ax 2  9ay 2 (ii)
x

 3ax 2 - 3ay 2 (iii)
y
Substituting equations (ii) and (iii) into (i)
w
 9ax2  9ay 2  3ax 2 - 3ay 2  0
z
w
  - 6ax 2  6ay 2
z
 w    (6ax 2 - 6ay 2 ) z , w  - 6ax 2 z  6ay 2 z  c
The missing component to satisfy continuity equation is
 - 6ax 2 z  6ay 2 z

Example 4.3: For an incompressible fluid the velocity component are:

z3
u  x3  y3  z 2 x v  y 3  z 3 , w  3x 2 z  3 y 2 z  . Determine
3
whether the continuity equation is satisfied.
z3
Solution. Given u = x3 – y3 – z2x, v  y 3  z 3 , w  3x 2 z  3 y 2 z 
3
… velocity components
u v w
Now,  3x 2  z 2 ,  3y 2 ,  3x 2  3 y 2  z 2
x y z

105
 u v w
  
x y z
  
 3x 2  z 2  3 y 2   3x 2  3 y 2  z 2  0
Hence the continuity equation is satisfied. (Ans.)
Example 4.4:. The velocity components in x and y directions are given
as u = 2xy3/3 – x2y and v = xy2 – 2yx3/3. indicate whether the given
velocity distribution is:
(i) a possible field of flow
(ii) not a possible field of flow.
Solution. Given: u = 2xy3/3 – x2y and v = xy2 – 2yx3/3 … Velocity
components
A possible flow field (two dimensional) must satisfy the continuity
equation.
u v
 0
x y
u 2 3 v
Now,  y  2 xy ,
x 3 y
2
 2 xy  x 3
3
 
Since the continuity equation is not satisfied, the given velocity
components, therefore, do not represent a possible flow field. (Ans.).

Example 4.5: Given that

u = -4ax (x2 – 3y3), v = 4ay (3x2 – y2)
examine whether these velocity components represent a physically two-
dimensional flow; if so whether the flow is rotational or irrotational?
Solution: Given: u =-4ax (x2 – 3y3), v = 4ay (3x2 – y2)

106
 u v
A two-dimensional flow will be continuous if  0
x y
Now,

u 

x x
 
 4ax x 2  3 y 2 

x
  
 4ax 3  12axy 2  12ax 2  12ay 2

And
u

x y

 
4ay 3x 2  y 2 

y
  
12 ax 2 y  4ay 3  12 ax 2  12 ay 2

u v
 
x y
  
 12 ax 2  12ay 2  12ax 2  12 ay 2  0 
Hence the given velocity components represent a physical possible two-
dimensional flow. (Ans.)
The flow will be irrotational if
u v

y x

Now,
u 

y y
 
 4ax x 2  3 y 2 

y
 
 4ax 3  12axy 2  24axy 

And
v 

x x
 
4ay 3x 2  y 2 

x
 
12axy 2  4ay 3  24ayx 
u v
  , hence the flow is irrotational. (Ans.)
y x

107
Example 4.6. What is the irrotational velocity field associated with the
potential  = 3x2 – 3x + 3y2 + 16t2 + 12zt. Does the flow field satisfy the
incompressible continuity equation?
Sol. Given:  = 3x2 – 3x + 3y2 + 16t2 + 12zt
The velocity field is represented by
 
u ' v
x y

 u
x
 
3x 2 - 3x  3y 2  16t 2  12zt  - 6x  3


And v
y
 
3x 2 - 3x  3y 2  16t 2  12zt  - 6y

u 
Also  - 6x  3  - 6 , and
x x
v 
 - 6y   - 6
y y
The continuity equation for an incompressible fluid is
u v
 0
x y
Substituting the values, we get
u v
  - 6 - 6  - 12
x y
This shows that the given velocity field does not satisfy the continuity
equation. (Ans)

108
Example 4.7: If the expression for stream function is described by  =
x3 – 3xy2, determine whether flow is rotational or irrotational. If the
flow is irrotational, then indicate the correct value of the velocity
potential.
(a)  = y3 – 3x2y (b)  = - 3x2y
Sol. Given :  = x3 – 3xy2 …stream function
A two-dimensional flow in x – y plane will be irrotational if the velocity
vector in the z-direction is zero.
v u
i.e. z  -  0 , we know,
x y

  3
u  
y y
 
x - 3xy 2  - 6xy , and

  3
v  -
x
-
x
    
x - 3xy 2  - 3x 2 - 3y 2  - 3 x 2 - y2 
u v
  - 6x , and  - 6x
y x

Substituting these values in equation (1), we get

 z  - 6x - (- 6x)  0
Hence the flow is irrotational. (Ans.)
For an irrotational flow Laplace equation in  must be satisfied
 2  2
i.e.   0 Let us check the validity for each expression
x 2 y 2 ,
for  (a)  = y3 - 3x2y

109
  2  2
 - 6y and  6y , 
x 2 y 2

 2  2
  - 6y  6y  0
x 2 y 2

(b)  = -3x2y
 2  2  2  2
 - 6y and  6y ,   0
x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2

Hence the correct value of  = y3 – 3x2y (Ans.)

Problems
1. Given the velocity field:
 = (6 + 2xy + t2) i – (xy2 + 10t) j + 25k.
What is the acceleration of a particle at (3,0,2) at time t = 1?
[Ans. + 58.35 units]
2. The velocity along a streamline passing through the origin is given
by:

V  2 x 2  y 2 . What is the velocity and acceleration at (4, 3)?

[Ans. 10 m/s, 20 m/s2]

3. The velocity components in a steady flow are: u = 2 kx ;  = 2ky ;
w = -4kz.
What is the equation of a streamline passing through the point
(1, 0, 1)?
 1 
Ans. y  0, z  x 2 
 

110
4. Determine the missing component of velocity distribution such that
they satisfy continuity equation, u = 2x2 + 2xy, v = 2yz2 + 3z2,
 
w = ? Ans. w  - 4xz - 2yz - x 3  f x, y, t 
2
 3 
5. The velocity components in a three-dimensional fluid flow are:
u = x2 + y2z3, v= - (xy + yz + zx). Determine the missing
component velocity distribution such that continuity equation is
 z2 
satisfied. Ans. w  - xz   f x, y, t 
 2 
6. The velocity components of fluid flow (incompressible) are
u = x2y,  = 2yz – xy2, w = x2 – z2. Show that this flow is
kinematically possible.
7. In a three-dimensional, incompressible fluid flow, the velocity, the
velocity components are
U = x2 + z2 + 5,  = y2 + z2 – 3
(i) Determine the third component of velocity
(ii) Is the fluid flow irrotational? [Ans. (i) w = -2 (x + y)z + ∫ (x,
y, t) (ii) No]
8. The velocity potential function () is given by
 xy 2 x3 y 
  - - x 2
  y2 
 3 3 

111
 Determine the velocity components in x and y direction and show
that  represent a possible case of flow.

 y3 x3 
Ans. u   2x - x y, v  xy -  2y 
2 2

 3 3 
9. .In a three-dimensional incompressible flow, the velocity component
in y and z-directions are v = ax3 – by2 + cz2; w = bx3 – cy2 + az2x.
Determine the missing component of velocity distribution such that
continuity equation is satisfied.
10. A conical pipe diverges uniformly from 100 mm to 200 m diameter
over a length of 1. Determine the local and convective acceleration
at the mid-section assuming
(i) Rate of flow is 0.12m3/s and it remains constant;
(ii) Rate of flow varies uniformly from 0.12m3/s to 0.24m3/s in 5
sec., at t = 2 sec.

11 Given that u = xy, v =2yz. Examine whether these velocity comp.

Represent two or three-dimensional incompressible flow: if three
dimensional, determine third component.
12. : For a two-dimensional flow the velocity function is given by the
expression,  = x2 – y2.
(i) Determine velocity components in x and y directions.
(ii) Show that the velocity components satisfy the conditions of
flow continuity and irrotationality.

112
 (iii) Determine stream function and the flow rate between the
streamlines (2, 0) and (2, 2).
(iv) Show that the streamlines and potential lines intersect
orthogonally at the point (2, 2).
14. A two-dimensional flow field is given by  = 3xy, Determine:
(ii) The stream function
(iii) The velocity at L (2, 6) and M (6, 6) and the pressure
difference between the points L and M.
(iv) The discharge between the streamlines passing through the
points L and M.

4.6 Energy of a Flowing Liquid

A liquid may possess three forms of energy;
(a) Potential Energy: This is a form of energy possessed by a fluid
as a result of its elevation above datum level. If weight W of
liquid is at a height of z above datum,
Potential energy = Wz
Potential energy per unit weight = z--------------- 4.19
(b) Pressure Energy: This is a form of energy possessed by a fluid
as a result of work done as it flows continuously under pressure.
w
Volume passing cross-section 
g
w
Distance moved by liquid 
ga

113
 w
Work done = force x distance  pa x
ga
p
w

Pressure energy per unit weight
p
 ............................... 4.20
g
(c) Kinetic Energy: If a weight W of liquid has a velocity v,
1w 2
Kinetic energy = V
2g

V2
Kinetic energy per unit weight = ...............................4.21
2g
The total energy of the fluid is the sum of these three forms of energy.
p V2
Total energy per unit weight = Z  
g 2 g
p V2
i.e. H  Z   ...................................................4.22
g 2 g
Example 4.9: Water at an altitude of 36m above sea level has a velocity
of 18m/s and a pressure of 350kN/m2. Calculate the total energy per
Newton of this water reckoned above sea level.
Solution
Z  36m, P  350kN/m 2 , V  18m/s and   1000kg/m 3
Using equation 4.22,
350 x 10 3 18 2
H  36   , H  88.2 Nm/N
1000 x 9.81 2 x9.81
114
4.7 Bernoulli’s equation for frictionless flow
Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of each particle
of a body of fluid is the same provided that no energy enters or leaves
the system at any point. The division of this energy between potential,
pressure and kinetic may vary, but the total remains constant.
P V2
H  Z   constant .................................... 4.23
g 2 g
Equation 4.23 is referred to as Bernoulli’s equation
If some form of energy is supplied into the system or some energy is
lost by doing some work against friction, equation 4.23 can be expanded
to include these conditions, giving

P1 V2 p V2
 1  Z1  2  2  Z2  h  w  q ................................... 4.24
1 g 2g  2 g 2g

Where
h = Loss per unit weight
w = work done per unit weight
q = energy supplied per unit weight.

Example 4.10: A jet of water from a 25mm diameter nozzle directed

vertically upwards. Assuming that the jet remains circular and
neglecting any loss of energy, what will be the diameter of the jet at a

115
point 4.5m above the nozzle if the velocity with which the jet leaves the
nozzle is 12m/s
Solution

V2 d2
2 Z2

V1 d1
1 Z1

Fig. 4.5: Jet nozzle

By Bernoulli’s theorem,

Note: At both sections, the water is at atmospheric pressure PA

P1 = P2 = PA
p A V12 p V2
Z1    Z2  A  2
g 2g g 2g

V12 - V22
  Z 2 - Z1
2g

116
 V1  12m/s, and Z2 - Z1  4.5 m

12 2 - V22  2g x 4.5
V22  144 - 883
V22  55.7
V2  55.7
V2  7.46 m/s
for continuity of low
A1V1  A 2V2

1 2 1 V1 12
d1 V1  d 22V2 ,  d  d1  25 ,
4 4 V2 7.46

d 2  31.7 mm
4.8 Momentum Equation
The particles of a fluid stream will possess momentum, and
whenever the velocity of stream is changed in magnitude and direction,
there will be corresponding change in the momentum of the fluid
particles.
To determine the rate of change of momentum in a fluid stream,
let us consider a control volume ABCD (fig 4.6). As the fluid flow is
assumed to be steady and non uniform in nature, the continuity of mass
flow across the control volume may be expressed as explained below.

117
 D

A
Area A1 Area A2
Velocity V1 Velocity V2
Density 1 Density 2
B

Fig 4.6 momentum in a flowing fluid

 2 A2V2  1 A1V2  m .................................................4.25
i.e. there is no storage within the control volume and m is the fluid mass
flow.
The rate at which momentum exists the control volume across boundary
CD may be define as
 2 A2V2V2
Similarly, the rate at which momentum enters the control volume across
AB may be expressed as
1 A1V1V1
Thus, the rate of change of momentum across the control volume is
 2 A2V2V2 - 1 A1V1V1 ........................................................4.26
Or, from the continuity of mass flow equation
2 A2V2 V2 - V1   m V2 - V1  ..................................................4.27
= mass flow per unit time x change of velocity

118
since equation 4.27 is increase in momentum per unit time in the
direction of motion, equation 4.27 can be expressed as
F  m (V2 - V1 ) ..............................................4.28)
where F is the resultant force acting on the fluid element ABCD causing
the increase in momentum.
Generally, for two and three – dimensional flows, momentum
equation can be stated as
F  m (Vout - Vin ) ..............................................4.29
Example 4.11: A 6m long pipe is inclined at an angle of 20o with the
horizontal. The smaller section of the pipe which is at lower level is of
100mm diameter and the larger section of the pipe is of 300 mm
diameter. If the pipe is uniformly tapering and the velocity of water at
the smaller section is 1.8 m/s determine the difference of pressure
between the two sections.
Sol. Length of the pipe, l = 6m
Angle of inclination,  = 200
At section 1:
Diameter, D1 = 100mm = 0.1 m

 Area, A1  x 0.12  0.00785 m 2 , Velocity, V1 = 1.8 m/s,
4
Datum, z1 = 0
At Section 2

 Area, A 2  x 0.32  0.0707 m 2
4

119
Datum z2 = 0 + 6 sin  = 6 sin 20O = 6 x 0.342 = 2.05 m
Let P1 = pressure at section 1 in kN/m2, and P2 = pressure at
section 2 in kN/m2
Difference of pressures, (p1 – p2): From the equation of continuity, we
know that
A1V1 0.00785 x 1.8
A1V1 = A2V2, V2    0.2 m/s
A2 0.0707
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to both sections of the pipe, we get
P1 V12 P2 V22
  z1    z2
w 2g w 2g
Or

 P1 P2   V22 V12 
        z 2  z 1  =
w w  2g 2g 
1
2g
 
V22  V12  z 2  z1  =
1
 
0.2 2  1.8  2.05  0  1.88
2 x 9.81
(p1 – p2) = w x 1.88 = 9.81 x 1.88 = 18.44kN/m2 (Ans.)

Example 4.12:. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 600

mm and 400 mm at the bottom and upper end respectively. The intensity
of pressure at the bottom end is 350kN/m2 and the pressure at the upper
end is 100kN/m2. Determine the difference in datum head if the rate of
flow through the pipe is 60 litres/s
Sol. At section 1:
Diameter D1 = 600mm = 0.6m

120
 
 Area, A1  x 0.6 2  0.283 m 2 ,
4
Pressure p1 = 350kN/m2
At section 2:
Diameter D2 = 400mm = 0.4m, Area

A2  x 0.4 2  0.1257 m 2
4
Pressure p2 = 100kN/m2, Rate of Flow,
60
Q  60 litres/s   0.06 m 3 /s
1000
Now Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2
[Where V1 and V2 are the velocities at section 1 and 2 respectively]
Q 0.06
 V1    0.212 m/s ,and
A1 0.283
Q 0.06
V2    0.477 m/s
A2 0.1257
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2, we get
P1 V12 P2 V22
  z1    z2
w 2g w 2g

350 0.212 2 100 0.477 2

  z1    z2
9.81 2 x9.81 9.81 2 x9.81
= 35.67 + 0.0023 + z1 = 10.19 + 0.0116 + z2, =
z2 – z1 = 25.47 m (Ans.)

121
Example 4.13:. The following data relate to a conical tube of length 3.0
m fixed with its smaller end upwards and carrying fluid in the
downward direction. The velocity of flow at the smaller end = 10 m/s,
The velocity of flow at the larger end = 4 m/s. The loss of head in the
0.4V1  V2 
2

tube = .Where V1 and V2 are velocities at the smaller and

2g
larger ends respectively.
Pressure head at the smaller end = 4 m of liquid. Determine the pressure
head at the larger end.
Sol. Length of tube, l = 3.0m, Velocity, V1 = 10 m/s
P1
Pressure head,  4 m of liquid .Velocity, V2 = 4 m/s
w
0.4V1  V2  0.410  4
2 2
Loss of head, hL    0.73 m
2g 2 x9.81

P2
Pressure head at the larger end, :
w
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections (1) and (2) we get
P1 V12 P2 V22
  z1    z 2  hL
w 2g w 2g
Let the datum line passes through section (2)
P1 V12 V22 P
  z1   z 2  hL  2
w 2g 2g w

10 2 42
 z 2  z   hL  2
P
4 
29.81 29.81 w

122
 10 2 42 P
4   3  0.73  2 =4.55m
29.81 29.81 w

Problems
1) A pipe (1) 400 mm in diameter, conveying water, branches
into two pipes (2 and 3) of diameter 300 mm and 200 mm
respectively.
(i) Find the discharge in pipe (1) if the average velocity
of water in this pipe is 3 m/s.
(ii) Determine the velocity of water in 200 mm pipe if
the average velocity in 300 mm diameter pipe is 2
m/s. [Ans. (i) 0.377m3/s. (ii) 7.5 m/s]
2) The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 200
mm and 100 mm at sections 1 and 2 respectively. The rate of
flow through the pipe is 35 litre/s. The section 1 is 6 m above
datum and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at
section 1 is 400 kN/m2, find the intensity of pressure at
secion 2. [Ans. 410.5kN/m2]
3) A pipe 200 m long slopes down at 1 in 100 and tapers from
800mm diameter at the higher end to 400 mm diameter at the
lower end, and carries 100 litres/s of oil (sp. Gr. 0.85). if the
pressure gauge at the higher end reads 50kN/m2, determine:
(i) Velocities at the two ends, and

123
 (ii) Pressure at the higher end. Neglect all losses.[Ans. (i)
0.2 m/s, 0.8 m/s (ii) 66.5 kN/m2.
4) A pipe 300 meters long has a slope of 1 in 100 and tapers
from 1.0 m diameter at the higher end to 0.5 m at the lower
end. Quantity of water flowing is 90 litres/s. if the pressure at
higher end is 70 kN/m2, find the pressure at the lower end.
[Ans. 100kN/m2]
5) In a 450 bend a rectangular air duct of 1 m2 cross-sectional
area is gradually reduced to 0.5 m2 areas. Find the magnitude
and direction of force required to hold the duct in position of
the velocity of flow at 1 m2 section is 10 m/s, and pressure is
30 kN/m2. Take the specific weight of air as 0.0116 kN/m3
6) 250 litres/sec. of water is flowing in a pipe having a
diameter of 300mm. If the pipe is bent by 135 O, find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the bend.
The pressure of the water flowing is 400 kN/m2. Take
specific weight of water as 9.81kN/m3.
7) 300 litres per second of water is flowing in a pipe. The pipe
is bent by 120O. The pipe bend measures 360 mm x 240 mm
and volume of the bend is 0.14 m3. The pressure at the
entrance is 72 kN/m2 and exist is 2.4 m above the entrance
section. Find the force exert on the bend.

124
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Flow Measurement
Although Bernoulli’s equation is applicable to problems of
incompressible flow where there is involvement of energy
considerations, application of other measuring devices in flow
measurement is of great importance

.
5.1 Horizontal Venturi Meter
The venturi meter consists of a short converging conical tube
(fig 5.1) leading to a cylindrical portion the “throat” which is followed
by a diverging section. The entrance and exit diameter is the same as
that of the pipe line into which it is inserted, for continuity of flow, the
velocity V1 at the entry section I will be less than the velocity V2 at the
throat section 2 since a1V1 = a2V2 and a1 is greater than a2
By applying Bernoulli’s equation,

125
 V12 P1 V22 p 2
Z1    Z2   ignoring losses.................5.1
2g g 2g g

For a horizontal meter, Z1 = Z2 ,

V22 - V12 p1 - p 2
 .............................................5.2
2g g
For continuity of flow a1V1 = a2V2 giving
a1
V2  V1 .........................................................5.3
a2
Substituting (5.3) into 5.2
a2  p - p 
V12  12 - 1  2g  1 2 
 a2   g 

a2   p1 - p 2 
V1  2 g   .............................5.4
a 2
1 - a 22    g 

a1a2
Discharge Q  a1V1  2 gH ..............................5.5
a2
1 - a 22 
Where
p -p 
H   1 2   pressure expressed as a head of the liquid flowing in the meter.
 g 

a1
If the area ratio  m, equation (5.5) becomes
a2

2 gH
Q  a1 ..................................5.6
m2 -1

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 The theoretical discharge Q can be converted to actual discharge
by multiplying by the coefficient of discharge Cd found experimentally,

2 gH
Actual Discharge = C a x Q  C d a1 ...............................5.7
m2 -1

5.2 Pitot Tube

Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of a stream and
consists of a simple L – shaped tube facing into the oncoming flow (fig
5.2). If the velocity of the stream at A is u, a particle moving from A to
the mouth of the tube B will be brought to rest so that Uo at B is zero.

Fig. 5.2. Pitot tube

By applying Bernoulli’s equation.
Total energy per unit = Total energy per unit
Weight at A weight at B
u2 p u 02 p 0
   .....................................................5.8
2 g g 2 g g

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 Since Uo = 0. Thus, Po will be greater than P
u2 p p0
  ;
2 g g g

u 2 p0 - p
 .....................................................5.9
2g g
p p
Putting  Z and 0  Z  h, equation 5.9 becomes
g g
u2
 Z h - Zh
2g

 u  2gh  velocity at A  u  2gh .....................................5.10

5.3 Horizontal Orifice Plate

Fig 5.3 Orifice Plate in pipe

Figures 5.3 above shows an orifice plate in pipe. Let v1 and p1 be
the velocity and pressure upstream of the plate, and V2 and P2 be the
same quantities in the orifice.

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Applying Bernoulli’s equation between planes 1 and 2 gives
p1 V12 p 2 V22
   ....................................................5.11
g 2 g g 2g
V12 - V22 P2 V22
  .......................................................5.12
2g g 2g
By continuity of flow A1V1 = A2V2, thus
A 
V2   1 V1 ........................................5.13
A2 
Substituting 5.13 into 5.12 gives

2
A 
V -  1  V12
1
2

A2  p -p
 2 1
2 

  A 2  P -P 
1- 1  2 1 2 
    p 2  p1
 V12   2 
A
 V1     -----5.14

 2    A 
2

   1   1
    A2  
 
Theoretical discharge Q will therefore become

P -P 
2 1 2 
Q  A1V1  A1    -------------------------5.15
 A 
2

 1   1
  A2  
 

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Example 5.1: A vertical sharp-edge orifice 120 mm in diameter is
discharging water at the rate of 98.2 litres/s under a constant head of 10
metres. A point on the jet, measured from the vena-contracta of the jet
has co-ordinates 4.5 metres horizontal and 0.54 metres vertical. Find the
following for the orifice
(i) Co-efficient of velocity
(ii) Co-efficient of discharge, and
(iii) Co-efficient of contraction.
Solution: Diameter of orifice, d = 120 mm = 0.12 m
 Area of orifice, a = /4 x 0.122 = 0.01131 m2
98.2
Discharge, Q = 98.2 litres/s =  0.0982 m3 / s
1000
Head, H = 10 m
Horizontal distance of a point on the jet from vena-contracta, x = 4.5 m
Vertical distance, y = 0.54 m
Now theoretical velocity,
Vth  2 gH  2 x 9.81 x 10  14 m/s

Theoretical discharge,
Qth = Area of orifice (a) x Vth = 0.01131 x 14 = 0.1583 m3/s
(i) Co-efficient of velocity, Cv:
x 4.5
CV  , CV   0.968 ( Ans.)
4 yH 4 x0.54 x10
(ii) Co-efficient of discharge, Cd:

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 actual discharge 0.0982
Cd  , CV   0.62 ( Ans.)
theoretica l discharge 0.1583
(iii) Co-efficient of contraction, CC:
Cd 0.62
CC    0.64 ( Ans.)
CV 0.968
Example 5.2: The head of water over an orifice of diameter 100 mm is
12 m. the water coming out from the orifice is collected in a rectangular
tank 2m x 0.9 m. The rise of water level in this tank is 1.2 m in 30
seconds. Find the co-efficient of discharge.
Solution: Head of water, H = 12 m
Diameter of orifice, d = 100 mm = 0.1 m, Area, , a = /4
x 0.12 = 0.00785 m2
Area of the measuring tank, A = 2 x 0.9 = 1.8 m2,
Rise of water level (in t = 30 s), h = 1.2 m
Co-efficient of discharge, Cd:

Vth  2 gH
 2 x 9.81 x 12  15.34 m/s
 Theoretical discharge, Qth = a x Vth
= 0.00785 x 15.34 = 0.1204 m3/s
A x h 1.8 x 1.2
Actual discharge, Q    0.072 m 3 /s
t 30
Q 0.072
 Co-efficient of discharge, C d    0.6 (Ans.)
Qth 0.1204

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Problems
1) An orifice 60 mm in diameter is discharging water under a
head of 9 metres. If Cd = 0.6 and Cv = 0.9 find:
(i) Actual discharge, and
(ii) Actual velocity of the jet at vena contracta.
[Ans. (i) 0.02254 m3/s, (ii) 11.26 m/s]
2) The head of water over the centre of an orifice of diameter
20 mm is 1 m. The actual discharge through the orifice is
0.85 litres/s. Find the co-efficient of discharge. [Ans. 0.61]
3) A jet of water issues from a circular orifice of 25 mm
diameter, under a constant head of 1 metre. It falls 35 mm
vertically down and strikes the ground at a distance of 350
mm from the centre of the vena contracta. If the discharge
through the jet is 1.35 litres/s find:
(i) Co-efficient of discharge;
(ii) Co-efficient of velocity;
(iii) Co-efficient of contraction. [Ans. (i) 0.625, (ii) 0.935,
(iii) 0.668]
(4) A tank has two identical orifices in one of its vertical sides. The
upper orifice is 1.5 m below the water surface and the lower one
is 3m below the water surface as shown in Fig. 8.3. Find the

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 point, at which the two jets will intersect, if the co-efficient of
velocity is 0.92 for both the orifices.
(5) A tank containing water is provided with a sharp edged circular
7.5 mm diameter. The height of water in the tank is 1.44 m
above the orifice. The jet wall 1.5m away and 0.42 m vertically
below the centre line of the contracted section. The actual
discharge through the orifice is measured to be 35 litres in 4
minuets.
(i) The orifice co-efficients
(ii) The power loss at the orifice.

133