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Research Method Design

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By: RAZIEH TADAYON NABAVI

Master of Science (Developmental Psychology)

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 Table of content

Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 3

Part one ......................................................................................................................................................... 3

Question number 1......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Question number 2......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Question number 3......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Question number 4......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Part two ...................................................................................................................................................... 17

Question number 1......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Question number 2......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Question number 3......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

References: .................................................................................................................................................. 35

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Introduction

For elaborating my answers first of all I tried to bring some statements, ideas, findings and belifs

from scholars that stated in their text books and articles then I focused on the exact answers.

Part one

Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.

The following seven steps as an outline of simple and effective strategy for a research we’ree

suggested by Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (2005):

1- Choose the topic

As we know a title should be include some conditions.

 It should be short, clear and precise.

 It should be investigative in nature, like the theme of a seminar.

 It points to the problem of a study and suggests the scope of problem to be

investigated.

They also suggested that there are some ways to select topics:

1- Personal experience/ interest

2- Curiosity based on something in the media

3- The state of knowledge in the field

4- Solving a problem

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 5- Social premiums

6- Personal values

7- Everyday life

8- Practicality

9- Contribution to knowledge

2- Focus on research question:

 All research projects are built on the foundation of research questions.

 Research question define the nature and scope of a research project.

 We do research to get answe’res to questions; therefore to do research, we must

start with a research questions that can be answe’reed.

 We limit the research questions to three types- what, why and how based on three

research objectives description, explanation, understanding and change.

 Questions of a theoretical nature are those asking, “What is it?” or “How does it

occur?” or “Why does it occur?” Research with a theoretical orientation may

focus on either developing new theories or testing existing theories.

3- Design study:

The investigator next plans how to conduct research to answe’re the question. The design is the

researcher’s plan for the study, which includes the method to be used, what data will be gathered,

where, how, and from whom. Quantitative researches maintain that once this research plan is set

forth, it must be followed. Unhypothesized observed relationships among variables may be

reported and proposed as topics for future research, but they should not replace the original intent

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of the study. In qualitative research the design is flexible and may change during the

investigation if appropriate. The design of qualitative research is thus often described as

“emergent”.

4- Collect data:

The next step involves executing the research plan. Quantitative researchers use a wide variety of

instruments to gather data, including tests, questionnaires, ratings, attitude scales, and so on.

Qualitative researchers also have a toolbox of data- gathering techniques, including in-depth

interviewing, participant observation, and document analysis.

5- Analyze data:

The data collected in research must be analyzed. Quantitative data are usually in the form of

numbers that researchers analyze using various statistical procedures. Even variable data, such as

compositions written by high school students, would be converted through be scoring process to

a numerical form. The analysis of the numerical is quantitative research provides evidence that

supports or fails to support the hypothesis of the study. Quantitative data generally take the form

of words (descriptions, observations, impressions, recordings and the like). The researcher must

organize and categorize or code the large mass of data so that they can be described and

interpreted. Although the qualitative researcher does not deal with statistics, analyzing

qualitative data is not easy. It is a time-consuming and painstaking process.

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 6- Interpret data

The researcher next tries to interpret the findings in terms of the research problem. The

quantitative researcher typically makes statements about the probability. That such a finding is

due to chance and reaches a conclusion about the hypothesis. Quantitative researchers present

their interpretations and explanations in narrative form. They do not talk about probability but try

to emphasize the trustworthiness and credibility of the findings.

7- Inform others

There are many ways for informing others about research. Such as: workshops, publishing in

journals, internet, presenting articles, seminars.

Write short notes on criteria of good research.

Characteristics of a good research:

Scholars such as Kerlinger,(1986), Rosenthal, & Rosnow,(1991), Heppner, Kivlighan, &

Wampold (1999), LaFountain,& Bartos, (2002), Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (2005) and Godin

(2007) in different text books and articles suggested different characteristics of a good research.

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they

all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. The followings steps are

the summery of their beliefs. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

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(1) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

(2) The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another

researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has

already been attained.

(3) The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as

objectives as possible.

(4) The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and

estimate their effects upon the findings.

(5) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the

methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be

checked carefully.

(6) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to

those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

(7) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good

reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

LaFountain,& Bartos, (2002) pointed that the qualities of a good research are as under:

1. Good Research is Systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be

taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic

characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the

use of guessing and intuition arriving at conclusions.

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2. Good Research is Logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical

reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out

research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the

process of reasoning from the premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more

meaningful in the context of decision making.

3. Good Research is Empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects

of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to

research results.

4. Good Research is Replicable: This characteristic allows research to be verified by replicating

the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Based on the above evidences and according to Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (2005) and Godin

(2007) I want to mention the characteristics of a good research as follow:

1- It should be clearly structured with appropriate sub-headings to provide a precise picture

or problem, the objectives and method investigation.

2- It should be related to some theoretical base to provide the basics of analysis.

3- Relevant concepts should be clearly defined within the context of the study. I mean that a

suitable diagrammatic presentation of the conceptual framework is always helpful to

researcher as well as it is convincing to the reader.

4- The problem to be investigated should be clearly stated and the objectives should

directly reflect the problem and show how they could answe’re the problem. The

objectives should also be clear and attainable.

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 5- It should have a selection which shows the significance of the study, I mean that how the

expected findings are going to benefit the human society in general or any specific party

in particular.

Give your interpretation and elaboration on the following definition of science. “Science is a

objective, accurate, systematic analysis of a determine body of empirical data, in order to

discover recurring relationships among phenomenon.”

Based on the text books and findings of some scholars such as Godin,B. (2007) science is very

much more complex than pat definitions which we can memorize and then put the issue away.

They pointed the process of science typically has one of three goals.

1. Research to Understand (pure research)

Pure research is concerned with developing valid, complete, and coherent descriptions and

explanations. It is interested in organizing data into the most general and parsimonious laws or

qualified statements of uniformity. The emphasis is on comprehension or understanding. It is

motivated by curiosity and inquisitiveness about natural phenomena. It is interested in data and

relationships for their own sake.

2. Research to Solve a Particular Problem (applied research)

Applied research is concerned with the discovery of solutions to practical problems and places its

emphasis upon those factual data which have more immediate utility or application. The

emphasis is on control. Applied research is like learning phrases needed to accomplish a variety

of specific things in a foreign language without really understanding the whole language. The

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search for a cure for cancer is an example of applied research; discovering a solution for manic

depression is an example of applied research.

C. Dispensing Solutions (practitioner / technologist)

Practitioners are concerned with the direct application of principles and theories from one or

more fields of science for the purpose of dispensing solutions to individual human problems

rather than being concerned with the discovery and organization of knowledge. Strictly speaking,

a practitioner is not a scientist, but that is not to say they are necessarily unscientific. Partitioning

is like memorizing sounds of a song in a foreign language without necessarily knowing the

language. It accomplishes an immediate specific end. While a practitioner may uncover a

phenomenon of great importance to the understanding of nature, that is not their primary focus.

A practitioner or technologist administers chemotherapy or psychotherapy. A physician or a

psychotherapist is a practitioner.

Definitions of Science

Here, based on the text books some definitions of science are presented:

 Science uses unconfounded empirical tests to develop, discover, and explain systematic

frameworks within which relationships can be explored.

 Science is a knowledge generating activity which is based on systematically organized

bodies of accumulated knowledge obtained through objective observations.

 Science is not so much concerned with accumulating highly precise and specific data

(although it is necessary) but rather science seeks to discover uniformities and to

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 formulate statements of uniformities and consistencies of relationship between natural

phenomena.

 Science is to understand, explain, and predict by specifying the systematic relationships

among empirical variables. It must be consensually valid and general. It must not be on

authority, sloppy, or simply to “better” mankind.

In summary, I can conclude that the word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning

knowledge. How do we define science? According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, the

definition of science is "knowledge attained through study or practice," or "knowledge covering

general truths of the operation of general laws, esp. as obtained and tested through scientific

method [and] concerned with the physical world."What does that really mean? Science refers to

a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and experimentation to describe

and explain natural phenomena.

The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that

system. Less formally, the word science often describes any systematic field of study or the

knowledge gained from it. What is the purpose of science? Perhaps the most general description

is that the purpose of science is to produce useful models of reality. Science as defined above is

sometimes called pure science to differentiate it from applied science, which is the application of

research to human needs. Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:

- Natural sciences, the study of the natural world, and

- Social sciences, the systematic study of human behavior and society.

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On the other hand, science is the effort to discover and increase human understanding of how

physical reality works. Its purview is the portion of reality which is independent of religious,

political, cultural, or philosophical outlook. Using controlled methods, scientists collect data in

the form of observations, records of observable physical evidence of natural phenomena, and

analyze this information to construct theoretical explanations of how things work. Knowledge in

science is gained through research. The methods of scientific research include the generation of

hypotheses about how natural phenomena work, and experimentation that tests these hypotheses

under controlled conditions. The outcome or product of this empirical scientific process is the

formulation of theory that describes human understanding of physical processes and facilitates

prediction. Lavoisier (2006) says, "... the impossibility of separating the nomenclature of a

science from the science itself is owing to this, that every branch of physical science must consist

of three things: the series of facts which are the objects of the science, the ideas which represent

these facts and the words by which these ideas are expressed."

A broader modern definition of science may include the natural sciences along with the social

and behavioral sciences, as the main subdivisions of science, defining it as the observation,

identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena

and to discover recurring relationship among phenomenon . However, other contemporary

definitions still place the natural sciences, which are closely related with the physical world's

phenomena, as the only true vehicles of science.

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Below are listed several projects’ specific objectives. Decide whether each is more likely to be

an explanatory or a descriptive research project, and briefly discuss the reasons for your

decision:

Before I want to answer to this question, I would like to have a brief look at research and

explanatory or a descriptive research. Based on the text books, there are three main purposes of

research are to describe, explain, and validate findings. Description emerges following creative

exploration, and serves to organize the findings in order to fit them with explanations, and then

test or validate those explanations. (Krathwohl, 1993)

Most quantitative research falls into two areas: studies that describe events and studies aimed at

discovering inferences or causal relationships. Descriptive studies are aimed at finding out "what

is," so observational and survey methods are frequently used to collect descriptive data (Borg &

Gall, 1989). Descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and then

organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data collection (Glass & Hopkins, 1984).

Descriptive statistics utilize data collection and analysis techniques that yield reports concerning

the measures of central tendency, variation, and correlation. On the other hand, descriptive

research might simply report the percentage summary on a single variable and descriptive studies

can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations.

Descriptive research is unique in the number of variables employed. Like other types of research,

descriptive research can include multiple variables for analysis, yet unlike other methods, it

requires only one variable (Borg & Gall, 1989). Descriptive studies report summary data such as

measures of central tendency including the mean, median, mode, deviance from the mean,

variation, percentage, and correlation between variables.

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Explanatory research is research conducted in order to explain any behavior in the market.

The explanatory style of study indicates the way a certain event is explained. The event can be

either negative or positive. People first of all use this style to explain to themselves about certain

events and then to other people. When events are studied using this style, there are three

components:

 The person who experiences something might hold himself responsible for the cause of

the event.

 The other component is the permanence and the experience might be considered to be

unchangeable.

 The last component is the pervasiveness of the event which means the way a certain

event affects life. Explanatory studies can make a person both optimistic and pessimistic.

Some experts Heppner, Kivlighan, & Wampold, (1999) believe that explanatory research is

research conducted in order to explain any behavior in the market and it could be done through

using questionnaires, group discussions, interviews, random sampling, etc. They also pointed to

eight goals for explanatory research as below:

1. Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and enrich a theory's explanation.

2. Determine which of several explanations is best.

3. Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory's predictions or principle.

4. Advance knowledge about underlying process.

5. Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a theory's predictions or principle.

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6. Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, and new topics:

7. Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.

8. Test a theory's predictions or principles.

In other words, I can say that when we encounter an issue that is already known and have a

description of it, we might begin to wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to know

"why," to explain, is the purpose of explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive

research and goes on to identify the reasons for something that occurs. Explanatory research

looks for causes and reasons. For example, a descriptive research may discover that 10 percent of

the parents abuse their children, whereas the explanatory researcher is more interested in learning

why parents abuse their children.

After the above discussion I think I can answer the questions more easily.

i. To test the hypothesis that social isolates suffer more from anxiety than those who are

not social isolates.

This subject is an explanatory research project .because Research that tries to explain why

something happens in the manner that they do. This research includes looking at all the possible

combinations of social interaction. Explanatory research builds on exploratory and descriptive

research and goes on to identify the reasons things occur.

ii. To determine if popular magazines generally present persons of ethnic “minority”

(such as Orange Asli – aborigines) background unfavorably?

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This subject is a descriptive research project .This research presents a picture of specific data

such as social setting, or relationships. Here the researcher begins with a well-defined subject

and then sets to describing what he or she observes. A descriptive study shows a picture of

people in their social setting, participating in social activities. Descriptive research focuses on

questions of how and why (why are people behaving in this manner at this time and for what

reason), who is involved.

iii. To determine fathers’ and sons’ views on politics:

This is an explanatory research because there is causal relationship (causality ) between variables

fathers views on political its effective by sons views on politics.

iv. To explore the truth of saying “Familiarity breeds contempt.”

This is a descriptive research because there non- causal relationship between the variables.

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 Part two

Indicate the level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) of each of the

following variables. Explain your answer.

Some researchers such as Kerlinger,(1986), Rosenthal, & Rosnow,(1991),believe that there can

be three types of data:

 Nominal Data: This is data in the form of frequencies fitting discrete, distinct categories.

For example, we can count the number of boys and girls in a class. Each individual is

either a boy or a girl and there is no sense in which the boys and the girls can be placed

into a rank order.

 Ordinal Data: Ordinal data are measures of physical quantities that can be ranked. For

example, the variable X could measure the number of days individuals have been subject

to a special diet; the variable Y could measure the position of those individuals in a race.

Here, it is meaningful to ask how does the position of an individual that is his rank, in

terms of values of X correlate with his position, or rank, in terms of Y.

 Interval Data: Data is said to be at interval level when there is a meaningful continuous

scale of measurement such that equal differences between values in the scale genuinely

correspond to real differences between the physical quantities that the scale measures. An

example of a set of interval level data would be a collection of measurements of height.

Here it is meaningful to say that the difference of height between a person who is 1.80m

and one who is 1.70m tall is equal to the difference of height between a person who is

1.90m and one who is 1.80m tall. Equal differences in the scale correspond to equal

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 differences in the physical quantities they measure. All interval level data can be placed

in rank order; in other words, interval level data can be "reduced" to ordinal level data.

Ordinal level data cannot necessarily be promoted to interval level data. Interval level

data contain more information than ordinal level data.

But some other researcher such as Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (2005) and Godin (2007) pointed

that there are four types of data that may be gathered in social research, each one adding more to

the next. Thus ordinal data is also nominal, and so on.

Ratio

Interval

Ordinal

Nominal

Here, according to the text books and findings of scholars I am going to explain them one by one

Nominal

The name 'Nominal' comes from the Latin nomen, meaning 'name' and nominal data are items

which are differentiated by a simple naming system. The only thing a nominal scale does is to

say that items being measured have something in common, although this may not be described.

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Nominal items may also have numbers assigned to them. This may appear ordinal but is not -

these are used to simplify capture and referencing. Nominal items are usually categorical, in that

they belong to a definable category, such as 'employees'. For example: The number pinned on a

sports person or A set of countries.

Ordinal

Items on an ordinal scale are set into some kind of order by their position on the scale. This may

indicate such as temporal position, superiority, etc. On the other hand, the order of items is often

defined by assigning numbers to them to show their relative position. Letters or other sequential

symbols may also be used as appropriate. Ordinal items are usually categorical, in that they

belong to a definable category, such as '1956 marathon runners'. So we cannot do arithmetic with

ordinal numbers because they show sequence only. For example: The first, third and fifth person

in a race or pay bands in an organization, as denoted by A, B, C and D.

Interval

Interval data (also sometimes called integer) is measured along a scale in which each position is

equidistant from one another. This allows for the distance between two pairs to be equivalent in

some way. This is often used in psychological experiments that measure attributes along an

arbitrary scale between two extremes and interval data cannot be multiplied or divided. For

example: My level of happiness, rated from 1 to 10 or temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit.

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Ratio

In a ratio scale, numbers can be compared as multiples of one another. Thus one person can be

twice as tall as another person. Important also, the number zero has meaning. So the difference

between a person of 35 and a person 38 is the same as the difference between people who are 12

and 15. A person can also have an age of zero. On the other hand, ratio data can be multiplied

and divided because not only is the difference between 1 and 2 the same as between 3 and 4, but

also that 4 is twice as much as 2. On this point, Interval and ratio data measure quantities and

hence are quantitative. Because they can be measured on a scale, they are also called scale data.

For example: A person's weight or the number of pizzas I can eat before fainting.

Parametric vs. Non-parametric

Interval and ratio data are parametric, and are used with parametric tools in which distributions

are predictable (and often Normal). Nominal and ordinal data are non-parametric, and do not

assume any particular distribution. They are used with non-parametric tools such as the

Histogram.

A. Seriousness of criminal offense: measured by having judges rank offenses from the

most to the least severe.

The level of measurement is ordinal. As it mentioned above, ordinal provides the identity of the

entities and their rank order on some underlying give richer information than nominal scales

property continuum. Numbers assigned in ranking order .Arrange from lowest to highest or vice

versa.

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 B. Political activism: measured by the total number of politically related activities in

which an individual participates.

The level of measurement is ratio. Ratio scale is highest level of measurement .It possesses all

the properties of an interval scale plus in zero point representing an absence of the characteristic

measured .For example, highest. True zero (represents absence of the characteristics) .In this

study we have true zero.

C. Ethnic group membership: measured by asking respondents to check one of these

categories: Chinese, Malay, Indian, Kadazan.

The level of measurement is Nominal. Based on the text books, nominal is the most primitive

level of measurement. The numbers assigned to the entity are merely to identify individual or

classify a set of entity based on certain similarities: The number can make qualitative or

quantitative distinction .For example assigning 1 to male and 2 to female. Here we have names

categories.

D. Educational attainment: measured by asking respondents to check one of the

following categories: eight grad or less; 9 to 11 years; high school graduate; some

college; college graduate.

The level of measurement is interval scales. Interval scales represent more than an ordinal scale

.An example temperature Arbitrary zero (no absolte zero).Zero dose not represents absence of

the characteristics. In this study we don’t have true zero.

E. An item measuring an attitude or opinion that uses the following response format:

strong agree, agree undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree.

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The level of measurement is interval scales. Interval scales represent more than an ordinal scale

.An example temperature Arbitrary zero (no absolte zero).Zero dose not represents absence of

the characteristics. In this study we don’t have true zero.

Suppose that you want to test the hypothesis that students who have taken a course in

methods of social research will receive higher grades in subsequent sociology course than

students who have not taken such course.

A. Identify the independent and dependent variable.

Rosenthal & Rosnow, (1991) stated that "Dependent variable “DV” refers to the status of the

'effect'(or outcome) in which the researcher is Interested; the Independent Variable”IV” refers to

the status of the presumed 'cause,' changes in which lead to changes in the status of the

dependent variable…any event or condition can be conceptualized as either an independent or a

dependent variable. For example, it has been observed that rumor-mongering can sometimes

cause a riot to erupt, but it has also been observed that riots can cause rumors to surface. Rumors

are variables that can be conceived of as causes (IVs) and as effects (DVs)." (, p. 71)

When researchers are not able to actually control and manipulate an IV, it is technically referred

to as a status variable (e.g., gender, ethnicity, etc.). Even though researchers do not actually

control or manipulate status variables, researchers can, and often do, treat them as IVs (Heppner,

Kivlighan & Wampold, 1999). In experiments, the IV is the variable that is controlled and

manipulated by the experimenter; whereas the DV is not manipulated, instead the DV is

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observed or measured for variation as a presumed result of the variation in the IV."In

nonexperimental research, where there is no experimental manipulation, the IV is the variable

that 'logically' has some effect on a DV. For example, in the research on cigarette-smoking and

lung cancer, cigarette-smoking, which has already been done by many subjects, is the

independent variable." (Kerlinger, 1986, p.32)

A variable is something that can change, such as 'gender' and are typically the focus of a study.

In different text books which some of them mentioned above the authors stated that there are

different types of variables?

 Descriptive variables are those that which will be reported on, without relating them to

anything in particular.

 Categorical variables result from a selection from categories, such as 'agree' and

'disagree'. Nominal and ordinal variables are categorical. Numeric variables give a

number, such as age.

 Discrete variables are numeric variables that come from a limited set of numbers. They

may result from, answering questions such as 'how many', 'how often', etc.

 Continuous variables are numeric variables that can take any value, such as weight.

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 Control variables note that in an experiment there may be many additional variables
beyond the manipulated independent variable and the measured dependent variables. It is

critical in experiments that these variables do not vary and hence bias or otherwise distort

the results. There is a struggle between controls vs. authenticity in managing this.

 Correlation variables point with perfect correlation, the X-Y graph of points (as a scatter

diagram) will give a straight line. Whilst this may happen in physics, it seldom happens

in social research and a probabilistic relationship is the best that can be determined.

Correlation can be positive (increasing X increases Y), negative (increasing X decreases

Y) or non-linear (increasing X makes Y increase or decrease, depending on the value of

X). Correlation can also be partial, that is across only a range of values X. As all possible

values of X can seldom be tested, most correlations found are at best partial.

 Cause variable will be used when correlation is determined, a further question is whether

varying the independent variable caused the independent variable to change. This adds

complexity and debate to the situation. Sometimes a third variable is the cause, such as

when a correlation between ice-cream sales and drowning is actually due to the fact that

both are caused by warm weather.

 Continuous variable are measured along a continuous scale which can be divided into
fractions, such as temperature. Continuous variables allow for infinitely fine sub-division,

which means if we can measure sufficiently accurately, we can compare two items and

determine the difference.

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  Discrete variables are measured across a set of fixed values, such as age in years (not

microseconds). These are commonly used on arbitrary scales, such as scoring we’re level

of happiness, although such scales can also be continuous.

Researchers which mentioned above based on their findings stated that variables may have the

following characteristics:

 Period: When it starts and stops.

 Pattern: Daily, weekly, ad-hoc, etc.

 Detail: Overview through to 'in depth'.

 Latency: Time between measuring dependent and independent variable (some things take

time to take effect).

According to the above statements I can say that in an experiment, the independent variable is

the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher, and the dependent variable is the

response that is measured. An independent variable is the presumed cause, whereas the

dependent variable is the presumed effect. The IV is the antecedent, whereas the DV is the

consequent.

B. List of three extraneous variables. One of them must be of the kind that reasonably

could be expected to produce a spurious relationship between the independent and

dependent variables.

Age-sex (gender)-IQ- attitude- level of education - level of knowledge-methods of teaching –

Previous learning- Previous learning is extraneous variable that it could be expected to produce a

spurious relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

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 C. Briefly explain how one of your extraneous variables could make the hypothesized

relationship spurious. (You may assume that methods of social research are not a

required course).

One of extraneous variables could make the hypothesized relationship spurious is previous

learning. It can be as a independent variable and affected on dependent variable (The grad

subsequent).

You would like to do a survey of students on … campus to find out how much time on the

average they spend studying per week. You obtain from the registrar a list of all students

currently enrolled and draw your sample from this list.

Some of the researchers such as Heppner, Kivlighan, & Wampold (1999), LaFountain,& Bartos,

(2002), Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (2005) and Godin (2007) in their text books and articles stated

that sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of

interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the

population from which they were chosen. Here, I am going to begin by covering some of the key

terms in sampling like "population" and "sampling frame." Then, because some types of

sampling rely upon quantitative models, I'll talk about some of the statistical terms used in

sampling. Finally, I'll discuss the major distinction between probability and Nonprobability

sampling methods and work through the major types in each.

They also pointed that the major question that motivates sampling in the first place is: "Who do

we want to generalize to?" Or should it be: "To whom do we want to generalize?" In most social

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research we are interested in more than just the people who directly participate in our study. We

would like to be able to talk in general terms and not be confined only to the people who are in

our study. Now, there are times when we aren't very concerned about generalizing.

Maybe we're just evaluating a program in a local agency and we don't care whether the program

would work with other people in other places and at other times. In that case, sampling and

generalizing might not be of interest. In other cases, we would really like to be able to generalize

almost universally. When psychologists do research, they are often interested in developing

theories that would hold for all humans. But in most applied social research, we are interested in

generalizing to specific groups. The group we wish to generalize to is often called the

population in we’re study. This is the group we would like to sample from because this is the

group we are interested in generalizing to.

Let's imagine that we wish to generalize to urban homeless males between the ages of 30 and 50

in the United States. If that is the population of interest, we are likely to have a very hard time

developing a reasonable sampling plan. We are probably not going to find an accurate listing of

this population, and even if we did, we would almost certainly not be able to mount a national

sample across hundreds of urban areas. So we probably should make a distinction between the

population we would like to generalize to, and the population that will be accessible to us. We'll

call the former the theoretical population and the latter the accessible population.

Once we've identified the theoretical and accessible populations, we have to do one more thing

before we can actually draw a sample -- we have to get a list of the members of the accessible

population. (Or, we have to spell out in detail how we will contact them to assure

representativeness).

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The listing of the accessible population from which we'll draw we’re sample is called the

sampling frame. If we are doing a phone survey and selecting names from the telephone book,

the book would be we’re sampling frame. That wouldn't be a great way to sample because

significant subportions of the population either don't have a phone or have moved in or out of the

area since the last book was printed. Notice that in this case, we might identify the area code and

all three-digit prefixes within that area code and draw a sample simply by randomly dialing

numbers (cleverly known as random-digit-dialing). In this case, the sampling frame is not a list

per se, but is rather a procedure that we follow as the actual basis for sampling. Finally, we

actually draw we’re sample (using one of the many sampling procedures).

The sample is the group of people who we select to be in we’re study. Notice that I didn't say

that the sample was the group of people who are actually in we’re study. We may not be able to

contact or recruit all of the people we actually sample, or some could drop out over the course of

the study. The group that actually completes we’re study is a subsample of the sample -- it

doesn't include nonrespondents or dropouts. The problem of nonresponse and its effects on a

study will be addressed when discussing "mortality" threats to internal validity.

People often confuse what is meant by random selection with the idea of random assignment. We

should make sure that we understand the distinction between random selection and random

assignment.

At this point, we should appreciate that sampling is a difficult multi-step process and that there

are lots of places we can go wrong. In fact, as we move from each step to the next in identifying

a sample, there is the possibility of introducing systematic error or bias. For instance, even if we

are able to identify perfectly the population of interest, we may not have access to all of them.

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And even if we do, we may not have a complete and accurate enumeration or sampling frame

from which to select. And, even if we do, we may not draw the sample correctly or accurately.

And, even if we do, they may not all come and they may not all stay. Depressed yet? This is a

very difficult business indeed. At times like this I'm reminded of what Donald Campbell used to

say (I'll paraphrase here): "Cousins to the amoeba, it's amazing that we know anything at all!"

It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules

to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in

keeping with the objectives of the study.Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently

small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is

called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population.

Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A

small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects

the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability samples,

each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability

methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In

nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner.

These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball

sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated.

Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring

to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability

sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.

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Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population

has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is

often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available

subjects becomes biased.

Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name

selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is

selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order,

this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the

random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a

specified number of records from a computer file.

Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling

because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one

common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-

managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in

the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each

stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that

the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the

stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.

Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in

getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected

because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during preliminary

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research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required

to select a random sample.

Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher selects the sample

based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a

researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the

population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the

chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population.

Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling,

the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the

population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of

subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by

random sampling.

Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample

characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in

these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional

subjects. While this technique can dramatically lowe’re search costs, it comes at the expense of

introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent

a good cross section from the population.

A. What is your sampling frame?

For sampling frame is a list of all the people that are in the population .Here is a list of all names

of students in this population, and they are numbered. We can choose systematic random

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sampling with use of list of all students currently enrolled. At first we select one number of this

list and then continue with Nth number of list.

B. What is your target population

Target population: All of student currently enrolled in this semester.

C. Explain how you would draw a simple random sample for this study?

If all students that currently enrolled have equal chance of being in the final s ample. It is the

most basic and well know, however (regardless to major gender and so on). With use of one

table of random numbers and indicate a place to start, move in one direction (e.g.move down the

columns).once we get the set of randomly selected numbers ,find out who those people are and

try to get them to participate in our research study.

D. Assume that the registrar’s list also contains information about each

student’s program (example arts, science, medicine, etc). One then could

select a stratified random sample, stratifying on program. What main benefit

can result from using a stratified random sample instead of a simple random

sample? Would you expect this benefit to be obtained by stratifying on

program? Explain.

If I select one of the major’s for example: Science as a stratified random sampling in this

research. Benefits of this sampling are as follow:

-Production of estimates and corresponding confidence intervals for each stratum.

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 - Increased precision.

-In stratified random sampling is only possible to indicate proportion of the study

population belongs to each group we are interested in.

Then we would expect to be obtain a by stratified on major because one of major for example

science or art are proportion of the study population belongs to each group we are interested in .

E. How might you obtain a cluster sample? When should you consider using

this type of sampling design?

If we select one class or one semester in one faculty or one major it is cluster sampling. Cluster

sampling is often geographic units or organizational units. For example semester one science

major in science faculty.

With cluster sampling, we can indicate sample of all units in a subset of subgroups and cluster

sampling will produce estimates with the largest variance. So with both clusters and stratification

we partition the population into subgroups.

In this technique, the total population is divided into these groups (or clusters) and a sample of

the groups is selected. Then the required information is collected from the elements within each

selected group. This may be done for every element in these groups or a subsample of elements

may be selected within each of these groups. The technique works best when most of the

variation in the population is within the groups, not between them.

F. Which type of sampling design is most appropriate for this research

problem? Explain.

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Simple random sampling is the most appropriate for this research. It is an equal probability

sampling method. All subjects have equal chance to being the sample group. It’s the most basic

type of random sampling.

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Dick, B. (1998) Convergent Interviewing: A Technique for Qualitative Data Collection [URL:

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Godin,B. (2007).What is science? Defining science by the November 1920-2000. Project on the

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Hurworth, R. (1996). Qualitative Methodology: Common Questions about Running Focus

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Kerlinger, F. N. (1986). Foundations of behavioral research (3rd ed.). Fort Worth: Holt,

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Kremer, R.(2005)Data Gathering

[URL:http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~kremer/courses/451/DataGather.ht ml] Date assessed:

16/2/11.

LaFountain, R. M., & Bartos, R. B. (2002). Research and statistics made meaningful in

counseling and student affairs. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

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University Putra Malaysia .

McGraw-Hill Companies NK Denzin .( 1978 ).The research act: A theoretical introduction to

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