6.

5 Neurons and synapses

Essential idea: Neurons transmit the

message, synapses modulate the message.

The image shows a tiny segment of a human brain the lines

show neurons and the dots show synapses. The image is
intended to illustrate both the how complex even a small
mammal's brain is and additionally how important the synapses
between neurons are; it is the synapses that drive
communication and conscious thought. With the exception of
the memory centre the number of cells in the human brain does
not increase after birth, what increase is the number of
connections and hence synapses between neurons.

http://med.stanford.edu/mcp/_jcr_content/hero/hero_banner/images/ima
geSlide8.img.620.high.jpg
Understandings
Statement Guidance
The details of structure of different types of
6.5.U1 Neurons transmit electrical impulses.
neuron are not needed.
The myelination of nerve fibres allows for
6.5.U2
saltatory conduction.
Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions
6.5.U3 across their membranes to generate a resting
potential.
An action potential consists of depolarization
6.5.U4 and repolarization of the neuron.
Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated
6.5.U5
along the axons of neurons.
Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of
6.5.U6 local currents that cause each successive part of
the axon to reach the threshold potential.
Only chemical synapses are required, not
Synapses are junctions between neurons and
6.5.U7 electrical, and they can simply be referred to
between neurons and receptor or effector cells.
as synapses.
When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they
6.5.U8
release a neurotransmitter into the synapse.
A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold
6.5.U9
potential is reached.
Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
Secretion and reabsorption of acetylcholine by
6.5.A1 neurons at synapses.

Blocking of synaptic transmission at cholinergic

6.5.A2 synapses in insects by binding of neonicotinoid
pesticides to acetylcholine receptors.
Analysis of oscilloscope traces showing resting
6.5.S1
potentials and action potentials.
6.5.U1 Neurons transmit electrical impulses.

Schwan
cell
6.5.U2 The myelination of nerve fibres allows for saltatory conduction.

myelination and saltatory conduction

As myelin acts as an insulator, myelinated
axons only allow action potentials to occur
at the unmyelinated nodes of Ranvier.

This forces the the action potential to “jump”* from

node to node (saltatory conduction).

*The jump along the axon is actually just the

The result of this is that the impulse travels much more
very rapid conduction inside the myelinated
quickly (up to 200 m/s) along myelinated axons compared to portion of the axon.
unmyelinated axons (2 m/s).

Saltatory conduction from node to node also

reduces degradation of the impulse and hence
allows the impulse to travel longer distances
than impulses in unmyelinated axons.

The myelin sheath also reduces energy expenditure over the

axon as the quantity of sodium and potassium ions that
need to be pumped to restore resting potential is less than
that of a un-myelintated axon

http://cnx.org/resources/1a264d4943c1148665b7216c649d72ad774fc80b/Figure_35_02_05.jpg
http://antranik.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/conduction-in-a-myelinated-nerve-fiber-saltatory-conduction.jpg
6.5.U3 Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate a resting potential.

-70mV

Plasma membrane is 50 times

more permeable to K+ ions
than Na+

n.b. proteins inside the nerve fiber are negatively charged which increases the charge imbalance.
Resting potential: Resting potential and Action potential

The electrical potential across the plasma

membrane of a cell that is not conducting an
impulse.

[Na+] [Cl-}
•Resting membrane potential is: 150mM [K+] 120mM
•the unequal distribution of ions on the both 5mM

sides of the cell membrane;

•the voltage difference of quiescent cells;
•the membrane potential that would be
maintained in the absence of stimuli or
conducting impulses across it;
•determined by the concentrations of ions
on both sides of the membrane;
•a negative value, which means that there is
[Na+] [Cl-}
an excess of negative charge inside of the 150mM [K+] 120mM
cell, compared to the outside. 5mM

•much of it is dependent on intracellular

potassium level as the membrane
permeability to potassium is about 50 times
higher than that to sodium.
Resting potential: Resting potential and Action potential

•cells have a higher permeability

to K+ than to Na+ ions.
•Large concentration gradient
for diffusion of K+ ions out of
cell down concentration gradient.

•Large transfer of +ve ions out

of cell, but [A-] (organic anions)
stays trapped inside cell,
therefore inside has a negative
charge w.r.t outside.

The electrical gradient builds up

until approx –85mV (-90mV)
when K+ equilibrium is reached [Cl-}
[Na+]
(no net movement of K+) [K+] 120mM
150mM
5mM
 Resting potential and Action potential

•However, K+ is not the only

ion transported.

• there is a high [Na+] outside

of cell and with the –ve
electrical gradient inside, Na+
ions are moved across the
membrane

•With the small flow of Na+

into the cell the membrane
potential increases from –
85mV to –70mV

[Na+]
[K+]
150mM [Cl-}
5mM 120mM
 The establishment of the resting potential

http://science.halleyhosting.com/sci/ibbio/cells/notes/ch6/activeT.htm https://quizlet.com/18971944/chapter-10-notes-by-paula-flash-cards/

Na+ K+ ATPase pump ensures membrane potential is maintained, always negative

value (-70mV).

• K+ pass easily out of the cell by facilitated diffusion

• Na+ move in by facilitated diffusion
• Negatively charged protein molecules inside the neurone cannot pass the
membrane
• The Na+K+ATPase pump uses energy to move 3Na+ out for every 2K+ into
neuron
• The imbalance in voltage causes a potential difference across the cell
membrane - called the resting potential at -70mV
 Summary: Resting potential

• A neuron that is not transmitting a signal has a potential difference or

voltage across its membrane that is called the RESTING POTENTIAL.
• This potential is due to an imbalance of positive and negative charges
across the membrane

• Na+/K+ pumps transfer Na+ and K+ ions across the membrane.

3 Na+ ions are pumped out and
2 K+ ion are pumped in, thus creating concentration gradients for both
ions.

• The membrane is 50 times more permeable to K+ ions than Na+ ions, so K+

leak back across the membrane faster than Na+ ions. Concentration
gradient of Na+ across the membrane is greater thus creates a charge
imbalance

• Anions within the neuron are –ve charged, which also increases the charge
balance.

• Collectively these factors give the neuron a resting potential of -70mV

6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.
is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization) of the membrane
Action potential potential as an impulse travels along it.

From McGraw Hill:

http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/
http://goo.gl/tI2MD
http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/action_potential_med.jpeg
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.

Action potential is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization)

of the membrane potential as an impulse travels along it.
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.

Action potential is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization)

of the membrane potential as an impulse travels along it.
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.

Action potential is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization)

of the membrane potential as an impulse travels along it.

1
The Na+/K+ pump maintains the electrochemical gradient of
the resting potential.
Some K+ leaks out of the neuron (making the membrane
potential negative, -70mv).
http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/action_potential_med.jpeg
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.

Action potential is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization)

of the membrane potential as an impulse travels along it.

2 In response to a stimulus (e.g. change in membrane potential) in an

adjacent section of the neuron some voltage gated Na+ channels open
and sodium enters the neuron by diffusion. If a sufficient change in
membrane potential is achieved (threshold potential) all the voltage
gated Na+ channels open. The entry of Na+ causes the membrane
potential to become positive (depolarisation)
http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/action_potential_med.jpeg
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.
is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization) of the membrane
Action potential potential as an impulse travels along it.

3
The depolarisation of the membrane potential causes the
voltage gated Na+ channels to close and the voltage gated
K+ channels open. K+ diffuses out of the neuron rapidly and
the membrane potential becomes negative again
(repolarisation)
http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/action_potential_med.jpeg
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.
is the reversal (depolarization) and restoration (repolarization) of the membrane
Action potential potential as an impulse travels along it.

4 Before the neuron is ready to propagate another impulse the

distribution of Na+ (out) and K+ (in) needs to be reset by
the Na+/K+ pump, returning the neuron to resting potential. This
enforced rest (refractory period) ensures impulses can only travel in a
single direction.
http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/action_potential_med.jpeg
In response to a signal/stimulus, voltage-gated ion channels open and
allow Na+ ions to enter.

The membrane potential of the axon will become less negative

(depolarize).

If the stimulus is strong enough, then sufficient Na+ ion channels will
open and the membrane potential will reach THRESHOLD…..more Na+
ion gated channels open by positive feedback…….. Influx of Na+ ions ,
therefore: ACTION POTENTIAL generated

If the signal/stimulus is not strong enough then insufficient Na+ ion

channels open, thus not enough Na+ ions enter, therefore threshold
not reached and NO ACTION POTENTIAL generated.

ALL or NOTHING
 If sufficient Na+ ions enter to
depolarize the axon from -70mV to
THRESHOLD level (approx. -55mV),
then an action potential will be
Na+ ions may flow generated, +30mV (all or nothing)
within the axon to
adjacent areas either
side of the site of
entry via ion-voltage
gated channels
(cytoplasmic flow)
Area of neuron
Conducting Area of neuron at
impulse Resting potential
(depolarization) (-70mV)

Refractory period:

Harder for the axon in this region to reach

threshold as it is significantly below -70mV
(resting potential). The axon membrane here is
hyperpolarized for a short period of time which is
enough for it to prevent threshold from being
reached when the Na+ ions enter from the
adjacent section.

(“All or nothing”)
How a nerve impulse (action potential) is generated along an unmyelinated
neuron (axon)

1. Action potential activates voltage-gated sodium channels causing an influx of

Na+ ions into the axon.
2. Membrane potential becomes less negative (depolarisation); membrane
potential increases
3. If potential reached threshold, more Na+ channels open with further influx of
Na+ ions (positive feedback)
4. Axon membrane depolarises stimulating adjacent sections and membrane
potential reaches +30mv generating an action potential
5. Potassium channels open and K+ ions rushes out; membrane potential
repolarises
6. Refractory period ensures one-way conduction of action potential
7. Na+/K+ pump re-establishes membrane potential to resting potential -70mV
Nerve Impulses travel in one direction

•This is due to the refractory period i.e. Na+

channels are open or recovering.
• The refractory period allows the voltage sensitive
ion channels to restore their original polarity
the membrane is hyperpolarised
(-80 / -85mV), where the K+ channels are open.
Threshold is harder to reach; Action potentials
are more difficult to generate during this period
relative to resting potential (-70mV)
6.5.U4 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron.

More action potential resources:

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/12
http://www.mrothery.co.uk/images/nerveimpulse.swf 0107/anim0013.swf

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webco
ntent/animations/content/actionpot
http://www.psych.ualberta.ca/~ITL/ap/ap.htm ential.html
6.5.U7 Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector cells.

To function the nervous system

needs to receive input/stimuli and
then to coordinate a response to
it.
For this to happen impulses need
to travel from sensory receptor
cells via a series of nerve cells to
effectors, which are commonly
muscles and glands.
There are junctions between each
cell called synapses across which
impulses cannot travel.
A special group of molecules
called neurotransmitters move
across the synapse to effect an
impulse in the adjacent cell.
6.5.U7 Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector cells.

This animation is no longer available L

http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/synaptic.swf
By LadyofHats - Own work. Image renamed from Image:Complete neuron cell diagram.svg, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3970826
Synapses

•The junction between two neurones is called a synapse.

•An action potential cannot cross the synaptic cleft between neurones, and instead the
nerve impulse is carried by chemicals called neurotransmitters.

• These chemicals are made by the cell that is sending the impulse (the pre-synaptic
neurone) and stored in synaptic vesicles at the end of the axon.

•The cell that is receiving the nerve impulse (the post-synaptic neurone) has chemical-
gated ion channels in its membrane, called neuroreceptors. These have specific binding
sites for the neurotransmitters.
 5. Breakdown products used to
How a synapse works reform NT.

Ca2+ ions pumped out of

presynaptic membrane after
impulse has passed to restore
original concentrations

4. Enzyme inactivation of
1. Impulse travels down transmitter. The neurotransmitter
axon of presynaptic (NT) is broken down. This stops
neurone and arrives at the synapse being permanently
presynaptic membrane. “on”. For the NT acetylcholine
Ca2+ ions
This triggers voltage gated (Ach), an enzyme called
Ca2+ ion channels to acetylcholinesterase breaks it
open, allowing entry of down.
Ca2+
3. The neurotransmitter
substance binds to the
2. These Ca2+ ions cause the
neuroreceptors in the post-
synaptic vesicles to fuse
synaptic membrane causing
with the cell membrane of
Na+ gated channels to
presynaptic neurone,
open, so Na+ ions flow in.
releasing their contents,
This causes a
neurotransmitter,by
depolarisation of the post-
exocytosis.
synaptic membrane which
initiates an action potential
Animation: action potential in
neuromuscular junction postsynaptic membrane
6.5.U8 When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the synapse. AND 6.5.U9
A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached.
6.5.A1 Secretion and reabsorption of acetylcholine by neurons at synapses.

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter used in many synapses through the nervous system

Eg at the neuromuscular junction, i.e. it is the molecule that motor neurons release to activate
muscles. Interfering with the action of acetylcholine can cause a range of effect from paralysis to
convulsions.
http://faculty.pasadena.edu/dkwon/chap%208_files/images/image61.png
6.5.A2 Blocking of synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in insects by binding of neonicotinoid pesticides
to acetylcholine receptors.
6.5.S1 Analysis of oscilloscope traces showing
resting potentials and action potentials
6.5.S1 Analysis of oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials.

Investigate how neurons generate electrical impulses

Use the PhET simulation to
build an understanding of
resting and action
potentials and how they
relate to the voltage
changes in the axon
membrane.

The neuron lab worksheet

activity acts as a guide for
the investigation:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/cont
ributions/view/3608

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/neuron
Nature of science: Cooperation and collaboration between groups of scientists - biologists are contributing to
research into memory and learning.

Nowadays scientists often work in multidisciplinary teams for example the Centre for Neural
Circuits and Behaviour (CNCB)
The aim of the CNCB is to understand how intelligence emerges from the physical interaction
of nerve cells.
Studying the brain from this top-down approach to answer such fundamental questions
requires techniques and understanding from a range of disciplines.

Gero Miesenböck FRS Martin Booth Tim Vogels

Waynflete Professor of Professor of Engineering Sir Henry Dale Fellow
Physiology, Wellcome Science (physicist)
Investigator

Scott Waddell
Stephen Goodwin Korneel Hens Professor of Neurobiology,
Professor of Group Leader (Biochemist) Wellcome Trust Senior
Neurogenetics, Wellcome Research Fellow in Basic
http://www.cncb.ox.ac.uk/team/ Investigator Biomedical Sciences