Unit 2: Exogenic & Endogenic

Processes
Prepared by:
Joven A. Pedrera, MSc. & Jonah Jean R. Callao, MSc.
ESLS Instructors
Learning Outcomes:

 Differentiate Endogenic and Exogenic processes.

 Determine the history of the Earth.

 Identify causes for the deformation of crust.

Geomorphic Processes:
Exogenic & Endogenic
 Physical processes which create and modify
landforms on the surface of the earth.

 Geomorphology: the science of landforms, with an emphasis on their

origin, evolution, form, and distribution across the physical landscape.

 Endogenic (internal) vs Exogenous (external)

Geomorphic Processes:
Exogenic
Geomorphic Processes:
Exogenic
 The processes that take place at  Relief is the variations in the
or near the Earth's surface. elevation of the ground surface.

 Also called Gradational Very destructive and responsible for

Processes, they comprise degradation and sculpting of the
degradation and aggradation – Earths surface.
they modify relief.
 Types of
Exogenic
1. Weathering
3. Mass Wasting

2. Erosion

Degradation Process- denudation process

 Types of
Exogenic

4. Deposition
Alluvial deposition

Aggredation Process
 1. Weathering
 is disintegration and decomposition of
rocks in situ – no transportation
involved  produces regolith

 it involves the mechanical or physical

disintegration and/or chemical
decomposition that fragments rock
masses into smaller components that
amass on-site, before being moved by
gravity or transported by other agents

“The processes begin in microscopic spaces, cracks, joints, faults, fractures, lava vesicles and
other rock cavities”
Types of Weathering

 Biological
 Physical or Mechanical

 Chemical
Types of Weathering  Disintegration and decay of rocks via
weather elements: high temperatures,
extreme cold and freeze-thaw cycles.

 No change in chemical composition

of rocks

5 Principal Types of Physical Weathering:

1. Unloading- rocks will be exposed to the low pressure of the atmosphere
* Exfoliation- successive removal of the outer rock sheet.
2. Thermal expansion and contraction weathering- rocks weather as they
 Physical or Mechanical heat and cool.
3. Freeze-thaw – water expansion inside rocks causes weathering
4. Salt Crystal Growth - water containing salt accumulates within void
spaces. When the water evaporates salt leave behind growing into crystals.
5. Hydration- minerals expand and shrink as water accumulates and leave
the rocks.
Types of Weathering
Oxidation – important in iron-rich rocks – reddish
coloration like rust.

Hydrolysis – igneous rocks have much silica which

readily combines with water.

Carbonation and Solution – carbon dioxide dissolved

in water reacts with carbonate rocks to create a
soluble product (calcium bicarbonate)
 Chemical
decomposes rocks through a
chemical change in its
minerals.
Types of Weathering
 Roots physically break or wedge rock

 Lichens (algae and fungi living as single unit),

remove minerals and weaken rock by releasing acids

 Burrowing animals can increase weathering.

 BiologicaL

– plants and animals

contribute to
weathering.
 2. Erosion
 is the removal (transport) of
weathered rock materials downslope,
and away, from their original site of
weathering.
 driven primarily by the force of gravity,
which may be aided by a flowing
medium such as water (e.g. rivers), and
ice (e.g. glaciers), or gravity may act
alone (e.g. rockfalls). Wind can also
remove weathered materials.
4 Agents of Erosion
 1. Water (fluvial morphology) . the
most important Erosion of Earth. River
transport and abrade Sediments.
Faster water erodes more than slow
water.
 2.Glaciers (glacial morphology). Huge
heavy slowing ice. When melts, piles
of mixed up sediments and lots of
freshwater left behind.
4 Agents of Erosion
 3. Wind (Eolian morphology) . Also
known as Aeolian or Eolian erosion.
Occurs always in deserts.
Responsible for making sand dunes.
The power of wind erodes rock and
sand.
 4. mass wasting (gravity). Gravity
pulls everything towards the
center of the Earth resulting in “
Creeps” or “ Avalanche “ which
composes mixed piles of
sediments.
 3. Mass wasting
 Also known as slope movement or
mass movement.
Rock Fall
 the movement of rock and soil down
slope under the influence of gravity.
Rock falls, slumps, and debris flows are
all examples of mass wasting

 Mass wasting involves almost all kinds

of surface materials: rocks, snow and
ice, soil, earth, debris and mud.
Land slide
 Classifications of
Mass Wasting
 1. Creep
 the slow migration of
particles to successively lower
elevations.
 the imperceptibly slow,
downslope movement of soil
and earth materials.
 Rates of movement are often
only a few centimeters per
year.
 Classifications of
Mass Wasting
 2. Solifluction
Soil flow
Refers to the slow downslope
movement of water-saturated
soil.
Most common in high latitude
or high elevation tundra
regions that have permafrost.
Movement rates are typically
only centimeters per year.
 Classifications of
Mass Wasting
 3. Fall
are landslides that involve the
collapse of material from a cliff
or steep slope.
Falls usually involve a mixture
of free fall through the air,
bouncing or rolling.
 A fall type landslide results in
the collection of rock or debris
 Rock Fall caused by
near the base of a slope
Typhoon Agaton
 Classifications of
Mass Wasting
 4. Avalanche
a mass of material moving
rapidly down a slope. An
avalanche is typically triggered
when material on a slope
breaks loose from its
surroundings.
this material then quickly
collects and carries additional
 Ice Avalanche
material down the slope.
 Classifications of
Mass Wasting
 5. Slump
is a form of mass wasting that
occurs when a coherent mass
of loosely consolidated
materials or rock layers moves
a short distance down a slope.

Movement is characterized by
sliding along a concave-
upward or planar surface.
 Classifications of
Mass Wasting
 6. Slide
Happens when a section of soil
or rock suddenly gives way and
moves down a slope.

The material moves as a single

mass along a slippery zone.

The slippery zone is often

made up of wet sediment.
 Classifications of
Mass Wasting
 7. Flow
 Geological phenomena in
which water-laden masses of
soil and fragmented rock
rush down mountainsides,
funnel into stream channels,
entrain objects in their paths,
and form thick, muddy
deposits on valley floors.
 Classifications of
Mass Wasting
 8. Landslide
 Large, rapid mass wasting events that
are difficult to classify because they
contain elements of more than one
category of motion or multiple types
of materials are involved in a single
massive slide
 landslide is the movement of rock,
earth, or debris down a sloped section
of land.
Classifications of Mass Wasting
 4. Deposition
 The dropping of sediments in a
new place.
 Various geomorphic agents,
associated processes and
resulting Depositional Features.

•Fluvial
•Eolian
•Coastal
•Glacial
 4. Deposition
Fluvial
 deposits are sediments
deposited by the flowing
water of a stream.

 An alluvial fan is a triangle-

shaped deposit of gravel,
sand, and even smaller
pieces of sediment, such
as silt.
 4. Deposition
Eolian
 those in which sediment
deposition is primarily
governed by wind.

 They are typically associated

with arid environments.
 4. Deposition
Coastal
 When the sea loses energy, it
drops the sand, rock particles
and pebbles it has been
carrying.
 They are typically due to Tides
and Waves.
 4. Deposition
Glacial
 the settling of sediments left
behind by a moving glacier.
Geomorphic Processes:
Endogenic
Geomorphic Processes:
Endogenic 1. Igneous Processes

a. Volcanism: Volcanic eruptions 

 Processes are large-scale Volcanoes
landform building and b. Plutonism: Igneous intrusions
transforming processes – they
create relief. 2. Tectonic Processes (Also called Diastrophism)
the process of movement and deformation of the earth's crust
that gives rise to large-scale features such as continents, ocean
When the land is shaped by the basins, and mountains
Endogenic Forces, we call this a. Folding: anticlines, synclines, mountains
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES b. Faulting: rift valleys, graben,
escarpments
c. Lateral Faulting: strike-slip faults
 Igneous Process:
Volcanism
 The eruption of molten rock
(magma) onto the surface of the
Earth.
 It occurs because of Earth's
internal heat, and is associated
with tectonic processes and a
part of the rock cycle.
 Volcanic eruptions occur when
molten lava reaches the surface
of the Earth.

“Volcanoes are named from VULCAN, the Roman God of Fire”

 Volcanism: Formation
of Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are vent or opening on the
planet’s surface which allow molten
rock called magma, volcanic ash, and
gas to escape out into its surface.

 Most volcanoes are formed by the

movement of the tectonic plates on
the surface of the earth.

 These plates are huge pieces of rock

that float on the mantle (sort-of liquid
rock).

“Volcanoes are named for VULCAN, the Roman God of Fire”

Volcanism: Formation
of Volcanoes
 Volcanism:  The formation of the Volcanoes is
Formation of Volcanoes caused by Plate Tectonics movement.
 Volcanism:  Volcanoes is in the egde of TECTONIC
PLATES.
Formation of Volcanoes
 Volcanism:
Formation of Volcanoes

 Pacific Ring of Fire

 String of volcanoes and
sites of seismic activity
around the edges of the
Pacific Ocean.
 It isn’t circular but of a
horseshoe shaped.
 A string of 452 volcanoes.
 Tectonic Processes:
Folding
 Occurs when rock is compressed, as it
is along colliding plate boundaries.
 Upturned folds are called anticlines
 Down turned folds are called synclines
 Anticlines and synclines are geologic
structures, that is, they are folds in
rock material.
 The sides of the fold are called
the limbs. Each fold has an axial plane,
an imaginary plane that runs down its
length and divides the fold in half.
 Tectonic Processes:
Faulting

 A fault is a fracture along which

movement occurs.
 A break in rock along which a
vertical or horizontal rock  The line of fault which appears on
movement has occurred is a land surface is known as fault line.
called a fault. The process of  These lines are often lines of
forming a fault is faulting. weakness which allow molten rock to
rise up onto the earth surface when
there is active volcanic activity
nearby.
 Tectonic Processes:
Faulting
 The plane that extends into the earth
and along which slippage occurs is
called the fault plane.
Generally, two walls are distinguished, the
footwall and hanging wall.

 The hanging wall moves horizontally,

vertically, or in both directions relative to
the footwall.

 The steep face of an exposed block is

called the fault scarp.
 Tectonic Processes:
Faulting
 Three Types of Fault:
 Normal Fault (Convergent)
Rift valleys
 Reverse Fault (Divergent)
 Tear Fault (Transform)

 Faulting forms two major

landforms – block mountains
and rift valleys

Block mountains
  Three Types of Fault:
Tectonic Processes:  Normal Fault (Convergent)
Faulting  Reverse Fault (Divergent)
 Tear Fault (Transform)
  The largest, main earthquake is called the
Tectonic Processes: mainshock.
Earthquakes  Mainshocks always have aftershocks
follow. These are smaller earthquakes
that
that
 An earthquake is what happens when occur afterwards in the same place as the
two blocks of the earth suddenly slip mainshock.
past one another. The surface where
they slip is called the fault or fault
plane.

 The location below the earth’s surface

where the earthquake starts is called
the hypocenter (focus), and the
location directly above it on the surface
of the earth is called the epicenter.

“ The energy radiates outward from the fault in all directions in the form of seismic waves like ripples on a
pond “
 Tectonic Processes:  Intensity on the other hand, is the strength of
Earthquakes an earthquake as perceived and felt by people
in a certain locality. It is a numerical rating
based on the relative effects to people,
 There are two ways by which we can
objects, environment, and structures in the
measure the strength of an
surrounding.
earthquake: magnitude and intensity.
 The intensity is generally higher near the
 Magnitude is proportional to the energy epicenter. It is represented by Roman
released by an earthquake at the focus. It Numerals (e.g. II, IV, IX). In the Philippines,
is calculated from earthquakes the intensity of an earthquake is determined
recorded by an instrument
using the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity
called seismograph. It is represented by
Arabic Numbers (e.g. 4.8, 9.0) Scale (PEIS).

“ The energy radiates outward from the fault in all directions in the form of seismic waves like ripples on a
pond “
Earthquakes: Magnitude vs Intensity
Earthquakes: Magnitude vs Intensity
Plate Boundaries: Divergent, Convergent, & Transform

 Most seismic activity occurs at three

types of plate boundaries—divergent,
convergent, and transform.

 As the plates move past each other,

they sometimes get caught and
pressure builds up. When the plates
finally give and slip due to the
increased pressure, energy is
released as seismic waves, causing
the ground to shake. This is an
earthquake.
Plate Boundaries: Divergent, Convergent, & Transform
 Plate Boundaries: Divergent

 A divergent boundary, or constructive

boundary, is where two sections of the
eggshell - two tectonic plates - are
moving away from each other.

 When this happens, they leave a gap

in-between, and this gap can be filled
by the magma from below. This
creates a series of volcanoes all the
way along the boundary.
Examples:
 two types of plates involved: oceanic The Great Rift Valley in Africa,
plates and continental plates. the Red Sea, and the Gulf of
Aden
Plate Boundaries: Divergent
 Plate Boundaries: Convergent
 This occurs when plates move towards each other
and collide.
 When a continental plate meets an oceanic plate,
the thinner, denser, and more flexible oceanic plate
sinks beneath the thicker, more rigid continental
plate. This is called subduction.

 Subduction causes deep ocean trenches to form,

such as the one along the west coast of South
America.
 About 80% of earthquakes occur where plates are
pushed together, called convergent boundaries.

 3 Types of Collision:
 Continent-Continent collision
 Continent-Oceanic Collision
 Oceanic-Oceanic Collision
 Plate Boundaries: Convergent
A continental-
continental collision
occurs where two plates
carrying continental
crust push together.
Because both crusts are
the same density,
neither plate can sink
beneath the other. If
the plates keep
moving, their edges
crumple and fold.
 In some cases, the folded crust can be pushed up high enough to
form mountains. Some of the world’s largest mountains appear
along continent- continent boundaries.
 Plate Boundaries: Convergent

 In some cases, the folded crust can be pushed up high enough to form mountains. Some of the world’s largest
mountains appear along continent- continent boundaries. Example: the Himalayas Mountain Range.
Plate Boundaries: Convergent
Plate Boundaries: Convergent
 Plate Boundaries: Transform
 Transformed Plate Boundary

 crust is neither formed nor

destroyed. Here, two plates
move past each other in
opposite directions
 occur mostly on the sea floor
near mid-ocean ridges. They
also occur on land, where
some are clearly visible as
long cracks in Earth’s surface.
“The San Andreas Fault in California is a
transform boundary that runs from the Gulf
of California through the San Francisco area”.
Plate Boundaries: Transform
 The theory of plate tectonics helps geologists today.
1. The theory of plate tectonics changed the way
that scientists view Earth. They learned that the
planet’s lithosphere has been in motion for
millions of years. Today, the theory helps them to
explain Earth’s past and to predict what might 3. The theory of plate tectonics also gives scientists
happen along plate boundaries in the future. a way to study and predict geologic events.
Scientists can predict, for example, that there are
likely to be more earthquakes where plates slide
2. By studying rock layers and using the theory, past each other. They can look for volcanic activity
geologists can uncover the history of any region where plates are sinking beneath other plates. And
on Earth. For example, in the eastern United they can predict that mountains will continue to
States, the deformed and folded rocks in the rise where plates push together.
Appalachian Mountains are evidence of an ancient
convergent boundary.
 Continental Drift Theory

 First proposed by ALFRED WEGENER

in 1912:
 250 million years ago, all of the
continents were combined into one
super-continent called “PANGAEA”

 Continents gradually “drifting” across

the Earth, sometimes plowing through
oceans and into each other. He called
this movement continental drift.

 Wegener didn’t make up this theory

out of the blue, just like other scientist,
he based it on evidence.
 Continental Drift Theory: Evidences

1. Geographic Fit of

continents just like a
PUZZLE.
 Continental Drift Theory: Evidences

2. Ancient Fossils,

rocks, and Mountain
Ranges match across
continents.
 Continental Drift Theory: Evidences

3. Old Climatic Zones

Location.
 Continental Drift Theory: Evidences but no Method

While Wegener presented

compelling evidences, there is
still no explanation for HOW
the continents drifted.

The question remained: “ if

continents drifted, what
makes them move?”
 Sea Floor Discoveries: Plate Tectonic Theory

Important Discoveries:
 WWII: US Navy mapped sea floor with sonar in
order to help ships and submarine navigate.
 Expected to find a vast, plain, and flat sea floor.
what they found was shocking!

 Oceanic ridges-----submerge mountain ranges

 Fracture zones-----cracks perpendicular to
ridges
 Trenches------------narrow, deep gashes
 Sea mountains----drowned undersea islands

“The sea floors youngest rocks were located right away at the ocean ridge- and
as it move away in either direction, the rocks got progressively old”.
 Sea Floor Discoveries: Plate Tectonic Theory

Important Discoveries:
 Sea Floor was constantly “recycled”.

 Scientist called this process

“ SEA Floor Spreading”

“Plate tectonics explains why Earth’s

continents are moving; the theory of
continental drift did not provide an
explanation. Therefore, the theory of
plate tectonics is more complete. It has
gained widespread acceptance among
scientists”.
Thank you for Listening!