Double Integrals in Polar Form

P. Sam Johnson

October 23, 2019

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Overview

Integrals are sometimes easier to evaluate if we change to polar

coordinates.

We discuss in the lecture how to accomplish the change and how to

evaluate integrals over regions whose boundaries are given by polar
equations.

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Definition of Polar Coordinates

To define polar coordinates, we first fix an origin O (called the pole) and
an initial ray from O. Then each point P can be located by assigning to
it a polar coordinate pair (r , θ) in which r gives the directed distance
from O to P and θ gives the directed angle from the initial ray to ray OP.

To define polar coordinates for the plane, we start with an origin, called
the pole, and an initial ray.

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Polar coordinates are not unique

As in trigonometry, θ is positive when measured counterclockwise and

negative when measured clockwise. The angle associated with a given
point is not unique.

While a point in the plane has just one pair of Cartesian coordinates, it
has infinitely many pairs of polar coordinates.

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Polar coordinates are not unique : Example

The point 2 units from the origin along the ray θ = π/6 has polar
coordinates r = 2, θ = π/6.

It also has coordinates r = 2, θ = −11π/6.

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Polar coordinates can be negative r -values : Example

In some situations we allow r to be negative. The point P(2, 7π/6)

can be reached by turning 7π/6 radians counterclockwise from the initial
ray and going forward 2 units. It can also be reached by turning π/6
radians counterclockwise from the initial ray going backward 2 units. So
the point also has polar coordinates r = 2, θ = π/6.

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Polar Equations and Graphs

The equation
r =a
represents circle of radius |a| centered at O.

The equation
θ = θ0
represents line through O making an angle θ with
the initial ray.

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Equatins Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordinates

The Cartesian and polar coordinate systems are related by the following
equations.
x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
2
r = x2 + y2
y
tan θ = .
x

The first two of these equations uniquely determine the Cartesian

coordinates x and y given the polar coordinates r and θ. On the other
hand, if x and y are given, the third equation gives two possible choices
for r (a positive and a negative value). For each (x, y ) 6= (0, 0), there is a
unique θ ∈ [0, 2π) satisfying the first two equations, each then giving a
polar coordinate representation of the Cartesian point (x, y ).

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Equivalent Expressions

The following are some equivalent equations expressed in terms of both

polar coordinates and Cartesian coordinates

Polar Equation Cartesian Equivalent

r cos θ = 2 x =2
r 2 cos θ sin θ = 4 xy = 4
r 2 cos2 θ − r 2 sin2 θ = 1 x2 − y2 = 1
r = 1 + 2r cos θ y − 3x 2 − 4x − 1 = 0
2

r = 1 − cos θ x 4 + y 4 + 2x 2 y 2 + 2x 3 + 2xy 2 − y 2 = 0

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Graphing in Polar Coordinates : Symmetry Tests for Polar
Graphs

We now discuss techniques for graphing equations in polar coordinates

using symmetries.

Symmetry about the x-axis:

If the point (r , θ) lies on the graph, then the point (r , −θ) or (−r , π, −θ)
lies on the graph.

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Graphing in Polar Coordinates : Symmetry Tests for Polar
Graphs

Symmetry about the y -axis:

If the point (r , θ) lies on the graph, then the point (r , π, −θ) or (−r , −θ)
lies on the graph.

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Graphing in Polar Coordinates : Symmetry Tests for Polar
Graphs

Symmetry about the origin:

If the point (r , θ) lies on the graph, then the point (−r , θ) or (r , θ + π) lies
on the graph.

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Graph the curve r = 1 − cos θ

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Graph the curve r = 1 − cos θ

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Graph the curve r 2 = 4 cos θ

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A Technique for Graphing

One way to graph a polar equation r = f (θ) is to make a table of

(r , θ)-values, plot the corresponding points, and connect them in order of
increasing θ. This can work well if enough points have been plotted to
reveal all the loops and dimples in the graph.

Another method of graphing that is usually quicker and more reliable is to

(a) first graph r = f (θ) in the Cartesian r θ-plane,

(b) then use the Cartesian graph as a “table” and guide to sketch the
polar coordinate graph.

This method is better than simple point plotting because the first
Cartesian graph, even when hastily drawn, shows at a glance where r is
positive, negative, and nonexistent, as well as where r is increasing and
decreasing.

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Graph the curve r 2 = sin 2θ

We begin by plotting r 2 (not r ) as a function of θ in the Cartesian

r 2 θ-plane.

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Graph the curve r 2 = sin 2θ

We began by plotting r 2 (not r ) as a function of θ in √

the Cartesian
r 2 θ-plane. We pass from there to the graph of r = ± sin 2θ in the
r θ-plane, and then draw the polar graph.

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Graph the curve r 2 = sin 2θ

The graph covers the final polar graph twice. We could have managed with
either loop alone, with the two upper halves, or with the two lower halves.

The double covering does no harm, however, and we actually learn a litter
more about the behaviour of the function this way.

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Integrals in Polar Coordinates

When we defined the double integral of a function over a region R in the

xy -plane, we began by cutting R into rectangles whose sides were parallel
to the coordinate axes.

These were the natural shapes to use because their sides have either
constant x-values or constant y -values.

In polar coordinates, the natural shape is a “polar rectangle” whose sides

have constant r - and θ-values.

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Integrals in Polar Coordinates

Suppose that a function

f (r , θ)
is defined over a region R that is bounded by the rays

θ=α and θ = β

and by the continuous curves

r = g1 (θ) and r = g2 (θ).

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Integrals in Polar Coordinates

Suppose also that

0 ≤ g1 (θ) ≤ g2 (θ) ≤ a
for every value of θ between α and β. Then R lies in a fan-shaped region
Q defined by the inequalities
0≤r ≤a and α ≤ θ ≤ β.

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Integrals in Polar Coordinates

We cover Q by a grid of circular arcs and rays.

The arcs are cut from circles centered at the origin, with radii

∆r , 2∆r , . . . , m∆r ,

where ∆r = a/m.

The rays are given by

θ = α, θ = α + ∆θ, θ = α + 2∆θ, . . . , θ = α + m0 ∆θ = β,

where ∆θ = (β − α)/m0 .

The arcs and rays partition Q into small patches called “polar rectangles.”

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Integrals in Polar Coordinates

We number the polar rectangles that lie inside R (the order does not
matter), calling their areas

∆A1 , ∆A2 , . . . , ∆An .

We let (rk , θk ) be any point in the polar rectangle whose area is ∆Ak .

We then form the sum

n
X
Sn = f (rk , θk )∆Ak .
k=1

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Integrals in Polar Coordinates

If f is continous throughout R, this sum will approach a limit as we refine

the grid to make ∆r and ∆θ go to zero.

The limit is called the double integral of f over R. In symbols,

ZZ
lim Sn = f (r , θ) dA.
n→∞
R

To evaluate this limit, we first have to write the sum Sn in a way that
expresses ∆Ak in terms of ∆r and ∆θ.

For convenience we choose rk to be the average of the radii of the inner

and outer acrs bounding the kth polar rectangle ∆Ak .

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Integrals in Polar Coordinates

The radius of the inner arc bounding ∆Ak is then rk − (∆r /2).

The radius of the outer arc is rk + (∆r /2).

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Integrals in Polar Coordinates

The area of a wedge-shaped sector of a circle having radius r and angle θ is

1
A = θ r 2,
2
as can be seen by multiplying πr 2 , the area of the circe, by θ/2π, the
fraction of the circle’s area contained in the wedge.

So the areas of the circular sectors subtended by these arcs at the origin are
1 ∆r 2
Inner radius : rk − ∆θ.
2 2
1 ∆r 2
Outer radius : rk + ∆θ.
2 2

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Integrals in Polar Coordinates

Therefore,

∆Ak = area of large sector − area of small sector

∆θ h ∆r 2  ∆r 2 i
= rk + − rk −
2 2 2
∆θ
= (2rk ∆r )
2
= rk ∆r ∆θ.

Combining this result with the sum defining Sn gives

n
X
Sn = f (rk , θk ) rk ∆r ∆θ.
n=1

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Fubini’s Theorem

As n → ∞ and the values of ∆r and ∆θ approach zero, these sums

converge to the double integral
ZZ
lim Sn = f (r , θ)r dr dθ.
n→∞
R

A version of Fubini’s Theorem says that the limit approached by these

sums can be evaluated by repeated single integrations with respect to r
and θ as
ZZ Z θ=β Z r =g2 (θ)
f (r , θ) r dA = f (r , θ) r dr dθ.
θ=α r =g1 (θ)
R

The procedure for finding limits of integration in rectangular coordinates

also works for polar coordinates.

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Finding Limits of Integration
ZZ
To evaluate f (r , θ) dA over a region R in polar coordinates,
R
integrating first with respect to r and then with respect to θ, take the
following steps.

1. Sketch: Sketch the region and label the bounding curves.

2. Find the r -limits of integration: Imagine a ray L from the the
origin cutting through R in the direction of increasing r . Mark the
r -values where L enters and leaves R. These are the r -limits of
integration. They usually depend on the angle θ that L makes with
the positive x-axis.
3. Find the θ-limits of integration: Find the smallest and largest
θ-values that bound R. These are the θ-limits of integration.

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Finding Limits of Integration

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Example 1.
Find the limits of integration for integrating f (r , θ) over the region R that
lies inside cardioid
r = 1 + cos θ
and outside the circe r = 1.

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Area in Polar Coordinates

If f (r , θ) is the constant function whose value is 1, then the integral of f

over R is the area of R. The area Z Z of a closed and bounded region R in the
polar coordinate plane is A = r dr dθ.
R

Example 2.
Find the area enclosed by one leaf of curve given by r 2 = 4 cos 2θ.

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Changing Cartesian Integrals into Polar Integrals
RR
The procedure for changing a Cartesian integral f (x, y ) dx dy into a
R
polar integral has two steps. First substitute x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ,
and replace dx dy by r dr dθ in the Cartesian integral. Then supply polar
limits for the boundary of R. The Cartesian integral then becomes
ZZ ZZ
f (x, y ) dx dy = f (r cos θ, r sin θ) r dr dθ,
R G

where G denotes the region of integration in polar coordinates. This is like

the substitution method (to variables to substitute).

Notice that dx dy is not replaced by dr dθ but by r dr dθ.

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Example 3.
Find the polar moment of inertia about the orgin of a thin place of density

δ(x, y ) = 1

bounded by the quarter circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 in the first quadrant.

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Example 4.
ZZ
2 +y 2
Evaluate ex dy dx, where R is the semicircular region bounded by
R √
the x-axis and the curve y = 1 − x 2.

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Example 5.
Evaluate the integral
√
Z 1Z 1−x 2
(x 2 + y 2 ) dy dx.
0 0

Solution : Integration with respect to y gives

!
1
(1 − x 2 )3/2
Z p
x2 1 − x2 + dx,
0 3

an integral difficult to evaluate without tables.

Things go better if we change the original integral to polar coordinates.

The region of integration
√ in Cartesian coordinates is given by the
inequalities 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 − x 2 and 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, which correspond to the
interior of the unit quarter circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 in the first quadrant.

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Solution (contd...)

Substituting the polar coordinates x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2

and 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, and replacing dx dy by r dr dθ in the double integral, we
get
1 Z √1−x 2 π/2 1 π/2 r =1 π/2
r4
Z Z Z Z  Z
1 π
(x 2 + y 2 ) dy dx = (r 2 )r dr dθ = dθ = dθ = .
0 0 0 0 0 4 r =0 0 4 8

Why is the polar coordinate transformation so effective here? One reason

is that x 2 + y 2 simplifies to r 2 . Another is that the limits of integration
become constants.

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Example 6.
Find the volume of the solid region bounded above by the paraboloid
z = 9 − x 2 − y 2 and below by the unit circle in the xy -plane.

Solution :

The region of integration R is the unit cir-

cle x 2 + y 2 = 1, which is described in polar
coordinates by r = 1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

The solid region is shown in the figure.

The volume is given by the double integral

ZZ Z 2π Z 1
2 2 17π
(9 − x − y ) dA = (9 − r 2 )r dr dθ = .
0 0 2
R

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Example 7.
Using polar integration, find the area of the region R in the xy -plane
by the circle x 2 + y 2 + 4, above the line y = 1, and below the
enclosed √
line y = 3x.

Solution :

The area of the region R is

π/3 Z 2
√
π− 3
ZZ Z
dA = r dr dθ = .
π/6 csc θ 3
R
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Regions in Polar Coordinates
Exercise 8.
In the following exercises, describe the given region in polar coordinates.

1. 4.

2. 5.
3. The region enclosed by the 6. The region enclosed by the
circle x 2 + y 2 = 2x. semicircle x 2 + y 2 = 2y , y ≥ 0.

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Solution for the Exercise 8

1. x 2 + y 2 = 12 ⇒ r = 1, x 2 + y 2 = 42 ⇒ r = 4 ⇒ − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 , 1 ≤ r ≤ 4
√
2. x = 1 ⇒ r = sec θ, y = 3x ⇒ θ = π3 ⇒ 0 ≤ θ ≤ π3 , 0 ≤ r ≤ sec θ
3. x 2 + y 2 = 2x ⇒ r = 2 cos θ ⇒ − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π
2
,0 ≤ r ≤ 2 cos θ
4. x2 + = y2 ⇒ r = 2, x = 1 ⇒ r = sec θ; 2 = sec θ ⇒ θ = π3 or θ = − π3 ⇒ − π3 ≤ θ ≤
22
π
3
≤r ≤2
, sec θ
√ √ √
5. x + y2
2 = 12 ⇒ r = 1, x = 2 3 ⇒ r = 2 √3 sec θ, y = 2 ⇒ r = 2 csc θ; 2 √3 sec θ =
π π π π
2 csc θ ⇒ θ = 6 ⇒ 0 ≤ θ ≤ 6 , 1 ≤ r ≤ 2 3 sec θ, 6 ≤ θ ≤ 2 , 1 ≤ r ≤ 2 3 csc θ
6. x 2 + y 2 = 2y ⇒ r = 2 sin θ ⇒ 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ r ≤ 2 sin θ

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Evaluating Polar Integrals
Exercise 9.
In the following exercises, change the Cartesian integral into an equivalent
polar integral. Then evaluate the polar integral.
Z 1 Z √1−x 2 Z 1 Z √1−x 2
2
1. dy dx 5. √ dy dx
−1 0 −1 − 1−x 2 (1 + x 2 + y 2 )2
Z a Z √a2 −x 2 Z √(ln 2)2 −y 2 √
Z ln 2
2 2
2. √ dy dx 6. e x +y dx dy
−a − a2 −x 2 0 0
Z 2 Z x Z 1 Z √1−y 2
3. y dy dx 7. ln(x 2 + y 2 + 1) dx dy
0 0 √
√ −1 − 1−y 2
Z √2x−x 2
Z 3 Z x
4. dy dx Z 2 1
1 1 8. dy dx
1 0 (x 2 + y 2 )2

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Solution for the Exercise 9
R 1 R √1−x 2 Rx R1 1
Rx π
1. −1 0 dy dx = 0 0 r dr dθ = 2 0 dθ = 2
R a R √a2 −x 2 a2
dy dx = 02x 0a r dr dθ =
R 2x
dθ = πa2
R R
2. −a √ 2 0
2 2 a −x
R2Rx R x/4 R 2 sec θ 2
sin θ dr dθ = 38 0x/4 tan θ sec2 θ dθ = 4
R
3. 0 0 = y dy dx = 0 0 r 3
√
R 3Rx R x/4 R √3 sec θ R x/4
dθ = x/6 32 sec2 θ − 12 csc2 θ dθ =


4. 1 1 dy dx = x/6 csc θ r dr
3 1
x/4 √
2
tan θ + 2
cot θ x/6
= 2 − 3
R 1 R √1−x 2 2
R x/2 R 1 2x R x/2 h 1
i1
5. −1
√ 2 +y 2 ) dy dx = 4 0 0 2 )2 dr dθ = 4 0 − 1+x 2 dθ =
1−x 2 (1+x (1+x 0
R x/2
2 0 dθ = π
R ln 2 R √(ln 2)2 −y 2 √x 2 +y 2
dx dy = 0x/2 0ln 2 re x dr dθ = 0x/2 (2 ln 2 − 1)dθ =
R R R
6. 0 0 e
π
2
(2 ln 2 − 1)
R 1 R √1−y 2
ln(x 2 + y 2 + 1)dx dy = 4 0x/2 01 ln(r 2 + 1)r dr dθ = 2 0x/2 (ln 4 − 1)dθ =
R R R
7. −1 √ 2
− 1−y
π(ln 4 − 1)
R 2 R √2x−x 2 2 1 2 cos θ
dy dx = 0π/4 sec
1
R R 2 cos θ 1 R π/4  
8. 1 0 (x 2 +y 2 ) θ r4
r dr dθ = 0 − 2x 2 sec θ
dθ ==
R π/4 1 2 1 2

1 1 1
π/4 π
0 2
cos θ − 8 sec θ dθ = 4 θ + 8 sin 2θ − 8
tan θ 0
= 16

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Exercises
Exercise 10.
In the following exercises, sketch the region of integration and convert
each polar integral or sum of integrals to a Cartesian integral or sum of
integrals. Do not evaluate the integrals.
Z π/2 Z 1
1. r 3 sin θ cos θ dr dθ
0 0
Z π/4 Z 2 sec θ
2. r 5 sin2 θ dr dθ
0 0
4
Z tan−1 3
Z 3 sec θ Z π/2 Z 4 csc θ
7
3. r dr dθ+ r 7 dr dθ
4
0 0 tan−1 3
0

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Solution for (1.) in Exercise 10

√
Z 1Z 1−x 2
x y dy dx
0 0

or
√
Z 1Z 1−y 2
x y dx dy
0 0

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Solution for (2.) in Exercise 10

Z 2Z x
y 2 (x 2 + y 2 )dy dx
0 0

or

Z 2Z 2
y 2 (x 2 + y 2 )dx dy
0 y

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Solution for (3.) in Exercise 10

Z 3Z 4
(x 2 + y 2 )3 dy dx
0 0

or

Z 4Z 3
(x 2 + y 2 )3 dx dy
0 0

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Exercises
Exercise 11.
Set up (do not evaluate) polar integrals to find the area of the region cut
from the first quadrant by the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ in the following orders
of integration.

(a) dr dθ (b) dθ dr .

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Solution for the Exercise 11

(a)
Z π/2 Z 1+sin θ
Area = r dr dθ.
0 0

(b)
Z 1 Z π/2 Z 2 Z π/2
Area = r dθ dr + r dθ dr .
0 0 1 sin−1 (r −1)

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Area in Polar Coordinates
Exercise 12.
1. Find the area of the region cut from the first quadrant by the curve
r = 2(2 − sin 2θ)1/2 .
2. Cardioid overlapping a circle : Find the area of the region that
lies inside the cardioid r = 1 + cos θ and outside the circle r = 1.
3. One leaf of a rose : Find the area enclosed by one leaf of the rose
r = 12 cos 3θ.
4. Snail shell : Find the area of the region enclosed by the positive
x-axis and spiral r = 4θ/3, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. The region looks like a snail
shell.
5. Cardioid in the first quadrant : Find the area of the region cut
from the first quadrant by the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ.
6. Overlapping cardioids : Find the area of the region common to the
interiors of the cardioids r = 1 + cos θ and r = 1 − cos θ.

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Solution for the Exercise 12
√
Z x/2 Z 2 2−sin 2θ Z x/2
1. r dr dθ = 2 (2 − sin 2θ)dθ = 2(π − 1)
0 0 0
Z x/2 Z 1+cos θ Z x/2 8+π
2. A = 2 r dr dθ = (2 cos θ + cos2 θ)dθ =
0 1 0 4
Z x/6 Z 12 cos 3θ Z x/6
3. A = 2 r dr dθ = 144 cos2 3θ dθ = 12π
0 0 0
Z 2x Z 4θ/3 8
Z 2x 64π 4
4. A = r dr dθ = θ2 dθ =
0 0 9 0 27
Z x/2 Z 1+sin θ
3 1cos 2θ
 Z
3θ x/2 
5. A = + 2 sin θ −
r dr dθ = dθ = +1
0 0 0 2 2 2 8
Z x/2 Z 1−cos θ Z x/2  
3 cos 2θ 3π
6. A = 4 r dr dθ = 2 − 2 cos θ + dθ = −4
0 0 0 2 2 2

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Average values
Exercise 13.
In polar coordinates,
RR the average value of a function over a region R is
1
given by Area(R) f (r , θ)r dr dθ.
R
1. Average height of a hemisphere
p : Find the average height of the
hemispherical surface z = a2 − x 2 − y 2 above the disk
x 2 + y 2 ≤ a2 in the xy -plane.
2. Average height
p of a cone : Find the average height of the (single)
cone z = x 2 + y 2 above the disk x 2 + y 2 ≤ a2 in the xy -plane.
3. Average distance from interior of disk to center : Find the
average distance from a point P(x, y ) in the disk x 2 + y 2 ≤ a2 to the
origin.
4. Average distance squared from a point in a disk to a point in
its boundary : Find the average value of the square of the
distance from the point P(x, y ) in the disk x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 to the
boundary point A(1, 0).
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Solution for the Exercise 13

4
Z x/2 Z a p 4
Z x/2 2a
1. average= r a2 − r 2 dr dθ = a3 dθ =
πa2 0 0 3πa2 0 3
4
Z x/2 Z a 4
Z x/2 2a
2. average= r 2 dr dθ = a3 dθ =
πa2 0 0 3πa3 0 3
Z a Z √a2 −x 2 p a Z 2x Z
Z 2x
1 2 + y 2 dy dx =
1 2 a 2a
3. average= √ x r dr dθ = dθ =
πa2 −a a2 −x 2 πa2 0 0 3π 0 3
Z Z Z 2x Z 1
1 1
4. average= [(1 − x)2 + y 2 ]dy dx = [(1 − r cos θ)2 + r 2 sin2 θ]r dr dθ =
Z 2x Z 1π R Z π2x 0 0 
1 1 3 2 cos θ 1 3 2 sin θ 2x 3
(r 3 − 2r 2 cos θ + r )dr dθ = − dθ = θ− 0
=
π 0 0 π 0 4 3 π 4 3 2

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Exercises
Exercise 14.
1. Converting to a polar p integral : Integrate
2 2
f (x, y ) = [ln(x + y )]/ x 2 + y 2 over the region 1 ≤ x 2 + y 2 ≤ e.
2. Converting to a polar integral : Integrate
f (x, y ) = [ln(x 2 + y 2 )]/(x 2 + y 2 ) over the region 1 ≤ x 2 + y 2 ≤ e 2 .
3. Volume of noncircular right cylinder : The region that lies inside
the cardioid r = 1 + cos θ and outside the circle r = 1 is the base of a
solid right cylinder. The top of the cylinder lies in the plane z = x.
Find the cylinder’s volume.
4. Volume of noncircular right cylinder : The region enclosed by
the lemniscate r 2 = 2 cos 2θ is the √
base of a solid right cylinder whose
top is bounded by the sphere z = 2 − r 2 . Find the cylinder’s
volume.

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Solution for the Exercise 14
√ Z 2x Z √e
Z 2x Z e ln r 2
  Z 2x √
e e
1. r dr dθ = 2 ln r dr dθ = 2 [r ln r − r ]1 dθ =
0Z 1 t 0 1 0
2x √ 1 √
2 e[( − 1) + 1]dθ = 2π(2 − e)
0 2
Z 2x Z e  Z 2x Z e  Z 2x Z 2x
ln r 2
 
2 ln r
2. dr dθ = dr dθ = [(ln r )2 ]e1 dθ = dθ = 2π
0 1 r 0 1 r 0 0
Z x/2 Z 1+cos θ Z x/2
2
3. V =2− r 2 cos θdr dθ = (3 cos 2 θ + 3 cos3 θ + cos4 θ)dθ =
0 1 3 0
2  15θ sin 4θ x/2 4 5π
+ sin 2θ + 3 sin θ − sin3 θ + = +
3 8 32 0 3 8
Z x/4 Z √2 cos 2θ p Z x/4 √
4 2π 2
4. V =4 r 2 − r 2 dr dθ = − [(2 − 2 cos 2θ)3/2 − 23/2 ]dθ = −
√ 3 0 √ √ 3
Z x/40 0
3
32 2π 2 32 cos θ x/4 6π 2 + 40 2 − 64
(1 − cos2 θ) sin θ dθ =
 
− − cos θ ]0 =
3 0 3 3 3 9

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Theorem 1 (Separation of Variables for Iterated Integrals).
Let g (x) be a continuous function on the interval [a, b] on the x-axis and h(y ) be a continuous
function on the integral [c, d] on the y -axis. Then f (x, y ) = g (x)h(y ) is a continuous function
on the rectangle D = [a, b] × [c, d] and
ZZ Z b  Z d 
f (x, y ) dA = g (x) dx h(y ) dy .
D a c

Exercise 15.
R∞ 2
(a) The usual way to evaluate the improper integral I = 0 e −x dx is first to calculate its
square:
Z ∞ 2
 Z ∞ 2
 Z ∞ Z ∞ 2
+y 2 )
I2 = e −x dx e −y dy = e −(x dx dy .
0 0 0 0

Evaluate the last integral using polar coordinates and solve the resulting equation for I .
(b) Evaluate

2
x 2e −t
Z
lim erf (x) = lim √ dt.
x→∞ x→∞ 0 π

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Solution for the Exercise 15

(a)
Z ∞ Z ∞ 2
+y 2 )
I2 = e −(x dx dy
0 0
Z x/2 Z ∞ 2

= e −r r dr dθ
0 0
Z x/2 Z ∞ 2
re −r dr dθ
 
= lim
0 b→∞ 0
1 x/2
Z
2
 
= − lim e −b − 1 dθ
2 0 b→∞

1 x/2
Z
π
= dθ = .
2 0 4

√
Hence I = 2π .
2 Z ∞ √ 
2e −t
Z x 
2 2 2 π
(b) lim √ dt = √ e −t dt = √ = 1, from part (a).
x→∞ 0 π π 0 π 2

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Converting to polar integrals
Exercise 16.
Converting to a polar integral : Evaluate the integral
Z ∞Z ∞
1
dx dy .
0 0 (1 + x 2 + y 2 )2

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Solution for the Exercise 16

Z ∞Z ∞ Z x/2 Z ∞
1 r
dx dy = dr dθ
0 0 (1 + x + y 2 )2
2
0 0 (1 + r 2 )2
Z b
π r
= lim dr
2 b→∞ 0 (1 + r 2 )2
π  1 b
= lim −
4 b→∞  1 + r 2 0 
π 1 π
= lim 1 − =
4 b→∞ 1 + b2 4

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Exercises
Exercise 17.
1. Existence : Integrate the function f (x, y ) = 1/(1 − x 2 − y 2 ) over
the disk x 2 + y 2 ≤ 3/4. Does the integral of f (x, y ) over the disk
x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1 exist? Give reasons for your answer.
2. Area : Suppose that the area of a region in the polar coordinate
plane is
Z 3π/4 Z 2 sin θ
A= r dr dθ.
π/4 csc θ

Sketch the region and find its area.

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Solution for (1.) in Exercise 17
Over the disk x 2 + y 2 ≤ 34 ,

ZZ Z 2x Z √3/2
1 r
dA = dr dθ
R 1 − x2 − y 2
0 01 − r2
√3/2
Z 2x
 1
= − ln (1 − r 2 ) 0 dθ
0 2
Z 2x  
1 1
= − ln dθ
0 2 4
Z 2x
= (ln 2) dθ = π ln 4.
0

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Solution for (1.) in Exercise 17 (contd...)
Over the disk x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1,
ZZ
1
Z 2x Z 1
r
dA = dr dθ
R 1− x2 − y2 0 01 − r2
Z 2x 
Z a
r 
= lim dr dθ
0 a→1 0 1 − r 2
Z 2x 1
= ln(1 − a2 )]dθ
lim [−
0 2 a→1
1
= 2π · lim [− ln(1 − a2 )] = 2π.∞
a→1 2

so the integral does not exist over x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1.

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Solution for (2.) in Exercise 17

Z 3x/4 Z 2 sin θ
A = r dr dθ
x/4 csc θ

1
Z 3x/4
= (4 sin2 θ − csc2 θ)dθ
2 x/4
1 3x/4 π
= [2θ − sin 2θ + cot θ]x/4 =
2 2

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Exercises
Exercise 18.
1. Area formula in polar coordinates : Use the double integral in
polar coordinates to derive the formula
Z β
1 2
A= r dθ
α 2

for the area of the fan-shaped region between the origin and polar
curve r = f (θ), α ≤ θ ≤ β.
2. Average distance to a given point inside a disk : Let P0 be a
point inside a circle of radius a and let h denote the distance from P0
to the center of the circle. Let d denote the distance from an
arbitrary point P at P0 . Find the average value of d 2 over the region
enclosed by the circle. (Hint: Simplify your work by placing the center
of the circle at the origin and P0 on the x-axis.)

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Solution for the Exercise 18

1. The area in polar coordinates is given by

Z β Z f [θ] Z β 2
1 β 2
Z Z β
 r β 1 2
A= r dr dθ = dθ = f (θ)dθ = r dθ, where r = f (θ).
α 0 α 2 α 2 α α 2
2.

1
Z 2x Z a
average = [(r cos θ − h)2 + r 2 sin2 θ]r dr dθ
πa2 0 0
1
Z 2x Z a
= (r 3 − 2r 2 h cos θ + rh2 )dr dθ
πa2 0 0
Z 2x
a4 2a3 h cos θ a2 h 2
 
1
= − + dθ
πa2 0 4 3 2
Z 2x  2
h2

1 a 2ah cos θ
= − + dθ
π 0 4 3 2
1  a2 θ 2ah sin θ h2 θ 2x
= − +
π 4 3 2 0
1 2
= (a + 2h2 )
2

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References

1. M.D. Weir, J. Hass and F.R. Giordano, Thomas’ Calculus, 11th

Edition, Pearson Publishers.
2. R. Courant and F.John, Introduction to calculus and analysis, Volume
II, Springer-Verlag.
3. N. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I & II (Translated
by George Yankovsky).
4. E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Wiley Publishers.

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