1 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Relations - Let A and B be two non-empty sets then every subset of A × B defines a relation from A to B
and every relation from A to B is a subset of A × B.
Let R  A × B and (a, b)  R. then we say that a is related to b by the relation R as aRb. If (a, b)  R as
a R b.
2. Domain and Range of a Relation - Let R be a relation from A to B, that is, let R  A × B. then Domain
R = {a : a A, (a, b) R for some b B} i.e. dom. R is the set of all the first elements of the ordered pairs
which belong to R. Range R = (b : b B, (a, b) R for some a A} i.e. range R is the set of all the second
elements of the ordered pairs which belong to R. Thus Dom. R  A, Range R  B.
3. Inverse Relation - Let R  A × B be a relation from A to B. Then inverse relation R–1  B × A is defined by
R–1 {(b, a) : (a, b) R}
It is clear that
(i) aRb = bR–1 a
(ii) dom. R–1 = range R and range R–1 = dom R.
(iii) (R–1)–1 = R.
4. Composition of Relation - Let R A × B, S B × C be two relations. Then composition of the relations
R and S is denoted by SoR A × C and is defined by (a, c)  (SoR) iff b  B such that (a, b) 
R, (b, c) S.
5. Relations in a set - let A () be a set and R A × A i.e. R is a relation in the set A.
6. Reflexive Relations - R is a reflexive relation if (a, a) R,  a R it should be noted that if for any a A
such that a R a. then R is not reflexive.
7. Symmetric Relation - R is called symmetric relation on A if (x, y) R (y, x) R.
i.e. if x is related to y, then y is also related to x.
It should be noted that R is symmetric iff R–1 = R.
8. Anti Symmetric Relations - R is called an anti symmetric relation if (a, b) R and (b, a) R a = b.
Thus if a  b then a may be related to b or b may be related to a but never both.
9. Transitive Relations - R is called a transitive relation if (a, b) R (b, c) R (a, c) R
10. Identity Relations - R is an identity relation if (a, b) R iff a = b. i.e. every element of A is related to only
itself and always identity relation is reflexive symmetric and transitive.
11. Equivalence Relations - a relation R in a set A is called an equivalence relation if
(i) R is reflexive i.e. (a, a) R  a A
(ii) R is symmetric i.e. (a, b) R (b, a) R
(iii) R is transitive i.e. (a, b), (b, c) R (a, c) R.
12. Functions - Suppose that to each element in a set A there is assigned, by some rule, an unique element of
a set B. Such rules are called functions. If we let f denote these rules, then we write f : A  B as f is a
function of A into B.
13. Equal Functions - If f and g are functions defined on the same domain A and if f (a) = g (a) for every
a A, then f = g.
14. Constant Functions - Let f : A  B. If f (a) = b, a constant, for all a A, then f is called a constant function.
Thus f is called a constant function if range f consists of only one element.
15. Identity Functions - A function f is such that A  A is called an identity function if f (x) = x,  x A it is
denoted by IA.
16. One-One Functions (Injective) - Let f : A  B then f is called a one-one function. If no two different
elements in A have the same image i.e. different elements in A have different elements in B.
Denoted by symbol f is one-one if
f (a) = f (a)  a = a
i.e. a  a f (a)  f (a)
A mapping which is not one-one is called many one function.
17. Onto functions (Surjective) - In the mapping f : A  B, if every member of B appears as the image of
atleast one element of A, then we say “f is a function of A onto B or simply f is an onto functions” Thus
f is onto iff f (A) = B
i.e. range = codomain
A function which is not onto is called into function.
18. Inverse of a function - Let f : A  B and b B then the inverse of b i.e. f–1 (b) consists of those elements
in A which are mapped onto b i.e. f–1 (b) = {x ; x A, f (x) b}
 f–1 (b) A, f–1 (b) may be a null set or a singleton.
19. Inverse Functions - Let f : A  B be a one-one onto-function from A onto B. Then for each b B.
f–1 (b) A and is unique. So, f–1 : B  A is a function defined by f–1 (b) = a, iff f (a) = b.
Then f–1 is called the inverse function of f. If f has inverse function, f is also called invertible or non-
singular.
Thus f is invertible (non-singular) iff it is one-one onto (bijective) function.
20. Composition Functions - Let f : A  B and g : B  C, be two functions,
Then composition of f and g denoted by gof : A  C is defined by (gof) (a) = g {f (a)}.
21. Binary Operation - A binary operation  on a set A is a function  : A × A  A. We denote  (a, b) by a  b
22. Commutative Binary Operation - A binary operation  on the set A is commutative if for every a, b A,
a  b = b  a.
23. Associative Binary Operation - A binary operation  on the set A is associative if
(a  b)  c = a  (b  c).
24. An Identity Element e for Binary Operation - Let  : A × A  A be a binary operation. There exists an
element e  A such that a  e = a = e  a  a A, then e is called an identity element for Binary Operation  .
25. Inverse of an Element a - Let  : A × A  A be a binary operation with identity element e in A.
an element a A is invertible w.r.t. binary operation  , if there exists an element b in A such that
a  b = e = b  a. and b is called the inverse of a and is denoted by a–1.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. In general gof  fog.
2. f : A  B, be one-one, onto then
f–1 of = IA and fof–1 = IB
3. f : A  B, g : B  C, h : C  D
then (hog) of = ho (gof).
4. f : A  B, g : B  C be one-one and onto then gof : A  C is also one-one onto and (gof)–1 = f–1 o g–1.
5. Let : A  B, then IB of = f and foIA = f. It should be noted that foIB is not defined since for
(foIB) (x) = fo {IB (x)} = f (x)
IB (x) exist when x B and f (x) exist when x A
6. f : A  B, g : B  C are both one-one, then gof : A  C is also one-one it should be noted that for gof to
be one-one f must be one-one.
7. If f : A  B g : B  C are both onto then gof must be onto. However, the converse is not true. But for gof
to be onto g must be onto.
8. The domain of the functions
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)
(f – g) (x) = f (x) – g (x)
(fg) (x) = f (x) g (x)
f (x)
is given by (dom. f)  (dom g) while domain of the function (f/g) (x) = is given by..
g (x)
(dom f) (dom. g) – {x : g (x) = 0}
9. If O (A) = m, O (B) = n, then total number of mappings from A to B is nm.
10. If A and B are finite sets and O (A) = m, O (B) = n, m  n.
n!
Then number of injection (one-one) from A to B is nPm = (n  m)!
11. If f : A  B is injective (one-one), then O(A)  O (B).
12. If f : A  B is surjective (onto), then O (A)  O (B).
13. If f : A  B is bijective (one-one onto), then O (A) = O (B).
14. Let f : A  B and O (A) = O (B), then f is one-one  it is onto.
15. Let f : A  B and X1, X2  A, then f is one-one iff f (X1  X2) = f (X1) f (X2)
16. Let f : A  B and X A, Y B, then in general f–1 (f (x)) X, f (f–1 (y)) Y
If f is one-one onto f–1 (f (x)) = x, f (f–1 (y)) = Y.
 2 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Functions Domain Range
(i) sin R [–1, 1]
(ii) cos R [–1, 1]

(iii) tan R – {x : x = (2n + 1) , n  z} R
2
(iv) cot R – {x : x = n , n  z} R

(v) sec R – { x : x = (2n + 1) } n  z} R – [–1, 1]
2
(vi) cosec R – {x : x = n , n  z} R– [–1, 1]
2. Inverse Function - If f : X  Y such that y = f (x) is one-one and onto, then we define another function
g : Y  X such that x = g (y), where x  X and y  Y which is also one-one and onto. In such a case domain
of g = Range of f and Range of g = domain of f
g is called inverse of f or g = f –1
Inverse of g = g–1 = (f–1)–1 = f.
3. Principal value Branch of function sin–1 - It may be noted that for the domain [-1, 1] the range sould be
 3         3 
any one of the intervals   ,  ,  ,  or  ,  corresponding to each interval we get a
 2 2   2 2 2 2 
   
branch of the function sin–1 the branch with range  ,  is called the principal value branch.
 2 2
–1
Thus sin : [–1, 1]     
,
 2 2 
y
2
3
–1
2

1
2
x   x
–1
2
3
1
2

2
y
y = sin–1 x
4. Principal Value branch of function cos–1 - Domain of the function cos–1 is [–1, 1].
Its range is one of the intervals (–, 0), (0, ), (, 2). etc. The branch with range (0, ) is called the
principal value branch of the function cos–1 thus cos–1 : [–1, 1]  [0, ]
y

2

–1

x 0 1 x

–1 –

–2 1
y
y = cos–1 x
5. Principal Value branch of function tan–1 - The function tan–1 is defined whose domain is set of real
 3         3 
numbers and range is one of the intervals  ,  , ,  ,  ,  etc.
 2 2   2 2 2 2 
   
Graph of the function is as shown in the adjoining figure the branch with range  ,  is called the
 2 2
   
pricnipal value branch of function tan–1. Thus tan–1 : R   , .
 2 2
y
3
2

 
2
x x
0
–
2 –

–3
y 2
y = tan–1 x
6. Principal Value branch of function cosec–1 - The function cosec–1 is defined on a function whose domain
 3         3 
is R – (–1, 1) and the range is anyone of the interval  ,   {},  ,   {0},  ,   {},......
 2 2   2 2 2 2 
  
The function corresponding to the range   ,   {0} is called the principal value branch
 2 2
of cosec–1
  
Thus, cosec–1 : R – (–1, 1)    ,   {0}
 2 2
 y
3
1 2


1
2
x x
0
–
–1 2
–
–3
2 1
y
y = cosec–1 x
7. Principal value branch of function sec–1 - The sec–1 is defined as a function whose domain is

 
R – (–1, 1) and the range could be any of the intervals is ........, [–p, 0] –

2 
, [0, p] 

2  
,[, 2] 
3
2
..... etc.

The branch corresponding to range [0, ]  

2
is known as the principal value branch of sec–1. Thus


sec–1 : R – (–1, 1)  [0, ]   .
2
y
2
3
2 
–1

x 2 x
0 1
–
–1
2
–
–2

y
y = sec–1 x
8. Principal Value branch of function cot - The cot–1 function is defined as the function whose domain is
–1

R and the range is any of the intervals......... (–, 0) (0, ), (, 2) etc. The branch corresponding to (0, )
is called the principal value branch of the function cot–1, then cot–1 : R  (0, )
y

2
3
2


2 x
x
0
–
2 –
–3
2 –2

y
y = cot–1 x
9. Inverse function Domain Principal Value branch
   
sin–1 [–1, 1]  2 , 2 
cos –1 [–1, 1] [0, ]
   
cosec–1 R – (–1, 1)  2 , 2   {0}

sec –1 R – (–1, 1) 
[0, ]  
2
   
tan–1 R  2 , 2 
cot –1 R (0, )

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. (i) sin–1 1/x = cosec–1 x, x  1, x –1 (ii) cos–1 1/x = sec–1 x, x  1, x –1
(iii) tan–1 1/x = cot–1 x, x > 0 (iv) cosec–1 1/x = sin–1 x, x [–1, 1]
(v) sec–1 1/x = cos–1 x, x [–1, 1] (vi) cot–1 1/x = tan–1 x, x > 0
2. (i) sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 x, x [–1, 1]
(ii) tan–1 (–x) = – tan–1 x, x  R
(iii) cosec–1 (–x) = – cosec–1 x, |x|  1
(iv) cos–1 (–x) =  – cos–1 x, x [–1, 1]
(v) sec–1 (–x) =  – sec–1 x, |x| 
(vi) cot–1 (–x) = – cot–1 x, x  R
3. (i) sin–1 x + cos–1 x = /2, x [–1, 1]
(ii) tan–1 x + cot–1 x = /2, x  R
(iii) cosec–1 x + sec–1x = /2, |x|  1
xy
4. (i) tan–1 x + tan–1 y = tan–1 , xy < 1
1  xy
xy
(ii) tan–1 x – tan–1 y = tan–1 , xy > –1
1  xy
1 1
(iii)  
2 sin–1 x = sin–1 2x 1  x 2 , 
2
x
2
(iv) 2 cos–1 x = cos–1 (2x2 – 1) ,  1  x  1
2
2x 2x 2
–1 1  x , x  0
(v) 2 tan–1 x = tan–1 2
, 1  x  1  sin 1 2 , |x|  1 = cos
1 x 1 x 1  x2
 3 MATRICES

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Matrices - A system of mn numbers (real or complex) arranged in a rectangular array of m rows and n
columns is called a matrix of order m × n. An m × n matrix (to be read as ‘m by n’ matrix)
An m × n matrix is written as
 a11 a12 ........ a1n 
 
a 21 a 22 ........ a 2n 
A   ........  
 
   ........  
a m1 a m2 ........ a mn 
The numbers a11, a12 etc are called the elements or entries of the matrix. If A is a matrix of order m × n, then
we shall write A = [aij]m × n where, aij represent the number in the i-th row and j-th column.
2. Row Matrix - A single row matrix is called a row matrix or a row vector. e.g. the matrix [a11, a12, ...... a1n] is
a row matrix.
 a11 
 
 a 21 
3. Column Matrix - A single column matrix is called a column matrix or a column vector. e.g. the matrix   
 
is a m × 1 column matrix. a m1 

4. Order of a Matrix - A matrix having m rows and n columns is of the order m × n. i.e. consisting of m rows
and n columns is denoted by A = [aij]m × n.
5. Square Matrix - If m = n, i.e. if the number of rows and columns of a matrix are equal, say n, then it is called
a square matrix of order n.
6. Null or Zero Matrix - If all the elements of a matrix are equal to zero, then it is called a null matrix and is
denoted by Om × n or 0.
7. Diagonal Matrix - A square matrix, in which all its elements are zero except those in the leading diagonal is
called a diagonal matrix, thus in a diagonal matrix, aij = 0, if i  j, e.g. the diagonal matrices of order 2 and 3
K 0 0 
 K1 0   1 
are   ,  0 K2 0 
 0 K 2 
0 0 K 3 
8. Scalar Matrix - A square matrix in which all the diagonal element are equal and all other elements equal to
zero is called a scalar matrix.
K 0 0 
i.e. in a scalar matrix aij = k for i = j and aij = 0 for i  j. Thus  0 K 0  is a scalar matrix.
 
 0 0 K 
 9. Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix - A square matrix in which all its diagonal elements are equal to 1 and all
other elements equal to zero is called a unit matrix or identity matrix.
1 0 0
1 0  
e.g. a unit or identity matrix of order 2 and 3 are   and 0 1 0 respectively..
 0 1  0 0 1
10. Upper triangular Matrix - A square matrix A whose elements aij = 0 for i > j is called an upper triangular
matrix.
11. Lower triangular Matrix - A square matrix A whose elements aij = 0 for i < j is called a lower triangular
matrix.
12. Equal Matrices - Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, written as A = B if
(i) they are of the same order i.e. have the same number of rows and columns, and
(ii) the elements in the corresponding places of the two matrices are the same.
13. Transpose of a matrix - Let A be a m × n matrix then the matrix of order n × m obtained by changing its rows
into columns and columns into rows is called the transpose of A and is denoted by A or AT.
14. Negative of Matrix - Let A = [aij]m × n be a matrix. Then the negative of the matrix A is defined as the matrix
[–aij]m ×n and is denoted by –A.
15. Symmetric Matrix - a square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = A
Thus a square matrix A = [aij] is symmetric if A = [aij] is symmetric if aij = – aji for all values of i and j.
16. Skew-Symmetric Matrix - A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if A = – A Thus a square matrix
A = [aij] is skew-symmetric if aij = – aji for all values of i and j.
In particular aii = – aii  2aii = 0  aii = 0 i.e. all diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are o.
17. For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A is a symetric matrix and A – A is a skew symetric
matrix.
18. Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symetric and a skew symetric matrix.
1 1 1
If A be a square matrix, then we can write A  (A  A)  (A  A) , here (A  A) is symetric matrix
2 2 2
1
and (A A ) is skew symetric matrix.
2
19. Addition of Matrices - Let there be two matrices A and B of the same order m × n. then the sum denoted
by A + B is defined to be the matrix of order m × n obtained by adding the corresponding elements of
A and B.
Thus if A = [aij]m × n and B = [bij]m × n then A + B = [aij + bij]m × n
20. Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix - Let A = [aij]m × n be a matrix and K is a scalar. Then the matrix obtained
by multiplying each element of matrix A by K is called the scalar multiplication of matrix A by K and is
denoted by KA or AK.
21. Multiplication of Matrices - Product of two matrices exists only if number of column of first matrix is equal
to the number of rows of the second. Let A be m × n and B be n × p matrices. Then the product of matrices
A and B denated by A.B is the matrix of order m × p whose (i, j)th element is obtained by adding the
products of corresponding elements of ith row of A and jth column of B.
22. Elementary Row Operations - The operations known as elementary row operations on a matrix are-
(i) The interchange of any two rows of a matrix. (The notations Ri Rj is used for the interchange of
the i-th and j-th rows.)
(ii) The multiplication of every element of a row by a non-zero element (constant).
(The notations K.Ri is used for the multiplication of every element of i-th row by a constant K.
(iii) The addition of the elements of a row, the product of the corresponding elements of any other row by
any non-zero constant. (The notation Ri + K.Rj is generally used for addition to the elements of
i-th row to the element of j-th row multiplied by the constant K (K  0))
23. Invertible matrices - If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square matrix B of the
same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the Inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by A–1. In
that care A is said to be invertible.
24. If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)–1 = B–1. A–1.
25. Inverse of a matrix by elementry operations - Let X, A and B be matrices of, the same order such that X =
AB. In order to apply a sequence of elementry row operations on the matrix equation X = AB, we will apply
these row operations simultaneously on X and on the first matrix A of the product AB on RHS.
Similarly, in order to apply a sequence of elementry column operations on the matrix equation X = AB, we
will apply, these operations simultaneously on X and on the second matrix B of the product AB on RHS.
In view of the above discussion, we conclude that if A is a matrix such that A–1 exists, then to find A–1
using elementry row operations, write A = IA and apply a sequence of row operation on A = IA till we get,
I =BA. The matrix B will be the inverse of A. Similarly, if we with to find A–1 using column operations, then,
write A = AI on A = IA till we get, I = BA. The matrix and apply a sequence of column operations on A = AI
till we get, I = AB.
Remark - In case, after applying one or more elementry row (column) operations on A = IA (A = AI). If we
obtain all zero in one or more rows of the matrix A on L.H.S., that A–1 does not exist.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. The elements aij of a matrix for which i = j are called the diagonal elements of a matrix and the line along
which all these elements lie is called the principal diagonal or the diagonal of the matrix.
2. Properties of transpose of the matrices-
(i) (A + B) = A + B
(ii) (KA) = KA, where K is constant
(iii) (AB) = BA
(iv) A
3. Properties of Matrix addition-
(i) Matrix Addition is Commutative - If A and B be two m × n matrices, then A + B = B + A
(ii) Matrix Addition is Associative - If A, B and C be three m × n matrices, then
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
4. Properties of Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar-
(i) If K1 and K2 are scalars and A be a matrix, then (K1 + K2) A = K1 A + K2 A.
(ii) If K1 and K2 are scalars and A be a matrix, then K1 (K2 A) = (K1 K2) A.
(iii) If A and B are two matrices of the same order and K, a scalar, then K (A + B) = KA + KB.
(iv) If K1 and K2 are two scalars and A is any matrix then (K1 + K2) A = K1 A + K2 A.
(v) If A is any matrix and K be a scalar.
then (–K) A = – (KA) = K (–A).
5. Properties of Matrix Multiplication -
(i) Associative law for Multiplication - If A, B and C be three matrices of order m × n and n × p and
p × q, respectively, then (AB) C = A (BC).
(ii) Distributive Law - If A, B, C be three matrices of order m × n, n × p and n × q respectively.
then A  (B + C) = A  B + A  C
(iii) Matrix Multiplication is not commutative.
i.e. A B BA
(iv) The existence of multiplicative Identity : For every square matrix A, there exists an identity matrix of
same order such that IA = AI = A.
6. If A be any n × n square matrix, then
A  (Adj A) = (Adj A)  A = |A|. In
where In is an n × n unit matrix
7. (i) Only square matrix can have inverse
(ii) The matrix B = A–1, will also be a square matrix of same order A.
(iii) The square matrix A is said to be invertible if A–1 exists.
8. Every invertible matrix possesses a unique inverse.
 4 DETERMINANTS

KEY CONCEPTS INVOLVED

1. Determinant - (i) A determinant is a particular type of expression written in a special concise form of rows
and columns, equal in number.
a1 b1
For example  = is a determinant having 2 rows and 2 columns, hence it is of second order. The
a2 b2
numbers a1, b1, a2 , b2 are called the elements of the determinant. The value of the above determinant of
a1 b1 c1
third order is written as  = a 2 b 2 c 2 . It has three rows and three columns.
a 3 b3 c 3
The number of elements = 3 = 9. In general, the number of elements in a determinant of order n = n2.
2

a b a b
(ii) If A =  c d  , is a matrix then determinant of matrix A is written as |A| or det (A) = c d .
 
(iii) Only square matrices have determinants.
2. Minors - The determinant obtained by deleting the i-the row and j-th column passing through the element
aij is called the minor of element aij and is denoted by Mij.
3. Cofactors - The cofactor of element aij is (–1)1 + j times the determinant obtained by deleting the i-th row
and jth column passed through aij and is denoted by Cij i.e. Cij = (–1)1 + j Mij
4. Values of the determinant - The sum of the products of elements of any row (column) by the corresponding
co-factors is equal to the value of the determinant.
a11 b12 c13
a
let  = 21 b 22 c 23 , Then  = a c + a c + a c
11 11 12 12 13 13
a 31 a 32 a 33

5. Area of a Triangle - The area of the triangle whose vertices are (x1 , y1) , (x2 , y2) and (x3 , y3) is
x1 y1 1
1
= x y2 1
2 2
x 3 y3 1
(i) The area is positive, take only absolute value.
(ii) If the three points are collinear, the area of triangle is zero.
6. |AB| = |A| |B|
7. A square matrix is invertible if and only if A is non-singular.
8. Linear system of Equations -
Consistent System - The system of equation is said to be consistent if it has one or more then one
solutions.
 Inconsistent System - The system of equation is inconsistent if it has no solution
Consider the system of equation
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
 a1 b1 c1  x  d1 
     
a b 2 c 2  , X  y and B   d 2 
let A= 2  
 a 3 b 3 c3   z   d 3 
The given system of equation can be written as
 a1 b1 c1   x   d1 
     
 a 2 b2 c 2   y   d 2 
 a 3 b3 c3   z   d 3 
or AX = B
 X = A–1 B.
9. Consistence/Inconsistence of system of Equations
(a) For a non-homogeneous system of equation AX  0
(i) If |A|  0, AX = B has a unique solution.
(ii) If |A| = 0, and (adj A) B  0
then the system of equation is inconsistent.
(iii) If |A| = 0 and (adj A) B = 0, then the system of equation has infinitely many solutions.
(b) For the homogeneous system of equation AX = 0
(i) If |A|  0, the solution is x = 0, y = 0, z = 0. This is called the trivial solution.
(ii) If |A| = 0, the system has infinitely many solution. In such a case, we put one of the variables equal
to k. let z = k, then we find the value of x and y in terms of k.
10. Adjoint of a Determinant - The adjoint of a square matrix is the transpose of matrix cofactors. If Aij is the
cofactor of aij of det A or |aij|, the
T
 A11 A12 A13   A11 A 21 A31 
 A 23    A12
 A32 
adj A =  A 21 A 22 A 22
 A31 A32 A33   A13 A 23 A33 
1
11. Inverse of a matrix - Inverse of a matrix A, A–1 = adj A ; if |A|  0 i.e., matrix A is invertible or non-
A
singular.
12. If A is a square matrix, then A (adj A) = (adj A) A = |A| . I
13. (i) (AB)–1 = B–1 . A–1 (ii) A–1 = (A–1) T (iii) (A–1)–1 = A

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. The value of the determinant does not change when rows and columns are interchanged. The determinant
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns is called the transpose of the determinant and is denoted
by T. Thus  = T.
2. If all the elements of a row (column) are zero, then the value of the determinant is zero.
3. The interchange of any two rows of the determinant changes its sign.
Thus if * is the new determinant obtained on interchanging any two rows (columns), then
 = – *
 If i-th and j-th row are interchanged then this operation is denoted by Ri  Rj.
4. If all the elements of a row (column) of a determinant are multiplied by a non-zero constant, then the
determinant gets multiplied by the same constant. Thus if we apply Ri  pRi, i.e, each element of i-th row
is multiplied by p, then we get
1
* = p or  = * (P  0)
p
5. If all the elements of a row (column) are proportional (identical) to the elements of some other row (column)
then determinant is zero.
6. If each element of any row (column) is sum of two numbers, the determinant can be expressed as the sum
of two determinants of the same order eg.
a1  1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 1 b1 c1
a 2  2 b2 c2  a 2 b2 c2  2 b2 c2
a 3  3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 3 b3 c3
7. The value of a determinant remains unaltered under an operation of the form
Ri  Ri + pRj  similarly, for columns i.e., operation of the form Ci  Ci + pCj +q Ck; j, k  i
8. If a determinant  (x) becomes zero on putting x = , then (x – ) is a factor of  (x).
9. Determinant which have all elements equal to zero except the diagonal elements, is equal to the product of
the diagonal elements.
a 0 0
0 b 0 = abc
0 0 c
 CONTINUITY AND
5 DIFFERENTIABILITY

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Continuity - A real valued function f (x) of variable x defined on an interval I is said to be continuous at
x = a I, lim f (x) exists, is finite and is equal to f (a).
x a
lim f (a + h) = lim f (a–h) = f (a), where ‘h’ is a very small +ve quantity..
 h 0 h 0
2. A function f (x) is said to be continuous in an interval I, if it is continuous at each point of the interval.
3. Discontinuity - A function said to be discontinuous at a point x = a, if it is not continuous at this point.
This point x = a where the function is not continuous is called the point of discontinuity.
4. Suppose f and g be two real functions continuous at a real number c, then
(i) f + g is continuous at x = c
(ii) f – g is continuous at x = c
(iii) f  g is continuous at x = c
f
(iv) g is continuous at x = c, (provided g (c)  0)
1
5. (i) If g is a continuous function, then g is also continuous.
(ii) Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (fog) is defined at c. If f and g is continuous at c
then (fog) is also continuous at c.
6. Differentiability - The concept of differentiability has been introduced in the lower class let f be a real
f (c  h)  f (c)
function and c is a point in its domain. The derivative f  (c) of f at c is defined as lim ,
h 0 h
provided limit exists
d f (x  h)  f (x)
Thus, f  (c) = [f (x)]c. f  (x) is defined as f  (x) = lim
dx h 0 h
Every differentiable function is continuous.
7. Algebra of Derivatives - Let u, v be the function of x.
(i) (u ± v) = u ± v
(ii) (uv) = uv + uv
 u  u v  uv
(iii)    , where v  0.
v v2
8. Chain Rule - If f and g are differentiable functions in their domain, then fog (x) or f g (x) is also differentiable
and (fog) (x) = f  g (x) × g (x)
dy dy du
More easily if y = f (u) and u = g (x), then  
dx du dx
dy dy du dv
If y is a function of u, u is a function of v and v is a function of x then    .
dx du dv dx
9. Implicit functions - An equation in the form f (x, y) = 0 in which y is not expressible in terms of x is called
as an implicit function of x and y.
 dy
Both sides of equations are differentiated term wise with respect to x then from this equation is
dx
obtained. It may be noted that when a function of y occurs, then differentiate it w.r.t. y and multiply it by
dy
.
dx
dy dy
Collect the terms containing at one side and find
dx dx
10. Exponential function - The exponential function with positive base b > 1, is the function y = bx.
(i) The graph of y = 10x is
(ii) Domain = R
(iii) Range = R +
(iv) The point (0, 1) always lies on the graph.
(v) It is an increasing function
(vi) As x  –  y  0
d x x d x x
(vii) a = a loge a, e =e .
dx dx y
x
y = 10

(0, 1)
x x
0
y
11. Logarithmic function - Let b > 1 be a real number. bx = a may be written as logb a = x.
(i) The graph of y = log10 x is
(ii) Domain = R +
(iii) Range = R
(iv) It is an increasing function.
(v) As x  0, y 
(vi) The functiony = ex and y = logex are the mirror images of each other
d 1 d 1
(vii) (loga x) = loga e, loge x =
dx x dx x
y

y = log10 x

(1, 0)
x x
O

y
12. Derivatives of functions in Parametric form - The set of equations x = f (t), y = g (t) is called the
parametric form of an equation.
 dx dy dy dy dt g (t)
Now,  f (t),  g (t) ,   or
dt dt dx dx dt f  (t)
dy
13. Second order derivative- let y = f (x) then  f (x)
dx
If f  (x) is differentiable, then it is again differentiated and get
d  dy  d2 y
  or = f  (x)
dx  dx  dx2
d2 y
or f  (x) is called the second derivative of y or f (x) with respect to x.
dx 2
14. Rolle’s Theorem - Let f : [a, b]  R be continuous an closed interval [a, b] and differentiable an open
interval (a, b) such that f (a) = f (b) where a, b are real numbers, then there must exists at least one value
c (a, b) of x,such that f (c) = 0.
y

x x
O a c1 c2 b

y
We observe that f (a) = f (b), There exists two point c1 and c2 (a, b) such that f (c1) = 0 and f (c2) = 0,
i.e. Tangent at c1 and c2 are parallel to x-axis.
15. Mean Value Theorem- Let f : [a, b]  R be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and
differentiable in the open interval (a, b), then there must exists at least one value c  (a, b) of x, such that
f (b)  f (a)
f (c) = .
ba y

B [b, f (b)]
[a, f (a)]
C f (b)
A f (a) f (c)
x x
O a c b

y
f (b)  f (a)
Here, is the slope of secant drawn between A [a, f (a)] and B [b, f (b)]. There is at least one
ba
point c  (a, b) of x where slope of the tangent at x = c is parallel to chord AB.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
Some common type functions as constant function, Identity function, implicit function, Modulus function,
Exponential function, and logarithmic function are continuous in their domains.
1. Every polynomial function is differentiable at each x  R.
2. The exponential function ax, a > 0, is differentiable at each x R
3. Every constant function is differentiable at each x  R.
4. The logarithmic function is differentiable at each point in its demain.
5. Trigonometric and inverse-trigenometric functions are differentiable in their domains.
6. The sum, difference, product and quotient of two differentiable functions is differentiable
7. The composition of differentiable function is differentiable function.
8. (i) logb pq = logb p + logb q
p
(ii) logb = logb p – logb q
q
(iii) logb px = x logb p
log b p
(iv) loga p =
log b a
9. Derivativs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
Functions Domain Derivative
1
sin–1 x [–1, 1]
1  x2
1
cos–1 x [–1,1]
1  x2
1
tan–1 x R
1  x2
1
cot–1 x R
1  x2
1
sec–1 x (–, –1]  [1, )
x x2 1
1
cosec–1 x (–, –1) [1, )
x x2 1
 APPLICATION OF
6 DERIVATIVES

KEY CONCEPTS INVOLVED

1. Rate of change of Quantities – Let y = f (x) be a function. If the change in one quantity y varies with
dy dy 
another quantity x, then or f  (x) denotes the rate of change of y with respect to x.  x  x
dx dx 0
or f (x0) represents the rate of change of y w.r.t. x at x = x0.
2. Increasing and Decreasing function at x0 A function f is said to be
(a) Increasing on an interval (a, b) if x1 < x2 in (a, b)  f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1 , x2  (a, b)
Alternatively, if f  (x)  0 for each x in (a, b)
(b) Decreasing on (a, b) if x1 < x2 in (a, b)  f (x1)  f (x2) for all x1 , x2  (a, b) Alternatively, if f  (x)  0 for
each x in (a, b)
3. Test : Increasing/decreasing/constant function – Let f be a continuous on [a, b] and differentiable in an
open interval (a, b), then.
(i) f is increasing on [a, b], if f (x) > 0 for each x  (a, b)
(ii) f is decreasing on [a, b], if f (x) < 0 for each x  (a, b)
(iii) f is constant on [a, b], if f (x) = 0 for each x  (a, b)
4. Tangent to a Curve – Let y = f (x) be the equation of a curve. The equation of the tangent at (x0, y0) is
dy
y – y0 = m (x – x0), where m = slope of the tangent   or f (x 0 )
dx  (x0 , y0 )
5. Normal to the Curve – Let y = f (x) be the equation of the curve Equation of the normal at (x0, y0) is
1
y – y0 = – (x – x0)
m
where m = Slope of the tangent at (x0, y0)
dy 
= or f (x 0 )
dx  (x 0 , y0 )
6. Approximation – Let y = f (x), x be a small increament in x and y be the increament in y corrseponding

to the increament in x, i.e., y = f (x + x) – f (x). Then approximate value of y =   dy

dx
x
7. Maximum Value, Minimum value, Extreme Value – Let f be a function defined in the interval I, then
(i) Maximum Value – If there exists a point c in I such that f (c) f (x), for all x  I then f (c) is called
maximum value of f in I. The point c is known as a point of maximum value of f in I.
y

f (c)

x
O c
 (ii) Minimum Value – If three exists a point c in I such that f (c)  f (x),  x  I, then f (x) is called the
minimum value of f in I. The point c is called as a point of minimum value of f in I
y

f (c)

x
O c

(iii) Extreme Value – If there exists a point c in I such that f (c) is either a maximum value or a minimum
value of f in I, then f (c) is the extreme value of f (x) in I.
The point c is said to be an extreme point.
y

x
O a b

8. Absolute Maxima and Minima – let f be a continuous function on an interval I = [a, b]. Then f has the
absolute maximum value and f attains it at least once in I. Similarly, f has the absolute minimum value and
attains at least once in I
y

f (a) f (b) f (c)

f (d)
x
O x=a b c d

At x = b , there is a local minima

At x = c, there is a local maxima
At x = a, f (a) is the greatest value or absolute max. value.
At x = d, f (d) is the least value or absolute min. value.
9. Local Maxima and Minima – let f be a real valued function and c be an interior point in the domain of
f, then
(a) Local Maxima – c is a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0, such that f (c)  f (x) for all
x  [c – h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called local maximum value of f.
(b) Local Minima – c is a point of local minima if there is an h > 0, such that f (c)  f (x) for all
x  (c – h c + h)
The value of f (c) is known as the local minimum value of f.
Geometrically – If x = c is a point of local maxima of f, then
 y y
f (c) = 0

Inc ) > 0
f (x sing
Dec

g
Dec
asing

sin
)<

f (x
rea
>0

f (x)

re a
r

0
Incre
f (x)

<0

f (c) = 0
x x
O c O c

f is increasing (i.e., f  (x) > 0) in the interval (c – h, c) and decreasing (i.e., f  (x) < 0) in the interval
(c, c + h)
 f  (c) = 0
Similarly, if x = c is a point of local minima of f, then f is decreasing (i.e., f  (x) < 0) in the interval
(c – h, c) and increasing (i.e., f  (x) > 0) in the interval (c, c + h).
 f  (c) = 0
10. Test of Local Maxima and Minima –
(i) Let f be a differentiable function defined on an open interval I and c  I be any point. f has a local
maxima or a local minima at x = c, f  (c) = 0
y
0
f (
Dec

x) >

g
s in
x) <
reas

re a
f (
Inc
0
ing

f (c)
x
O C
(ii) If f  (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases from left to right through c i.e.,
(a) f  (x) > 0 at every point in (c – h, c)
(b) f  (x) < 0 at every point in (c, c + h)
Then c is called a point of local maxima of f and f (c) is local maximum value of f.
(iii) If f  (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increase from left to right through c i.e.,
(a) f  (x) < 0 at every point in (c – h, c)
(b) f  (x) > 0 at every point in (c, c + h)
Then c is called a point of local minima of f and f (c) is a local minimum value of f.
(iv) If f  (x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of local maxima nor a
point of local minima. Such a point is called point of inflection.
11. Second Derivative Test of Local Maxima and Minima – let f be a twice differentiable function defined on
an interval I and c  I and f be differentiable at c  I, then,
(i) x = c is a local maxima,
if f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) < 0.
f (c) is the local maximum value of f
(ii) x = c is a local minima, if f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) > 0
f (c) is the local minimum value of f.
(iii) Point of inflection If f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) = 0
Test fails. Then we apply first derivative test and find whether c is a point of local maxima, local
minima or a point of inflexion.
12. To find absolute maximum value or absolute minimum value –
(i) Find all the critical points where f  (x) = 0
(ii) Consider the end point also.
(iii) Calculate the functional values at all the points found in step (i) and (ii)
(iv) Identify the maximum and minimum values out of the values calculated in step (iii). These are absolute
maximum and absolute minimum values.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. Increasing Function – f is said to be increasing on I, if x1 < x2 on I, then f (x1)  f (x2). for all x1, x2  I.
y

x
O

2. Strictly Increasing function – f is said to be strictly increasing on I, if x1 < x2 in I then f (x1) < f (x2) for all
x1, x2  I.
y

x
O
3. Decreasing function – f is said to be decreasing function on I, if x1 < x2 in I, then f (x1)  f (x2) for all x1, x2  I.
y

x
O

4. Strictly Decreasing function – f is said to be strictly decreasing function on I, if x1 > x2 in I then f (x1)  f
(x2) for all x1, x2  I.
y

x
O
5. Particular case of tangent – Let m = tan 
If  = 0, m = 0
Equation of tangent is y – y0 = 0 i.e., y = y0

If  = , m is not defined.
2
1
 (x – x0) = (y – y0)
m
 
when  = , cot  0
2 2
 Equation of tangent is x – x0 = 0 or x = x0
 7 INTEGRALS

KEY CONCEPTS INVOLVED

1. Integration – The process of finding the function f (x) whose differential coeffiicient w.r.t. ‘x’, denoted by


F (x) is given, is called the integration of f (x) w.r.t. x and is written as F(x) dx = f (x)
Thus, integration is an inverse process of differentiation or integration is anti of differentiation.
The differential coefficient of a constant is zero. Thus if c is an arbitrary constant independent of x. then
d
dx 
[f (x) + c] = F (x) Thus F (x) dx = f (x) + c
The arbitrary constant c is called the constant of integration.
2. Integration by Substitution


(a) To evaluate the integral f (ax + b) dx
1
Put ax + b = t, so that adx = dt i.e., dx = dt
a
1 1
 f (ax + b) dx =  f (t)  a dt  a F(t), where  f (t) dt = F (t) = F (ax + b)
If a function is not in some suitable form to find the integration, then we transform it into some suitable
form by changing the independent variable x to t by substituting x = g (t).
Consider 
I = f (x) dx
dx
Put x= g (t) , so that = g (t)
dt
We write dx = g (t) dt
Thus  
I = f (x)  dx = f (g (t) g (t) dt
But it is very important to guess, what will be the useful substitution.
f  (x)
(b)
 f (x) dx = log f (x) + c
n n 1
(c)
[f(x)] f (x) dx = f (x) (n  1)  c
(d) Some important substitutions
function Substitutions
a2  x2 x = a sin  or x = a cos 
a2  x2 x = a tan 
x2  a2 x = a sec 
3. Trigonometrical transformations – For the integration of the trigonometrical products such as
sin2 x, cos2 x, sin3 x, cos3 x, sin ax cos bx etc.they are expressed as the sum or difference of the sines and
cosines of multiples of angles.
4. Integration of Some Special Integrals –
dx dx
(a) For  ax 2  bx  c
, 
ax 2  bx  c
and ax 2  bx  c dx

 2 2
 2 b c b  c b2   b  4ac  b 2 
2
ax + bx + c = a  x  x    a   x     2
  a   x    
 a a  2a  a 4a   2a  4a 2 
b 4ac  b 2
Put x + = t ,  dx = dt,   k 2 , ax2 + bx + c changes to t2 + k2 , t2 – k2 or k2 – t2
2a 4a 2
(px  q) dx (px  q) dx
(b) For  2
ax  bx  c
, 
ax 2  bx  c  2
, (px  q) (ax  bx  c) dx
d
Put px + q =A (ax2 + bx + c) + B
dx
Compare the two sides and find the value of A and B.
d
A (ax 2  bx  c)  B
px  q dx
Thus

ax 2  bx  c
dx 
 (ax 2  bx  c)
d
(ax 2  bx  c)
dx dx
=A

(ax 2  bx  c)
dx  B

(ax 2  bx  c)
d
(ax 2  bx  c)
px  q dx dx
Similarly 
ax 2  bx  c
dx  A 
ax 2  bx  c
dx  B  ax2  bx  c

same as do (px  q) ax 2  bx  c dx .

dx 1
(c) For  (x  k) ax 2  bx  c
put x + k =
t
dx x
(d) For  (x   ) (x  )
,  x
dx

 (x  ) (x  ) dx , Put x =  cos2  +  sin2 

dx dx dx
(e) For  a  b cos x ,  a  b sin x ,  a  b cos x  c sin x
x

sin x =  2 tan 
 2
1  tan x 2  , cos x = 1  tan x2  1  tan x 2  then put tan x/2 = t
2 2

p cos x  q sin x
(f) For  a  b cos x  b sin x dx
Put p cos x + q sin x = A (a + b cos x + b sin x) + B differential of (a + b cos x + b sin x) + C
A, B and C can be calculated by equating the coefficients of cos x. sin x and the constant terms.
 du 
5. 
Integration by parts u  v dx  u  v dx   
 dx 
 v dx  dx
 
i.e., the integral of the product of two functions = (first function) × (Integral of the second function –
Integral of {(dfferential of first function) x (Integral of second function)}
This formula is called integration by parts.
 P (x)
6. Partial Integration – To Evaluate
 Q (x) dx
The rational functions which we shall consider here for integration purposes will be those whose
denominators can be factorised into linear and quadratic factors.
P (x)
If is improper fraction, i.e., degree of numerator is equal or greater than the degree of denominator..
Q (x)
P (x) P (x)
Then first we reduce in proper rational function as Q (x) = T (x) + 1 where T (x) is a polynomial in x
Q (x)
P1 (x)
and is a proper rational function.
Q (x)
After this, the integration can be carried out easily using the already known methods. The following Table
7.1 indicates the types of simpler partial fractions that are to be associated with various kind of rational
functions.
Table 7.1
S. No. Form of the rational function Form of the partial fraction

px  q A B
1. ,ab 
(x  a) (x  b) xa xb
px  q A B
2. 
(x  a)2 x  a (x  b)2
px 2  qx  r A B C
3.  
(x  a) (x  b) (x  c) xa xb x c
px 2  qx  r A B C
4.  
(x  a)2 (x  b) x  a (x  a) 2 xb

px 2  qx  r A Bx  c
5.  2
(x  a) (x 2  bx  c) x  a x  bx  c
Where x2 + bx + c can not be
factorised further
In the above table, A, B and C are real numbers to be determined suitably.
7. Definite Integral – The definite integral of f(x) between the limits a to b i.e. in the interval [a,b] is denoted
b b
by 
a
f (x) dx and is defined as follows.  a
f (x) dx  [F (x)]ba = F(b) – F(a) where  f (x) dx  F(x)
8. General Properties of Definite Integrals –
b b
Prop. I a
f (x) dx  
a
f (t) dt
b a
Prop. II a
f (x) dx    b
f (x) dx
b c b
Prop. III
a
f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (x) dx where a < c < b
a c
b b
Prop. IV a
f (x) dx   f (a  b  x) dx
a
 a a
In particualr 
0
f (x) dx  
0
f (a  x) dx
2a
Prop. V 0
f (x) dx
a a
Prop. V
a
f (x) dx  2 0
f (x) dx, if f (x) is even function
a
 f (x) dx  0, if f (x) is odd function
a
2a a a
Prop. VI 0
f (x) dx  2  0
f (x) dx  
0
f (2a  x) dx
2a a
Prop. VII 0
f (x) dx  2 
0
f (x) dx, if f (2a – x) = f (x)
2a
0
f (x) dx  0, if f (2a – x) = – f (x)
9. Definite Integral as the limit of a sum
b
a
f (x) dx  Lim h [f (a) + f (a + h) + f (a + 2h) +  + f < a + (n – 1) h)]
h 0
b
or a
f (x) dx  Lim h [f (a + h) + f (a + 2h) + f (a + 3h) +  + f (a + nh)
h 0
ba
where, h=
n
d v(x) d d
dx u (x)
f (t) dt  f {v (x)}
dx
v (x)  f {u (x)}
dx
u (x) this rule is called leibnitz’s is Rule.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. Integration is an operation on function
2.  [k f (x) + k f (x) +............ + k f (x)]dx
1 1 2 2 n n

= k  f (x) dx + k  f (x) dx +............ + k  f (x) dx

1 1 2 2 n n
3. All functions are not integrable and the integral of a function is not unique.
4. If a polynomial function of a degree n is integrated we get a polynomial of degree n + 1
4. Integration by using standard formulae –
1.  kdx = kx + c, k is constant
 
2. kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx + c

 1 2 
3. (f (x) ± f (x)] dx = f (x)dx ± f (x) dx + c
1 2

n 1
n
x
4.  x dx = + c (n – 1)
n 1
1
5.
 x dx = log |x| + c e

x
ax
6.  a dx = log a + c, a > 0 e
x
7.  e dx = e + c x
 5.
 sin x dx = – cos x + c

6. cos x dx = sin x + c
2
7.  sec x dx = tan x + c
2

8. cosec x dx = – cot x + c


9. sec x tan x dx = sec x + c

10.  cosec x cot x dx = – cosec x + c


11. tan x dx = log |sec x| + c = – log |cos x | + c


12. cot x dx = log |sin x| + c

13.  sec x dx = log |sec x + tan x| + c

14.  cosec x dx = log |cosec x – cot x | + c

1
15.  dx = sin–1 x + c or – cos–1 x + c
2
1 x
1
16.  dx = tan–1 x + c or – cot–1 x + c
1  x2
1
17. x x2 1
dx = sec–1 x + c or – cosec–1 x + c
dx 1 x
18.  2 2
 tan 1    c
x a a a
dx 1 xa
19. x 2
a 2

2a
log
xa
 c, x  a

dx 1 ax
20. a 2
 x2

2a
log
a–x
 c, x  a

dx x
21.   sin 1    c
a2  x2 a
dx
22.
  log x  a 2  x 2  c
2 2
x a

dx
23.
  log x  x2  a2  c
x2  a2

dx 1 x
24. x  sec 1    c
x2  a2 a a
x 1 2 1 x
25.  a 2  x 2 dx  a2  x2  a sin ac
2 2  
 x 1
26.  x 2  a 2 dx = x 2  a 2  a 2 log x  x 2  a 2  c
2 2
x 1
27.  x 2  a 2 dx = x 2  a 2  a 2 log x  x 2  a 2  c
2 2
x
28.  e [f (x) + f  (x)] dx = ex f (x) + c
29. Use of Trigonometric Identities in Integration.
1  cos 2x 1  cos 2x
(i) sin2 x = , cos 2 x 
2 2
3sin x  sin 3x 3cos x  cos3x
(ii) sin3x = , cos3 x 
4 4
(iii) 2 sinA cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A – B)
2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) – sin (A – B)
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A – B)
2 sin A sin B = cos (A – B) + cos (A + B)
x x
(iv) sin x = 2 sin    cos  
 2 2
n (n  1)
30.(i) 1 + 2 + 3 +  + n =
2
n (n  1) (2n  1)
(ii) 12 + 22 + 32 +  + n2 =
6
2
 n (n  1) 
(iii) 13 + 23 + 32 +  + n3 =  
 2
n
(iv) a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) +  + [a + (n - 1) d] = [2a + (n – 1) d]
2
a(r n  1)
(v) a + ar + ar2 +  + ar n + 1 =
r 1
 APPLICATION OF THE
8 INTEGRALS

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

Area Under Simple Curves
1. Let us find the area bounded by the curve y = f (x), x-axis and the ordinated x = a and x = b. Consider the
area under the curve as composed of large number of thin vertical strips let there be an arbitary strip of
hieght y and width dx.Area of elementary strip dA= ydx, where y = f (x). Total Area A of the region between
x-axis.ordinated x = a, x = b and the curve y = f (x) = Sum of areas of elementry thin strips across the region
PQML
y

y = f (x)
P Q
y
x=b
x=a

x
O L dx M
b b b
A= 
a
dA  
a
ydx  
a
f (x)dx
2. The area A of the region bounded by the curve x = g (y), y-axis and the lines y = c and y = d is given by
d y
A= 
c
xdy
y=d
x
dy x = g(y)

y=c
x
O

3. If the curve under consideration lies below x-axis, then f (x) < 0 from x = a to x = b, the area bounded by the
curve y = f (x), and the ordinates x = a, x = b and x-axis is negative. But the numerical value of the area is to
b
be taken into consideration.Then Area=  a
f (x)dx

O dy
x
x=a

x=b

y = f(x)

y
 4. Let some portion of the curve is above x-axis and some portion is below x-axis. Let A1 be the area below
x-axis and A2 be the area above of x-axis.Therefore Area bounded by the curve y = f (x), x-axis and the
ordinates x = a and x = b.
A = |A1 | + A2

A2

x=b
x=a x
O C

A1
y

Area between Two curves

5. Let the two curves be y = f (x) and y = g (x). Suppose these curves intersect at x = a and x = b. Consider the
elementary strip of height y where y = f (x) – g (x) with width dx
y
dx
y = f (x) f(x) – g(x)
y

y = g(x) x = b
x=a

x
O
 da = ydx
b b b
 A=   f (x)  g(x)  dx   f (x) dx   g (x)dx
a a a
i.e. A= Area bounded by the curve y = f (x) – Area bounded by the curve y = g (x)
6. If the two curves y = f (x) and y = g (x) intersects at x = a, x = c and x = b such that a < c < b. If f (x) > g (x) in
[a, c] and f (x) < g (x) in [c, b], Then the area of the regions bounded by curve.
y
y = f(x)
P C
Q y = g(x)
A B
y = g(x) R
D
y = f(x)
x=a x=c x=b

x
O L M N
c b
= Area of the region PAQCP + Area of the region QDRBQ =   f (x)  g(x)  dx    g(x)  f (x)  dx
a c
 9 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Differential Equation – An equation containing an independent variable dependent variable and differential
coefficient of dependent variable with respect to independent variable is called a differential equation.
dy d2 y dy
e.g. + 2xy = x3 and 2  5 + 6y = x2
dx dx dx
2. Order of a differential Equation – The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order
derivative appearing in the equation.
3. Degree of a differential Equation – The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest order
derivative when differential coefficients are made free from radicals and fractions.
4. Solution of a differential Equation – The solution of a differential equation is a relation between the
variables involved, not involving the differential coefficients, such that this relation and derivatives
obtained form it satisfy the given differential equation.
5. General Solution – The solution which contains as many as orbirary constants as the order of the
differential equation is called the general solution of the differential equation.
6. Particular Solution – Solution obtained by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants in the
general solution of a differential equation is called a particular solution.
7. Equations in variable separable form – If the differential equation can be reduced to the form f (x) dx = g
(y) dy we say that the variables have been separated on integrating both sides of this reduced form, we
get the general solution of the differential equation.
 f (x) dx =  g (y) dy + c
dy
8. Equations Reducible to variable separable form – Differential equations of the form = f (ax + by + c)
dx
can be reduced to variable separable form by the substitution ax + by + c = v
9. Homogeneous Differential Equation – A function f(x,y) is called a homogeneous function of degree n if
F (x, y) = n F (x, y) for any non zero constant .
dy
A differential equation of the form = F (x, y) is said to be homogeneous if F (x, y) is a homogeneous
dx
function of degree zero. To solve such ... a homogenous differential equation of the type
dy y
= F (x) = g   ...(i)
dx x
dy dv dv
(i) Put y = vx and vx in equation (i), we get reduces to the form v + x = g (v)
dx dx dx
dy
 x× = g (v) – v
dx
Now, on separating the variables, we get
dv dx

g (x)  v x
Integrate both sides to obtain the solution in terms of v and x.
y
Replace v by in the solution obtained to obtain the solution in terms of x and y..
x
 dy
If the homogeneous differential equation is in the form = F (x, y), where F (x, y) is homogeneous
dx
x
function of degree, then we make substitution = v i.e., x = vy and the proceed further to find the general
y
dx x
solution as discussed above by writting dy = F (x, y) = h  y 
 
10. Linear differential Equations – A differential equation is known as first order linear differential equation, if
dy
the dependent variable y and its derivative are related as + Py = Q, where P and Q are constant or
dx
functions of x.
Steps involved to solve first order linear differential equation:
dy
(i) Write the given differential equation in the form + Py = Q and obtain P and Q.
dx
(ii) Find integrating factor, I.F. = e  pdx
(iii) Multiply both sides of equation in (i) by I.F.
(iv) Integrate both sides of the equation obtained in (iii) w.r.t. x to obtain
y (I.F.) =  Q.(I.F.) dx + C
This gives the required solution.
dx
In case, the first order linear differential equation is in the form + P1 x = Q1, where , P1 and Q1 are
dy
constants or functions of y only. Then I.F. = e  P1dy and the solution of the differential equation is given by
x . (I. F) = (Q1  I.F.) dy + C

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. Formation of Differential Equations – Formation of a differential from a given equation representing a
family of curves means finding a differential equation whose solution is the given equation. If an equation
representing a family of curves, contains n arbitrary constants, then we differentiable the given equation
n times to obtain n more equations. Using all these equations, we eliminate the constants. The equation
so obtained is the differential equation of order n for the family of given curves.
dy
2. Methods of solving a differential equation of the type = f (x) – To solve this type of differential
dx
equations, first we write the differential equation as dy = f (x) dx
Then integrate boht sides with respect t x to obtain the solution
dy = f (x) dx + C
or y = f (x) dx + C
dy
3. Differential Equations of the type = f (y) – To solve this type of differential equations, first we write
dx
1
in the form of dx = dy them integrate both sides to obtain the general solution
f (y)
1 1
 
 dx = f (y) dy + c or x = f (y) dy + c
2
d y
4. Differential Equations of the type = f (x)
dx 2
(i) Integrate both sides of the differential equation in (i) with respect to x to obtain a first order first degree
differential equation.
(ii) Integrate both sides of the first order differential equation obtained in (ii) with respect to x.
10 VECTOR ALGEBRA

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Vector – A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction, such as displacement, velocity,
force and acceleration. 
AB is a directed line segment. It is a vector AB and its direction is from A to B.
A  B
Initial Points – The point A where from the vector AB starts is known as initial point.
Terminal Point – The point B, where it ends is said to be the terminal point.
Magnitude – The distance between initial point and terminal point of a vector is the magnitude or length
 
of the vector AB . It is denoted by | AB | or AB.

2. Position Vector – Consider a point p (x, y, z) in space. The vector OP with initial point, origin O and
terminal point P, is called the position vector of P.
Z
P (x, y, z)

Y
0

X
3. Types of Vectors
(i) Zero Vector Or Null Vector – A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide is known as zero

vector ( O ).
(ii) Unit Vector – A vector whose magnitude is unity is said to be unit vector. It is denoted as â so that
| aˆ | = 1.
(iii) Co-initial Vectors – Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called co-initialvectors.
(iv) Collinear Vectors – If two or more vectors are parallel to the same line, such vectors are known as
collinear vectors.
 
(v) Equal Vectors – If two vectors a and b have the same magnitude and direction regardless of the
 
positions of their initial points, such vectors are said to be equal i.e., a = b .

(vi) Negative of a vector – A vector whose magnitude is same as that of a given
 vector
AB , but the
direction is opposite to that of it, is known as negative of vector AB i.e., BA = – AB
4. Sum of Vectors  
 
(i) Sum of vectors a and b let the vectors a and b be so positioned that initial point of one coincides
     
with terminal point of the other. If a = AB , b = BC . Then the vector a + b is represented by the third
  
side of  ABC. i.e., AB + BC = AC ...(i)
 C


b

a+ 
b

A  B
a
This is known
 as 
the triangle law of vector addition.
Further AC = – CA
     
AB  BC   CA  AB  BC  CA = 0
when sidesof a triangle
 ABC are taken in order i.e. initial and terminal points coincides. Then
AB  BC  CA = 0
 
(ii) Parallelogram law of vector addition – If the two vectors a and b are represented by the two adjacent
 
sides OA and OB of a parallelogram OACB, then their sum a + b is represented in magnitude
  
and direction by the diagonal OC of parallelogram through their common point O i.e., OA  OB  OC
B C



b +b
a

O  A
a

5. Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar – Let a be the given vector and  be a scalar, then product of  and
 
a  a
 
(i) when  is +ve, then a and  a are in the same direction.
   
(ii) when is –ve. then a and  a are in the opposite direction. Also  a   a .
6. Components of Vector – Let us take the points A (1, 0, 0), B (0, 1, 0) and C (0, 0, 1) on the coordinate axes
     
OX, OY and OZ respectively. Now, | OA | = 1, | OB | = 1 and | OC | = 1, Vectors OA , OB and OC each

having magnitude 1 is known as unit vector. These are denoted by ˆi, ˆj and k̂ .
Z

k C (0, 0, 1)

j
0 Y
B
i (0, 1, 0)
A (1, 0, 0)

 X
Consider the vector OP , where P is the point (x, y, z). Now OQ, OR, OS are the projections of OP on
coordinates axes.
  
 O Q = x, O R = y, O S = z  OQ  xi, ˆ OR  yjˆ , OS  zkˆ
 Z

S
Zk
P (x, y, z)

r
yj
R Y

Q xi

X
  
 ˆ  yj,
OP  xi, ˆ  zkˆ , | OP |  x 2  y 2  z 2  | r |

x, y, z are called the scalar components and x ˆi , yˆj , zkˆ are called the vector components of vector OP .
7. Vector joining two points – Let P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2 z2) be the two points. Then vector joining the
   
points P1 and P2 is P1P2 . Join P1, P2 with O. Now OP 2  OP1  P1P2 (by triangle law)
Z P2 (x2, y2, z2)
P1(x1, y1, z1)

O Y

X
  
 P1P2  OP 2  OP1
= (x 2 ˆi  y 2 ˆj  z 2 k)
ˆ  (x ˆi  y ˆj  z k)
1 1 1
ˆ  (x  x ) ˆi  (y  y ) ˆj  (z  z ) kˆ
2 1 2 1 2 1
 2 2 2
P1P2  (x 2  x1 )  (y2  y1 )  (z 2  z1 )
8. Section Formula
PR m
(i) A line segment PQ is divided by a point R in the ratio m : n internally i.e., 
RQ n

m : n
 
P(a) R (
r) Q(b)
  
If a and b are the position vectors of P and Q then the position vector r of R is given by
 
 mb  na
r
mn
 
 ab
If R be the mid-point of PQ, then r 
2
 
(ii) when R divides PQ externally, i.e., | a  b | nˆ


P (
a) Q (b) R (
r)
  
 mb  na
Then r 
mn

9. Projection of vector along a directed line – Let the vector AB makes an angle  with directed line  .
  
Projection of AB on  = AB cos   AC  p.
B


A  C
P
 
The vector p is called the projection vector. Its magnitudes is b , which is known as projection of vector
  
AB . The angle  between AB and AC is given by
   
AB  AC  AB  AC
cos     , Now projection AC = | AB | cos   
| AB || AC | | AC |

  AC  
   p  
 AB     , If 
AB
 
 a, then AC  a      a  pˆ
 | AC |  |p|

    b  
Thus, the projection of a on b = a      a  bˆ
|b|

10. Scalar Product of Two Vectors (Dot Product) – Scalar Product of two vectors a and b is defined as
   
a  b  | a | | b | cos 

Where  is the angle between a and b (0 )
       
(i) when  = 0, then a  b  a b = ab Also a  a  a a  a.a  a 2

 iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1
     
(ii) when   , then a  b  | a | | b | cos  0
2 2
ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  ˆi  0

11. Vector Product of two Vectors (Cross Product) – The vector product of two non-zero vectors a and b ,
 
denoted by a  b is defined as
     
a  b = | a | | b | sin  nˆ , where  is the angle between a and b , 0     .
   
Unit vector n̂ is perpendicular to both vectors a and b such that a  b and n̂ form a right handed
orthogonal system.    
(i) If  = 0, then a  b = 0, a  a  0
and  ˆi  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0
   
(ii) If  =  / 2 , then a  b = | a  b | nˆ
ˆi  ˆj  k,
ˆ ˆj  kˆ  ˆi, kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
Also, ˆj  ˆi  k, ˆ kˆ  ˆj  ˆi and ˆi  kˆ  ˆj
 CONNECTING CONCEPTS

1.  Cosines – Let OX, OY, OZ be the positive coordinate axes, P (x, y, z) by any point in the space.
Direction
Let OP makes angles , ,  with coordinate, axes OX, OY, OZ. The angle , ,  are known as direction
angles, cosine of these angles i.e.,
Z

C
z z)
 P (x, y,
0  Y
x  y B
A

X
cos , cos , cos  are called direction cosines of line OP. these direction cosines are denoted by  , m, n
i.e.,  = cos , m = cos , n = cos 
2. Relation Between, l, m, n and Direction Ratios –

The perpendiculars PA, PB, PC are drawn on coordinate axes OX, OY, OZ reprectively. Let | OP | = r
x y
In  OAP,  A = 90°, cos  =   ,  x =  r , In  OBP..  B = 90°, cos  =  m  y = mr
r r
z
In  OCP,  C = 90°, cos  =  n ,  z = nr
r
Thus the coordinates of P may b expressed as (  r, mr, nr)
Also, OP2 = x2 + y2 + z2, r2 = (lr)2 + (mr)2 + (nr)2   2 + m2 + n2 = 1
Set of any there numbers, which are proportional to direction cosines are called direction ratio of the
vactor. Direction ratio are denoted by a, b and c.
The numbers  r mr and nr, proportional to the direction cosines, hence, they are also direction ratios of

vector OP .
3. Properties of Vector Addition –
     
1. For two vectors a, b the sum is commutative i.e., a  b  b  a
  
2. For three vectors a, b and c , the sum of vectors is associative i.e.,
     
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
       
4. Additive Inverse of Vector a – If there exists vector – a such that a + (– a) = a – a = 0 then – a is called

the additure inverse of a
 
5. Some Properties – Let a  a1 ˆi  a 2 ˆj  a 3 kˆ and b  b1 ˆi  b 2 ˆj  b3 kˆ
 
(i) a  b  (a1 ˆi  a 2 ˆj  a 3 k)
ˆ  ( b ˆi  b ˆj  b k)
1 2 3
ˆ = (a1 + b1) î + (a2 + b2) ĵ + (a3 + b3) k̂
 
(ii) a  b or (a1 ˆi  a 2 ˆj  a 3 k)
ˆ  ( b ˆi  b ˆj  b k)
1 2 3
ˆ  a1 = b1, a2 = b2, a3 = b3

(iii) a   (a1 ˆi  a 2 ˆj  a 3 k) ˆ = (a ) ˆi  (a ) ˆj  (a ) kˆ
1 2 3
   
(iv) a and b are parallel, if and only if there exists a non zero scalar  such that b  a
 i.e., b1 ˆi + b 2 ˆj + b3 kˆ =  (a1 ˆi + a 2 ˆj + a 3 k)
ˆ = (a ) ˆi  (a ) ˆj  (a ) kˆ
1 2 3

b1 b2 b
 b1 = a1, , b2 = a2, b3 = a3    3 
a1 a 2 a3

6. Properties of scalar product of two vectors (Dot Product)

 
ab
(i) cos    
|a ||b|
 
If a  a1 ˆi  a 2 ˆj  a 3 kˆ and b  b1 ˆi  b2 ˆj  b3 kˆ
  
Then, a  b  (a1 ˆi  a 2 ˆj  a 3 k)
ˆ  (b ˆi  b ˆj  b k) ˆ , a  b = a b + a b + a b
1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 3
 
 a b a1b1  a 2 b2  a 3 b3
    
| a |  a12  a 22  a 32 , | b |  b12  b 22  b 32  cos | a || b | a12  a 22  a 32  b12  b22  b32
    
(ii) a  b is commutative i.e., a  b  b  a
     
(iii) If  is a scalar, then ( a)  b   (a  b)  a  ( b)

7. Properties of Vector Product of two Vectors (Cross Product) –

   
(i) (a) If a = 0 or b = 0, then a × b = 0
   
(b) If a  b, then a  b = 0
 
(ii) a  b is not commutative
       
i.e. a  b  b  a , but a  b  b  a
   
(iii) If a and b represent adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then its area | a  b |
  1  
(iv) If a, b represent the adjacent sides of a triangle, then its area = | a  b |
2
      
(v) Distributive property a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c
     
(a) If  be a scalar, then  (a  b)  ( a)  b  a  ( b)
 
(b) If a  a1ˆi  a 2 ˆj  a 3 k,
ˆ and b  b ˆi  b ˆj  b kˆ
1 2 3

ˆi ˆj kˆ
 
Then, a  b  a1 a 2 a 3
b1 b 2 b3

 
 
8 . If 1 1  are the direction angles of the vector a  a1ˆi  a 2 ˆj  a 3 kˆ . Then direction cosines of a are
given as
a1 a2 a3
cos  =  , cos  =  , cos  = 
a a a
  
9. Scalar Product of Two Vectors (Dot Product) – Scalar Product of two vectors a and b is defined as
   
a  b  a b cos 
   
where  is the angle between a and b  0    
 2
     
(i) When  = 0, then a  b  a b . Also a  a aa = a2
 ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1
     
(ii) When  = , a  b  a b cos  0
2 2
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION TO THREE

11 DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

GENERAL KEY CONCEPTS

1. Distance Formula : Distance between two points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2),

AB  (x 2  x1 ) 2  (y 2  y1 )2  (z 2  z1 ) 2
2. Section Formula :
(i) If a point R divides the line segment joining the points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) in the ratio
m : n internally, then
mx 2 nx1 my2 ny1 mz 2 nz1
R , ,
m n m n m n
(ii) If a point R divides the line segment joining the points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) in the ratio
m : n externally, then
mx 2 nx1 my2 ny1 mz 2 nz1
R , ,
m n m n m n
3. Mid-point Formula : If R be the mid point of the line segment joining the points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2).

x1 x 2 y1 y2 z 1 z2
R , ,
2 2 2
4. Centroid of the triangle whose vertices are (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) is

 x1  x 2  x 3 y1  y 2  y 3 z1  z 2  z3 
 , , 
 3 3 3 

CONNECTING CONCEPTS

1. To locate the position of a point in three dimensional space, we consider a rectangular coordinate
system of three mutually perpendicular lines as the coordinate axes. These axes are called x, y and z-axes.
2. The three planes determined by the pair of axes are the coordinate planes called XY, YZ and ZX-planes.
The three coordinate planes divide the space into eight parts known as octants.
The coordinates of a point P in three dimensional geometry is always written in the form of triplet like (x,
y, z). Here x, y and z are the distances of the point P from the YZ, ZX and XY-plane.
The co-ordinate of a point in three dimensional space are also the distances from the origin of the feet
of the perpendicular drawn from the point on the respective co-ordinate axes.
3. The sign of the coordinates of a point is determined by the octant in which the point lies.

Octant
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Coordinates
x + – – + + – – +
y + + – – + + – –
z + + + + – – – –

4. (i) Any point on x-axis is of the form (x, 0, 0)

(ii) Any point on y-axis is of the form (0, y, 0)
(iii) Any point on z-axis is of the form (0, 0, y)

5. The distance of the point (x, y, z) from the origin is given by x 2  y2  z 2

 12 LINEAR PROGRAMMING

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Linear Programming Problems – Problems which concern with finding the minimum or maximum value
of a linear function Z (called objective function) of several variables (say x and y), subject to certain
conditions that the variables are non-negative and satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called linear
constraints) are known as linear programming problems.
2. Objective function – A linear function z = ax + by, where a and b are constants, which has to be maximised
or minimised according to a set of given conditions, is called a linear objective function.
3. Decision Variables – In the objective function z = ax + by, the variables x, y are said to be decision
variables.
4. Constraints – The restrictions in the form of inequalities on the variables of a linear programming problem
are called constraints.The condition x  0, y  0 are known as non – negative restrictions.
5. Feasible Region – The common region determined by all the constraints including non–negative constraints
x,y  0 of linear programming problem is known as feasible region (or solution region) If we shad c the
region according to the given constraints, then the shaded areas is the feasible region which is the
common area of the regions drawn under the given constraints.
6. Feasible Solution – Each points within and on the boundary of the feasible region represents feasible
solution of constraints.
In the feasible region there are infinitely many points which satisfy the given condition.
7. Optimal Solution – Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or minimum)
of the objective function is called an optimal solution.
8. Theorem 1 – Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear programming problem and let
Z = ax + by be the objective function.When Z has an optimal value (maximum or minimum), where the
varialdes x and y are subject to constraints described by linear inequalities, the optimal value must occur
at a corner point of the feasible region.
9. Theorem 2 – Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem, and let Z = ax + by be the
objective function. If R is bounded them the objective function Z has both maximum and minimum value
on R and each of these occurs at a corner point of R.
10. Different Types of Linear Programming Problem –
(i) Manufacturing Problems – In such problem, we determine the number of units of different products
which should to produced and sold by a firm when each product requires a fixed man power required,
machines hours, labour hour per unit product needed were house space per unit of the output etc.,
in order to make maximise profit.
(ii) Diet Problem – We determine the amount of different types of constituents or nutrients which
should be included in a diet so as to minimise the cost of the desired diet such that it contains a
certain minimum amount of each contituent/nutrients.
(iii) Transportation Problems – In these prodblems, we determine a transportation schedule in order to
find the cheapest way of transporting a product from plants/foutories situated at different locations
to different markets.
 CONNECTING CONCEPTS

1. Formulation of LPP – Formulation of LPP means converting verbal description of the given problem into
mathematical form in terms of objective function, constraints and non negative restriction:
(i) Identification of the decision variables whose value is to be determined.
(ii) Formation of an objective function as a linear function of the decision varibles.
(iii) Identification of the set of constraints or restrictions.
Express them as linear inequation with appropriate sign of equality or inequality.
(iv) Mention the non negative restriction for the decision varibles.
2. Solve The LPP –
(i) First of all formulate the given problem in terms of mathematical constraints and an objective
function.
(ii) The constraints would be inequations which shall be plotted and relevant area shall be shaded.
(iii) The corner points of common shaded area shall be identified and the coordinates corresponding to
these points shall be substitued in the objective function.
(iv) The coordinates of one corner point which maximize or minimize the objective function shall be
optimal solution of the given problem.
If feasible region is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum value of the objective function may
not exist. However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner point of feasible region
13 PROBABILITY

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Conditional Probability – Let E and F be two events of a random experiment, then, the probability of
occurance of E under the condition that F has alredy occured and P (F)  0 is called the conditional
probability. It is denoted by P (E/F)
P (E  F)
The conditional probability P (E/F) is given by P (E/F) = , When P (F)  0
P (F)
Properties of conditional probability –
(i) If F be an event of a sample space s of an experiment, then P (S/F) = P (F/F) = 1
If A and B are any two events of a sample space S and F is an event of s such that P (F) 0, then
(ii) P (A  B/F) = P(A/F) + P (B/F) – P (A  B/F)
IF A and B are disjoint event then P(A  B/F) = P(A/F) + P (B/F)
(iii) P (E / F) = 1 – P (E/F) or P (E/F) = 1 – P (E/F)
2. Multiplication Theorem On Probability – Let E and F be two events associated with a sample
space S. P(E  F) denotes the probability of the event that both E and F occur, which is given by
P (E  F) = P (E) P (F/E) = P (F) P (E/F), provided P (E)  0 and P(F)  0
3. Independent Event –
(i) Events E and F are independent if P (E  F) = P (E) × P (F)
(ii) Two events E and F are said to be independent if P (E/F) = P (E) and P (F/E) = P (F)
provided P (E)  0 and P (F)  0
(iii) Three events E, F and G are said to be independent or mutually independent if
P (E  F  G) = P (E) P (F) P (G).
4. Random Variable – A random variable is a real valued function whose domain is the sample space of
random experiment.
5. Baye’s Theorem – let E1, E2, En be the x events forming a partition of sample space S i.e. E1, E2,
En are pairwise disjoint and E1  E2  En = S and A is any event of non – zero
P (E i ) P (A / E i )
porbability, then P (Ei/A) = n for any i = 1, 2, 3, ......., n
 P (E ) P (A / E )
j 1
j j

6. Bernoulli Trial – Trials of a random experiment are said to be Bernoulli’s trials, if they satisfy the following
conditions :
(i) The trials should be independent.
(ii) Each trial has exactly two outcomes ex- success or falilure.
(iii) The probability of success remains the same in each trial.
(iv) Number of trials is finite.
7. Mean of Random Variable – let X be a random variable whose possible values are x1, x2, xn if
P1, P2, Pn are the corresponding probabilities, then mean of X,
 n
=  x p = E (X)
i 1
i i

The mean of a random variables X is also called the expected value of X denoted by E (x).
8. Variance of a Random Variable – let X be a random variable with possible values x1 x2,  xn occur with
probabilities are p1, p2 pn respectively.
let  = E (X) be the mean of X. The variance of X denoted by var (X) or  2x is defined as
n

Var (X) or  2x = 
i 1
(xi - )2 pi = E (xi – )2 = E (X2) – [E (X)]2

Standard Deviation, x = Var (X)

9. Probability function – The probability of x success is denoted by p (X = x) or P(x) and is given by P (x) =
nC qn – x px , x = 0, 1, 2, n and q = 1 – P
x
The function P (x) is known as probability function of binomial distribution.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. Partition of a sample space – A set of events E1, E2 ,  En is said to represent a partition of sample S
if
(i) Ei  Fj =  if i  j , i, j = 1, 2,n
(ii) E1  E2  E3   En = S
(iii) P (Ei) > 0  i = 1,2, n.
2. Theorem of total Probability – let  E1, E2, En  be a partition of sample spaces and each event has
a non – zero probability If A be any event associated with S, then
P (A) = P (E1) P (A/E1) + P (E2) P (A/E2) + P (E3) P (A/E3) +  + P (En) P (A/En)
n
P (A) =  P (E ) P (A/E )
i 1
i i

3. A Few Terminologies –
(i) Hypothesis – When Baye’s theorem is applied the events E1, E2, En are said to be hypothesis x.
(ii) Priori Porbability – The Porbabilites P (E1), P (E2) P (En) are called priori.
(iii) Posteriori Porbabililty – The conditional probability P (Ei/A) is known as the posteriori probability
of hypothesis Ei where i = 1, 2, 3, ......, n
4. Probability Distribution of a Random Variable – let real numbers x1, x2, xn be the possible value
of random variable and p1, p2,pn be probability corresponding to each value of the random
variable X. Then the probability distribution is
X: x1 x2  xn
P(X) : p1 p 2  pn.
(i) pi > 0 (ii) sum of porbabilites p1 + p2 +  + pn = 1.
5. Binomial Distribution – Probability distribution of a number of successes, in an experiment consisting of
n Bernoulli trials are obtanied by Binomial expansioin of (q + p)n. Such a probability distribution is
X: 0 1 2  r  n
P(X) : nC0 q n nC1 q n – 1 P n C2 q n – 2 P2 nCr q P n – r r nC Pn
n
This probability distribution is called binomial distribution with parameter n and p.
Where, p is the probability of success in each trial and q is the probability of not sucess in each trial.
 p+q=1,q=1–p
 TRIGONOMETRY

Trigonometric Ratios of Compound Angles:

 sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB

 sin(A – B) = sinA cosB – cosA sinB

 cos(A + B) = cosA cosB – sinA sinB

 cos(A – B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB

tan A  tanB
 tan  A  B  
1  tan A tanB
tan A  tanB
 tan  A  B  
1  tan A tanB

 sin(A + B) sin(A – B) = sin2A – sin2B = cos2B – cos2A.

 cos(A + B) cos(A – B) = cos2A – sin2B = cos2B – sin2A.
A cotB  1
 cot(A + B) = cot
cotB  cot A
cot A cotB  1
 cot(A – B) = cotB – cot A

Trigonometric Ratios of Multiples of an Angle:

2 tan A
 sin2A = 2sinA cosA = 1  tan2 A
A
2 tan
A A 2
 sin A  2 sin cos 
2 2 A
1  tan2
2
1  tan2 A
 cos2A = cos2A – sin2A = 1 – 2 sin2A = 2cos2A – 1 = 1  tan2 A
A
1  tan2
A A A A 2
 cos A  cos2  sin2  1  2 sin2  2cos2  1 
2 2 2 2 2 A
1  tan
2
1  cos2A 1  cos2A
 cos2 A 
2
; sin2 A 
2

1
 A
2 tan
2 tan A
 tan2A = 1  tan2 A
tan A  2
A
1  tan2
2
A
cot 21
cot 2 A  1
 cot2A = 2cot A
cot A  2
A
2cot
2

 sin3A = 3sinA – 4sin3A

 cos3A = 4cos3A – 3cosA
3 tan A  tan3 A
 tan3A 
1  3 tan2 A

cot 3 A  3 cot A
 cot 3A 
3 cot 2 A  1

Sum of sines/cosines in terms of Products:

 2sinAcosB = sin(A + B) + sin (A – B)
 2cosAsinB = sin(A + B) – sin (A – B)
 2cosAcosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A – B)
 2sinAsinB = cos(A – B) – cos (A + B)

Conversely:
CD C D
 sinC  sinD  2sin cos
2 2
C D CD
 sinC  sinD  2sin cos
2 2
CD CD
 cosC  cosD  2cos cos
2 2
C D C+D
 cosC  cosD  2sin sin
2 2
sin  A  B 
 tanA + tanB = cos A.cosB

Inverse Trigonometrical functions

Some Important Results:
2
 
sin1 x  cos1 x  , x 1
2

tan1 x  cot 1 x  , x R
2

sec 1 x  cos ec 1x  , x 1
2
sin-1(-x) = -sin-1(x)
cosec-1(-x) = -cosec-1(x)
tan-1(-x) = -tan-1(x)
cos-1(-x) =  - cos-1(x)
sec-1(-x) =  - sec-1(x)
cot-1(-x) =  - cot-1(x)
sin-1x = tan x = cosec-1 1x , x > 0
1

1  x2
1  x2
sin-1x = cos-1 1  x2 = cot 1
x
 sec 1
1
, x>0
1  x2

cos1 x  sin1 1  x 2  tan1

1  x2
x
= cosec–1 1
, x>0
1  x2

tan1 x  sin1
x
 cos ec 1
1  x2
x
, x  R ~ {0}
1  x2

cot–1 x = cos–1 x
= sec–1 1  x2
x
, x  R ~ {0}
1  x2

cos1 x  cos1 y  cos1  xy  1  x 2 1  y 2 

 
, x 0, y  0
 cos1  xy  1  x 2 1  y 2  , x  0, y  0, xy
  
cos x – cos y =
-1 -1

 cos1  xy  1  x 2 1  y 2  , x  0, y  0, xy
  

sin1  x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2  , x  0, y  0, x 2  y 2  1
-1 -1 
  
sin x + sin y = 
  sin1  x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2  , x  0, y  0, x 2  y 2  1

  

3
Trigonometric Equations

 sin2 = sin2 , cos2 = cos2, tan2 = tan2 = n,

 sin = 1  = (4n+1) 2 ,
 sin  = –1  = (4n –1) 2 ,
 cos = 1  = 2n ,
 cos = – 1  = (2n+1),

SOLUTION OF TRIANGLE
In any triangle three sides and three angles are called the elements
of the triangle. the three sides BC = a, CA = b, AB = c and the
three angles A, B, C.
(i) A + B + C = c = 180
(ii) Area of the ABC,  = 1
2
(base) (height)

SINE FORMULA
In a ABC, sina A  sinb B  sinc C

i.e., sides are proportional to sines of opposite angles.

COSINE FORMULA
In a ABC, a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A
b2 = c2 + a2 2ca cos B

4
 c2 = a2 + b2  2ab cos C
PROJECTION FORMULA
 a  b cos C  c cos B

In any ABC,  b  c cos A  a cos C
 c  a cos B  b cos A


HALF-ANGLE FORMULA
A  s  b  s  c  A s s  a  A  s  b s  c 
sin  , cos  and tan 
2 bc 2 bc 2 s s  a 

Height and Distance

A
1. Angle of Elevation:
Consider a point
A being observed from a
point O (usually called O Horizontal B

observer) at a lower
horizontal level. Draw a
horizontal line OB through
O in the direction of A.
Then, OA is called the line
of sight or observation and
AOB is called the angle of
elevation of point A as seen
from O.

5
 Horizontal
2. Angle of Depression: O B

Consider a point
A being observed from a
point O at a higher A

horizontal level AOB

here is called the angle of
depression of the point A
as seen from O. This is
also measured w.r.t the
horizontal at O.