The cat (Felis catus) is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal.

[1][2] It is the only

domesticated species in the family Felidae and is commonly referred to as the domestic
cat or house cat to distinguish it from the wild members of the family.[4] Cats are commonly kept
as house pets but can also be farm cats or feral cats; the feral cat ranges freely and avoids
human contact.[5] Domestic cats are valued by humans for companionship and their ability to
kill rodents. About 60 cat breeds are recognized by various cat registries.[6]
The cat is similar in anatomy to the other felid species: it has a strong flexible body,
quick reflexes, sharp teeth, and retractable claws adapted to killing small prey. Its night
vision and sense of smell are well developed. Cat
communication includes vocalizations like meowing, purring, trilling, hissing, growling, and
grunting as well as cat-specific body language. Although the cat is a social species, it is a solitary
hunter. As a predator, it is crepuscular, i.e. most active at dawn and dusk. It can hear sounds too
faint or too high in frequency for human ears, such as those made by mice and other small
mammals.[7] It also secretes and perceives pheromones.[8]
Female domestic cats can have kittens from spring to late autumn, with litter sizes often ranging
from two to five kittens.[9] Domestic cats are bred and shown at events as registered pedigreed
cats, a hobby known as cat fancy. Population control of cats may be achieved
by spaying and neutering, but their proliferation and the abandonment of pets has resulted in
large numbers of feral cats worldwide, contributing to the extinction of entire bird, mammal, and
reptile species.[10]
It was long thought that cat domestication began in ancient Egypt, where cats were
venerated from around 3100 BC,[11][12] but recent advances in archaeology and genetics have
shown that their domestication occurred in Western Asia around 7500 BC.[13]
As of 2021, there were an estimated 220 million owned and 480 million stray cats in the
world.[14][15] As of 2017, the domestic cat was the second most popular pet in the United States,
with 95.6 million cats owned[16][17][18] and around 42 million households owning at least one
cat.[19] In the United Kingdom, 26% of adults have a cat, with an estimated population of 10.9
million pet cats as of 2020.[20]

Etymology and naming

The origin of the English word cat, Old English catt, is thought to be the Late Latin word cattus,
which was first used at the beginning of the 6th century.[21] It was suggested that cattus is derived
from an Egyptian precursor of Coptic ϣⲁⲩ šau, 'tomcat', or its feminine form suffixed with -
t.[22] The Late Latin word may be derived from another Afro-Asiatic[23] or Nilo-Saharan language.
The Nubian word kaddîska 'wildcat' and Nobiin kadīs are possible sources or cognates.[24] The
Nubian word may be a loan from Arabic ‫ط‬ ّ َ‫ ق‬qaṭṭ ~ ّ‫ قِط‬qiṭṭ.
However, it is "equally likely that the forms might derive from an ancient Germanic word,
imported into Latin and thence to Greek and to Syriac and Arabic".[25] The word may be derived
from Germanic and Northern European languages, and ultimately be borrowed from Uralic,
cf. Northern Sami gáđfi, 'female stoat', and Hungarian hölgy, 'lady, female stoat'; from Proto-
Uralic *käďwä, 'female (of a furred animal)'.[26]
The English puss, extended as pussy and pussycat, is attested from the 16th century and may
have been introduced from Dutch poes or from Low German puuskatte, related
to Swedish kattepus, or Norwegian pus, pusekatt. Similar forms exist in
Lithuanian puižė and Irish puisín or puiscín. The etymology of this word is unknown, but it may
have arisen from a sound used to attract a cat.[27][28]
A male cat is called a tom or tomcat[29] (or a gib,[30] if neutered). A female is called a queen[31] (or
a molly,[32][user-generated source?] if spayed), especially in a cat-breeding context. A juvenile cat is referred
to as a kitten. In Early Modern English, the word kitten was interchangeable with the now-
obsolete word catling.[33] A group of cats can be referred to as a clowder or a glaring.[34]
Taxonomy
The scientific name Felis catus was proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for a domestic
cat.[1][2] Felis catus domesticus was proposed by Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in
1777.[3] Felis daemon proposed by Konstantin Satunin in 1904 was a black cat from
the Transcaucasus, later identified as a domestic cat.[35][36]
In 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ruled that the domestic cat is
a distinct species, namely Felis catus.[37][38] In 2007, it was considered a subspecies, F. silvestris
catus, of the European wildcat (F. silvestris) following results of phylogenetic research.[39][40] In
2017, the IUCN Cat Classification Taskforce followed the recommendation of the ICZN in
regarding the domestic cat as a distinct species, Felis catus.[41]

Evolution
Main article: Cat evolution

Skulls of a wildcat (top left), a housecat (top right), and a hybrid between the two. (bottom center)

The domestic cat is a member of the Felidae, a family that had a common ancestor about 10–15
million years ago.[42] The genus Felis diverged from other Felidae around 6–7 million years
ago.[43] Results of phylogenetic research confirm that the wild Felis species evolved
through sympatric or parapatric speciation, whereas the domestic cat evolved through artificial
selection.[44] The domesticated cat and its closest wild ancestor are diploid and both possess
38 chromosomes[45] and roughly 20,000 genes.[46] The leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis)
was tamed independently in China around 5500 BC. This line of partially domesticated cats
leaves no trace in the domestic cat populations of today.[47]

Domestication
See also: Domestication of the cat
A cat eating a fish under a chair, a mural in an Egyptian tomb dating to the 15th century BC

The earliest known indication for the taming of an African wildcat (F. lybica) was excavated close
by a human Neolithic grave in Shillourokambos, southern Cyprus, dating to about 7500–7200
BC. Since there is no evidence of native mammalian fauna on Cyprus, the inhabitants of this
Neolithic village most likely brought the cat and other wild mammals to the island from the Middle
Eastern mainland.[48] Scientists therefore assume that African wildcats were attracted to early
human settlements in the Fertile Crescent by rodents, in particular the house mouse (Mus
musculus), and were tamed by Neolithic farmers. This mutual relationship between early farmers
and tamed cats lasted thousands of years. As agricultural practices spread, so did tame and
domesticated cats.[13][6] Wildcats of Egypt contributed to the maternal gene pool of the domestic
cat at a later time.[49]
The earliest known evidence for the occurrence of the domestic cat in Greece dates to around
1200 BC. Greek, Phoenician, Carthaginian and Etruscan traders introduced domestic cats to
southern Europe.[50] During the Roman Empire they were introduced
to Corsica and Sardinia before the beginning of the 1st millennium.[51] By the 5th century BC, they
were familiar animals around settlements in Magna Graecia and Etruria.[52] By the end of the
Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, the Egyptian domestic cat lineage had arrived in
a Baltic Sea port in northern Germany.[49]
During domestication, cats have undergone only minor changes in anatomy and behavior, and
they are still capable of surviving in the wild. Several natural behaviors and characteristics of
wildcats may have pre-adapted them for domestication as pets. These traits include their small
size, social nature, obvious body language, love of play, and high intelligence.
Captive Leopardus cats may also display affectionate behavior toward humans but were not
domesticated.[53] House cats often mate with feral cats.[54] Hybridisation between domestic and
other Felinae species is also possible, producing hybrids such as the Kellas cat in Scotland.[55][56]
Development of cat breeds started in the mid 19th century.[57] An analysis of the domestic
cat genome revealed that the ancestral wildcat genome was significantly altered in the process of
domestication, as specific mutations were selected to develop cat breeds.[58] Most breeds are
founded on random-bred domestic cats. Genetic diversity of these breeds varies between
regions, and is lowest in purebred populations, which show more than 20 deleterious genetic
disorders.[59]

Characteristics
Main article: Cat anatomy

Size
Diagram of the general anatomy of a male domestic cat

The domestic cat has a smaller skull and shorter bones than the European wildcat.[60] It averages
about 46 cm (18 in) in head-to-body length and 23–25 cm (9–10 in) in height, with about 30 cm
(12 in) long tails. Males are larger than females.[61] Adult domestic cats typically weigh between 4
and 5 kg (9 and 11 lb).[44]

Skeleton
Cats have seven cervical vertebrae (as do most mammals); 13 thoracic vertebrae (humans have
12); seven lumbar vertebrae (humans have five); three sacral vertebrae (as do most mammals,
but humans have five); and a variable number of caudal vertebrae in the tail (humans have only
three to five vestigial caudal vertebrae, fused into an internal coccyx).[62]: 11  The extra lumbar and
thoracic vertebrae account for the cat's spinal mobility and flexibility. Attached to the spine are 13
ribs, the shoulder, and the pelvis.[62]: 16  Unlike human arms, cat forelimbs are attached to the
shoulder by free-floating clavicle bones which allow them to pass their body through any space
into which they can fit their head.[63]

Skull

Cat skull

A cat with exposed teeth and claws

The cat skull is unusual among mammals in having very large eye sockets and a powerful
specialized jaw.[64]: 35  Within the jaw, cats have teeth adapted for killing prey and tearing meat.
When it overpowers its prey, a cat delivers a lethal neck bite with its two long canine teeth,
inserting them between two of the prey's vertebrae and severing its spinal cord, causing
irreversible paralysis and death.[65] Compared to other felines, domestic cats have narrowly
spaced canine teeth relative to the size of their jaw, which is an adaptation to their preferred prey
of small rodents, which have small vertebrae.[65]
The premolar and first molar together compose the carnassial pair on each side of the mouth,
which efficiently shears meat into small pieces, like a pair of scissors. These are vital in feeding,
since cats' small molars cannot chew food effectively, and cats are largely incapable of
mastication.[64]: 37  Although cats tend to have better teeth than most humans, with decay generally
less likely because of a thicker protective layer of enamel, a less damaging saliva, less retention
of food particles between teeth, and a diet mostly devoid of sugar, they are nonetheless subject
to occasional tooth loss and infection.[66]

Claws

Shed claw sheaths

Cats have protractible and retractable claws.[67] In their normal, relaxed position, the claws are
sheathed with the skin and fur around the paw's toe pads. This keeps the claws sharp by
preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows for the silent stalking of prey. The claws
on the forefeet are typically sharper than those on the hindfeet.[68] Cats can voluntarily extend
their claws on one or more paws. They may extend their claws in hunting or self-defense,
climbing, kneading, or for extra traction on soft surfaces. Cats shed the outside layer of their claw
sheaths when scratching rough surfaces.[69]
Most cats have five claws on their front paws and four on their rear paws.
The dewclaw is proximal to the other claws. More proximally is a protrusion which appears to be
a sixth "finger". This special feature of the front paws on the inside of the wrists has no function in
normal walking but is thought to be an antiskidding device used while jumping. Some cat breeds
are prone to having extra digits ("polydactyly").[70] Polydactylous cats occur along North America's
northeast coast and in Great Britain.[71]

Ambulation
The cat is digitigrade. It walks on the toes, with the bones of the feet making up the lower part of
the visible leg.[72] Unlike most mammals, it uses a "pacing" gait and moves both legs on one side
of the body before the legs on the other side. It registers directly by placing each hind paw close
to the track of the corresponding fore paw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides
sure footing for hind paws when navigating rough terrain. As it speeds up from walking to trotting,
its gait changes to a "diagonal" gait: The diagonally opposite hind and fore legs move
simultaneously.[73]

Balance
13:37
Comparison of cat righting reflexes in gravity and zero gravity

Most breeds of cat are notably fond of sitting in high places, or perching. A higher place may
serve as a concealed site from which to hunt; domestic cats strike prey by pouncing from a perch
such as a tree branch. Another possible explanation is that height gives the cat a better
observation point, allowing it to survey its territory. A cat falling from heights of up to 3 meters
(9.8 ft) can right itself and land on its paws.[74]
During a fall from a high place, a cat reflexively twists its body and rights itself to land on its feet
using its acute sense of balance and flexibility. This reflex is known as the cat righting reflex.[75] A
cat always rights itself in the same way during a fall, if it has enough time to do so, which is the
case in falls of 90 cm (2 ft 11 in) or more.[76] How cats are able to right themselves when falling
has been investigated as the "falling cat problem".[77]

Coats
Main article: Cat coat genetics
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The cat family (Felidae) can pass down many colors and patterns to their offsprings. The
domestic cat genes MC1R and ASIP allow for the variety of color in coats. The feline ASIP gene
consists of three coding exons.[78] Three novel microsatellite markers linked to ASIP were isolated
from a domestic cat BAC clone containing this gene and were used to perform linkage analysis in
a pedigree of 89 domestic cats that segregated for melanism.[79]

Senses
Main article: Cat senses

Vision

Reflection of camera flash from the tapetum lucidum

A cat's nictitating membrane shown as it blinks

Cats have excellent night vision and can see at only one-sixth the light level required for human
vision.[64]: 43  This is partly the result of cat eyes having a tapetum lucidum, which reflects any light
that passes through the retina back into the eye, thereby increasing the eye's sensitivity to dim
light.[80] Large pupils are an adaptation to dim light. The domestic cat has slit pupils, which allow it
to focus bright light without chromatic aberration.[81] At low light, a cat's pupils expand to cover
most of the exposed surface of its eyes.[82] The domestic cat has rather poor color vision and only
two types of cone cells, optimized for sensitivity to blue and yellowish green; its ability to
distinguish between red and green is limited.[83] A response to middle wavelengths from a system
other than the rod cells might be due to a third type of cone. This appears to be an adaptation to
low light levels rather than representing true trichromatic vision.[84] Cats also have a nictitating
membrane, allowing them to blink without hindering their vision.

Hearing
The domestic cat's hearing is most acute in the range of 500 Hz to 32 kHz.[85] It can detect an
extremely broad range of frequencies ranging from 55 Hz to 79 kHz. It can hear a range of
10.5 octaves, while humans and dogs can hear ranges of about 9 octaves.[86][87] Its hearing
sensitivity is enhanced by its large movable outer ears, the pinnae, which amplify sounds and
help detect the location of a noise. It can detect ultrasound, which enables it to detect ultrasonic
calls made by rodent prey.[88][89] Recent research has shown that cats have socio-spatial cognitive
abilities to create mental maps of owners' locations based on hearing owners' voices.[90]

Smell
Cats have an acute sense of smell, due in part to their well-developed olfactory bulb and a large
surface of olfactory mucosa, about 5.8 square centimetres (29⁄32 square inch) in area, which is
about twice that of humans.[91] Cats and many other animals have a Jacobson's organ in their
mouths that is used in the behavioral process of flehmening. It allows them to sense certain
aromas in a way that humans cannot. Cats are sensitive to pheromones such as 3-mercapto-3-
methylbutan-1-ol,[92] which they use to communicate through urine spraying and marking
with scent glands.[93] Many cats also respond strongly to plants that contain nepetalactone,
especially catnip, as they can detect that substance at less than one part per billion.[94] About 70–
80% of cats are affected by nepetalactone.[95] This response is also produced by other plants,
such as silver vine (Actinidia polygama) and the herb valerian; it may be caused by the smell of
these plants mimicking a pheromone and stimulating cats' social or sexual behaviors.[96]

Taste
Cats have relatively few taste buds compared to humans (470 or so versus more than 9,000 on
the human tongue).[97] Domestic and wild cats share a taste receptor gene mutation that keeps
their sweet taste buds from binding to sugary molecules, leaving them with no ability to
taste sweetness.[98] Their taste buds instead respond to acids, amino acids like protein, and bitter
tastes.[99] Cats also have a distinct temperature preference for their food, preferring food with a
temperature around 38 °C (100 °F) which is similar to that of a fresh kill and routinely rejecting
food presented cold or refrigerated (which would signal to the cat that the "prey" item is long
dead and therefore possibly toxic or decomposing).[97]

Whiskers

The whiskers of a cat are highly sensitive to touch.

To aid with navigation and sensation, cats have dozens of movable whiskers (vibrissae) over
their body, especially their faces. These provide information on the width of gaps and on the
location of objects in the dark, both by touching objects directly and by sensing air currents; they
also trigger protective blink reflexes to protect the eyes from damage.[64]: 47 

Behavior
See also: Cat behavior
Outdoor cats are active both day and night, although they tend to be slightly more active at
night.[100] Domestic cats spend the majority of their time in the vicinity of their homes but can
range many hundreds of meters from this central point. They establish territories that vary
considerably in size, in one study ranging from 7 to 28 hectares (17–69 acres).[101] The timing of
cats' activity is quite flexible and varied, which means house cats may be more active in the
morning and evening, as a response to greater human activity at these times.[102]
Cats conserve energy by sleeping more than most animals, especially as they grow older. The
daily duration of sleep varies, usually between 12 and 16 hours, with 13 and 14 being the
average. Some cats can sleep as much as 20 hours. The term "cat nap" for a short rest refers to
the cat's tendency to fall asleep (lightly) for a brief period. While asleep, cats experience short
periods of rapid eye movement sleep often accompanied by muscle twitches, which suggests
they are dreaming.[103]

Sociability
The social behavior of the domestic cat ranges from widely dispersed individuals to feral cat
colonies that gather around a food source, based on groups of co-operating females.[104] Within
such groups, one cat is usually dominant over the others.[105] Each cat in a colony holds a distinct
territory, with sexually active males having the largest territories, which are about 10 times larger
than those of female cats and may overlap with several females' territories. These territories are
marked by urine spraying, by rubbing objects at head height with secretions from facial glands,
and by defecation.[93] Between these territories are neutral areas where cats watch and greet one
another without territorial conflicts. Outside these neutral areas, territory holders usually chase
away stranger cats, at first by staring, hissing, and growling and, if that does not work, by short
but noisy and violent attacks. Despite this colonial organization, cats do not have a social survival
strategy or a pack mentality, and always hunt alone.[106]
Life in proximity to humans and other domestic animals has led to a symbiotic social adaptation
in cats, and cats may express great affection toward humans or other animals. Ethologically, a
cat's human keeper functions as if a mother surrogate.[107] Adult cats live their lives in a kind of
extended kittenhood, a form of behavioral neoteny. Their high-pitched sounds may mimic the
cries of a hungry human infant, making them particularly difficult for humans to ignore.[108] Some
pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular, older cats show aggressiveness toward newly arrived
kittens, which include biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial
aggression.[109]
Redirected aggression is a common form of aggression which can occur in multiple cat
households. In redirected aggression there is usually something that agitates the cat: this could
be a sight, sound, or another source of stimuli which causes a heightened level of anxiety or
arousal. If the cat cannot attack the stimuli, it may direct anger elsewhere by attacking or
directing aggression to the nearest cat, dog, human or other being.[110][111]
Domestic cats' scent rubbing behavior toward humans or other cats is thought to be a feline
means for social bonding.[112]

Communication
Main article: Cat communication

Vocalizing domestic cat

Domestic cats use many vocalizations for communication, including purring, trilling, hissing,
growling/snarling, grunting, and several different forms of meowing.[7] Their body language,
including position of ears and tail, relaxation of the whole body, and kneading of the paws, are all
indicators of mood. The tail and ears are particularly important social signal mechanisms in cats.
A raised tail indicates a friendly greeting, and flattened ears indicates hostility. Tail-raising also
indicates the cat's position in the group's social hierarchy, with dominant individuals raising their
tails less often than subordinate ones.[113] Feral cats are generally silent.[114]: 208  Nose-to-nose
touching is also a common greeting and may be followed by social grooming, which is solicited
by one of the cats raising and tilting its head.[104]
Purring may have developed as an evolutionary advantage as a signaling mechanism of
reassurance between mother cats and nursing kittens, who are thought to use it as a care-
soliciting signal.[115] Post-nursing cats also often purr as a sign of contentment: when being
petted, becoming relaxed,[116][117] or eating. Even though purring is popularly interpreted as
indicative of pleasure, it has been recorded in a wide variety of circumstances, most of which
involve physical contact between the cat and another, presumably trusted individual.[115] Some
cats have been observed to purr continuously when chronically ill or in apparent pain.[118]
The exact mechanism by which cats purr has long been elusive, but it has been proposed that
purring is generated via a series of sudden build-ups and releases of pressure as the glottis is
opened and closed, which causes the vocal folds to separate forcefully. The laryngeal muscles in
control of the glottis are thought to be driven by a neural oscillator which generates a cycle of
contraction and release every 30-40 milliseconds (giving a frequency of 33 to 25 Hz).[115][119][120]

Grooming

The hooked papillae on a cat's tongue act like a hairbrush to help clean and detangle fur

Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of time licking their coats to keep them
clean.[121] The cat's tongue has backward-facing spines about 500 μm long, which are
called papillae. These contain keratin which makes them rigid[122] so the papillae act like a
hairbrush. Some cats, particularly longhaired cats, occasionally regurgitate hairballs of fur that
have collected in their stomachs from grooming. These clumps of fur are usually sausage-
shaped and about 2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 in) long. Hairballs can be prevented with remedies that ease
elimination of the hair through the gut, as well as regular grooming of the coat with a comb or stiff
brush.[121]
Fighting

A domestic cat's arched back, raised fur, and open-mouthed hiss are signs of aggression.
Among domestic cats, males are more likely to fight than females.[123] Among feral cats, the most
common reason for cat fighting is competition between two males to mate with a female. In such
cases, most fights are won by the heavier male.[124] Another common reason for fighting in
domestic cats is the difficulty of establishing territories within a small home.[123] Female cats also
fight over territory or to defend their kittens. Neutering will decrease or eliminate this behavior in
many cases, suggesting that the behavior is linked to sex hormones.[125]
When cats become aggressive, they try to make themselves appear larger and more threatening
by raising their fur, arching their backs, turning sideways and hissing or spitting.[126] Often, the
ears are pointed down and back to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for any
changes behind them while focused forward. Cats may also vocalize loudly and bare their teeth
in an effort to further intimidate their opponents. Fights usually consist of grappling and delivering
powerful slaps to the face and body with the forepaws as well as bites. Cats also throw
themselves to the ground in a defensive posture to rake their opponent's belly with their powerful
hind legs.[127]
Serious damage is rare, as the fights are usually short in duration, with the loser running away
with little more than a few scratches to the face and ears. Fights for mating rights are typically
more severe and injuries may include deep puncture wounds and lacerations. Normally, serious
injuries from fighting are limited to infections of scratches and bites, though these can
occasionally kill cats if untreated. In addition, bites are probably the main route of transmission
of feline immunodeficiency virus.[128] Sexually active males are usually involved in many fights
during their lives, and often have decidedly battered faces with obvious scars and cuts to their
ears and nose.[129] Cats are willing to threaten animals larger than them to defend their territory,
such as dogs and foxes.[130]

Hunting and feeding

See also: Cat food

A domestic cat with its prey, a deermouse

The shape and structure of cats' cheeks is insufficient to allow them to take in liquids using
suction. Therefore, when drinking they lap with the tongue to draw liquid upward into their
mouths. Lapping at a rate of four times a second, the cat touches the smooth tip of its tongue to
the surface of the water, and quickly retracts it like a corkscrew, drawing water upward.[131][132]
Feral cats and free-fed house cats consume several small meals in a day. The frequency and
size of meals varies between individuals. They select food based on its temperature, smell and
texture; they dislike chilled foods and respond most strongly to moist foods rich in amino acids,
which are similar to meat. Cats reject novel flavors (a response termed neophobia) and learn
quickly to avoid foods that have tasted unpleasant in the past.[106][133] It is also a common
misconception that cats like milk/cream, as they tend to avoid sweet food and milk. Most adult
cats are lactose intolerant; the sugar in milk is not easily digested and may cause soft stools
or diarrhea.[134] Some also develop odd eating habits and like to eat or chew on things like wool,
plastic, cables, paper, string, aluminum foil, or even coal. This condition, pica, can threaten their
health, depending on the amount and toxicity of the items eaten.[135]
Cats hunt small prey, primarily birds and rodents,[136] and are often used as a form of pest
control.[137][138] Cats use two hunting strategies, either stalking prey actively, or waiting in
ambush until an animal comes close enough to be captured.[139] The strategy used depends on
the prey species in the area, with cats waiting in ambush outside burrows, but tending to actively
stalk birds.[140]: 153  Domestic cats are a major predator of wildlife in the United States, killing an
estimated 1.3 to 4.0 billion birds and 6.3 to 22.3 billion mammals annually.[141]
Certain species appear more susceptible than others; in one English village, for example, 30% of
house sparrow mortality was linked to the domestic cat.[142] In the recovery of ringed robins
(Erithacus rubecula) and dunnocks (Prunella modularis) in Britain, 31% of deaths were a result of
cat predation.[143] In parts of North America, the presence of larger carnivores such
as coyotes which prey on cats and other small predators reduces the effect of predation by cats
and other small predators such as opossums and raccoons on bird numbers and variety.[144]
Perhaps the best-known element of cats' hunting behavior, which is commonly misunderstood
and often appalls cat owners because it looks like torture, is that cats often appear to "play" with
prey by releasing and recapturing it. This cat and mouse behavior is due to an instinctive
imperative to ensure that the prey is weak enough to be killed without endangering the cat.[145]
Another poorly understood element of cat hunting behavior is the presentation of prey to human
guardians. One explanation is that cats adopt humans into their social group and share excess
kill with others in the group according to the dominance hierarchy, in which humans are reacted
to as if they are at or near the top.[146] Another explanation is that they attempt to teach their
guardians to hunt or to help their human as if feeding "an elderly cat, or an inept kitten".[147] This
hypothesis is inconsistent with the fact that male cats also bring home prey, despite males
having negligible involvement in raising kittens.[140]: 153 

Play
Main article: Cat play and toys

Play fight between kittens aged 14 weeks

Domestic cats, especially young kittens, are known for their love of play. This behavior mimics
hunting and is important in helping kittens learn to stalk, capture, and kill prey.[148] Cats also
engage in play fighting, with each other and with humans. This behavior may be a way for cats to
practice the skills needed for real combat, and might also reduce any fear they associate with
launching attacks on other animals.[149]
Cats also tend to play with toys more when they are hungry.[150] Owing to the close similarity
between play and hunting, cats prefer to play with objects that resemble prey, such as small furry
toys that move rapidly, but rapidly lose interest. They become habituated to a toy they have
played with before.[151] String is often used as a toy, but if it is eaten, it can become caught at the
base of the cat's tongue and then move into the intestines, a medical emergency which can
cause serious illness, even death.[152] Owing to the risks posed by cats eating string, it is
sometimes replaced with a laser pointer's dot, which cats may chase.[153]

Reproduction

When cats mate, the tomcat (male) bites the scruff of the female's neck as she assumes a position
conducive to mating known as lordosis behavior.
See also: Kitten
Female cats, called queens, are polyestrous with several estrus cycles during a year, lasting
usually 21 days. They are usually ready to mate between early February and August.[154]
Several males, called tomcats, are attracted to a female in heat. They fight over her, and the
victor wins the right to mate. At first, the female rejects the male, but eventually, the female
allows the male to mate. The female utters a loud yowl as the male pulls out of her because a
male cat's penis has a band of about 120–150 backward-pointing penile spines, which are
about 1 mm (1⁄32 in) long; upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines may provide the female with
increased sexual stimulation, which acts to induce ovulation.[155]
After mating, the female cleans her vulva thoroughly. If a male attempts to mate with her at this
point, the female attacks him. After about 20 to 30 minutes, once the female is finished grooming,
the cycle will repeat.[156] Because ovulation is not always triggered by a single mating, females
may not be impregnated by the first male with which they mate.[157] Furthermore, cats
are superfecund; that is, a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat, with
the result that different kittens in a litter may have different fathers.[156]
The morula forms 124 hours after conception. At 148 hours, early blastocysts form. At 10–12
days, implantation occurs.[158] The gestation of queens lasts between 64 and 67 days, with an
average of 65 days.[154][159]

Radiography of a pregnant cat. The skeletons of two fetuses are visible on the left and right of the uterus.

A newborn kitten

Data on the reproductive capacity of more than 2,300 free-ranging queens were collected during
a study between May 1998 and October 2000. They had one to six kittens per litter, with an
average of three kittens. They produced a mean of 1.4 litters per year, but a maximum of three
litters in a year. Of 169 kittens, 127 died before they were six months old due to a trauma caused
in most cases by dog attacks and road accidents.[9] The first litter is usually smaller than
subsequent litters. Kittens are weaned between six and seven weeks of age. Queens normally
reach sexual maturity at 5–10 months, and males at 5–7 months. This varies depending on
breed.[156] Kittens reach puberty at the age of 9–10 months.[154]
Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 12 weeks of age, when they are ready to leave their
mother.[160] They can be surgically sterilized (spayed or castrated) as early as seven weeks to
limit unwanted reproduction.[161] This surgery also prevents undesirable sex-related behavior,
such as aggression, territory marking (spraying urine) in males and yowling (calling) in females.
Traditionally, this surgery was performed at around six to nine months of age, but it is
increasingly being performed before puberty, at about three to six months.[162] In the United
States, about 80% of household cats are neutered.[163]

Lifespan and health

Main articles: Cat health and Aging in cats
The average lifespan of pet cats has risen in recent decades. In the early 1980s, it was about
seven years,[164]: 33 [165] rising to 9.4 years in 1995[164]: 33  and about 15 years in 2021. Some cats have
been reported as surviving into their 30s,[166] with the oldest known cat, Creme Puff, dying at a
verified age of 38.[167]
Neutering increases life expectancy: one study found castrated male cats live twice as long as
intact males, while spayed female cats live 62% longer than intact females.[164]: 35  Having a
cat neutered confers health benefits, because castrated males cannot develop testicular cancer,
spayed females cannot develop uterine or ovarian cancer, and both have a reduced risk
of mammary cancer.[168]

Disease
Main article: List of feline diseases
About 250 heritable genetic disorders have been identified in cats, many similar to human inborn
errors of metabolism.[169] The high level of similarity among the metabolism of mammals allows
many of these feline diseases to be diagnosed using genetic tests that were originally developed
for use in humans, as well as the use of cats as animal models in the study of the human
diseases.[170][171] Diseases affecting domestic cats include acute infections, parasitic infestations,
injuries, and chronic diseases such as kidney disease, thyroid disease,
and arthritis. Vaccinations are available for many infectious diseases, as are treatments to
eliminate parasites such as worms, ticks, and fleas.[172]

Ecology
Habitats
The domestic cat is a cosmopolitan species and occurs across much of the world.[59] It is
adaptable and now present on all continents except Antarctica, and on 118 of the 131 main
groups of islands, even on the isolated Kerguelen Islands.[173][174] Due to its ability to thrive in
almost any terrestrial habitat, it is among the world's most invasive species.[175] It lives on small
islands with no human inhabitants.[176] Feral cats can live in forests, grasslands, tundra, coastal
areas, agricultural land, scrublands, urban areas, and wetlands.[177]
The unwantedness that leads to the domestic cat being treated as an invasive species is twofold.
On one hand, as it is little altered from the wildcat, it can readily interbreed with the wildcat.
This hybridization poses a danger to the genetic distinctiveness of some wildcat populations,
particularly in Scotland and Hungary, possibly also the Iberian Peninsula, and where protected
natural areas are close to human-dominated landscapes, such as Kruger National Park in South
Africa.[178][56] On the other hand, and perhaps more obviously, its introduction to places where no
native felines are present contributes to the decline of native species.[179]

Ferality
Main article: Feral cat
Feral farm cat

Feral cats are domestic cats that were born in or have reverted to a wild state. They are
unfamiliar with and wary of humans and roam freely in urban and rural areas.[10] The numbers of
feral cats is not known, but estimates of the United States feral population range from 25 to 60
million.[10] Feral cats may live alone, but most are found in large colonies, which occupy a specific
territory and are usually associated with a source of food.[180] Famous feral cat colonies are found
in Rome around the Colosseum and Forum Romanum, with cats at some of these sites being fed
and given medical attention by volunteers.[181]
Public attitudes toward feral cats vary widely, from seeing them as free-ranging pets to regarding
them as vermin.[182]
Some feral cats can be successfully socialized and 're-tamed' for adoption; young cats,
especially kittens[183] and cats that have had prior experience and contact with humans are the
most receptive to these efforts.

Impact on wildlife
Main article: Cat predation on wildlife
On islands, birds can contribute as much as 60% of a cat's diet.[184] In nearly all cases, the cat
cannot be identified as the sole cause for reducing the numbers of island birds, and in some
instances, eradication of cats has caused a "mesopredator release" effect;[185] where the
suppression of top carnivores creates an abundance of smaller predators that cause a severe
decline in their shared prey. Domestic cats are a contributing factor to the decline of many
species, a factor that has ultimately led, in some cases, to extinction. The South Island
piopio, Chatham rail,[143] and the New Zealand merganser[186] are a few from a long list, with the
most extreme case being the flightless Lyall's wren, which was driven to extinction only a few
years after its discovery.[187][188] One feral cat in New Zealand killed 102 New Zealand lesser short-
tailed bats in seven days.[189] In the US, feral and free-ranging domestic cats kill an estimated 6.3
– 22.3 billion mammals annually.[141]
In Australia, the impact of cats on mammal populations is even greater than the impact of habitat
loss.[190] More than one million reptiles are killed by feral cats each day, representing 258
species.[191] Cats have contributed to the extinction of the Navassa curly-tailed
lizard and Chioninia coctei.[179]

Interaction with humans

Main article: Human interaction with cats
A cat sleeping on a man's lap

Cats are common pets throughout the world, and their worldwide population as of 2007
exceeded 500 million.[192] Cats have been used for millennia to control rodents, notably around
grain stores and aboard ships, and both uses extend to the present day.[193][194]
As well as being kept as pets, cats are also used in the international fur trade[195] and leather
industries for making coats, hats, blankets, and stuffed toys;[196] and shoes, gloves, and musical
instruments respectively[197] (about 24 cats are needed to make a cat-fur coat).[198] This use has
been outlawed in the United States since 2000 and in the European Union (as well as the United
Kingdom) since 2007.[199]
Cat pelts have been used for superstitious purposes as part of the practice of witchcraft,[200] and
are still made into blankets in Switzerland as traditional medicine thought to cure rheumatism.[201]
A few attempts to build a cat census have been made over the years, both through associations
or national and international organizations (such as that of the Canadian Federation of Humane
Societies[202]) and over the Internet,[203][204] but such a task does not seem simple to achieve.
General estimates for the global population of domestic cats range widely from anywhere
between 200 million to 600 million.[205][206][207][208][209] Walter Chandoha made his career
photographing cats after his 1949 images of Loco, an especially charming stray taken in, were
published around the world. He is reported to have photographed 90,000 cats during his career
and maintained an archive of 225,000 images that he drew from for publications during his
lifetime.[210]

Shows
Main article: Cat show
A cat show is a judged event in which the owners of cats compete to win titles in various cat-
registering organizations by entering their cats to be judged after a breed standard.[211] It is often
required that a cat must be healthy and vaccinated in order to participate in a cat
show.[211] Both pedigreed and non-purebred companion ("moggy") cats are admissible, although
the rules differ depending on the organization. Competing cats are compared to the applicable
breed standard, and assessed for temperament.[211]

Infection
Main article: Feline zoonosis
Cats can be infected or infested with viruses, bacteria, fungus, protozoans, arthropods or worms
that can transmit diseases to humans.[212] In some cases, the cat exhibits no symptoms of the
disease.[213] The same disease can then become evident in a human. The likelihood that a person
will become diseased depends on the age and immune status of the person. Humans who have
cats living in their home or in close association are more likely to become infected. Others might
also acquire infections from cat feces and parasites exiting the cat's body.[212][214] Some of the
infections of most concern include salmonella, cat-scratch disease and toxoplasmosis.[213]
History and mythology
Main articles: Cultural depictions of cats and Cats in ancient Egypt
In ancient Egypt, cats were worshipped, and the goddess Bastet often depicted in cat form,
sometimes taking on the war-like aspect of a lioness. The Greek historian Herodotus reported
that killing a cat was forbidden, and when a household cat died, the entire family mourned and
shaved their eyebrows. Families took their dead cats to the sacred city of Bubastis, where they
were embalmed and buried in sacred repositories. Herodotus expressed astonishment at the
domestic cats in Egypt, because he had only ever seen wildcats.[215]
Ancient Greeks and Romans kept weasels as pets, which were seen as the ideal rodent-killers.
The earliest unmistakable evidence of the Greeks having domestic cats comes from two coins
from Magna Graecia dating to the mid-fifth century BC showing Iokastos and Phalanthos, the
legendary founders of Rhegion and Taras respectively, playing with their pet cats. The usual
ancient Greek word for 'cat' was ailouros, meaning 'thing with the waving tail'. Cats are rarely
mentioned in ancient Greek literature. Aristotle remarked in his History of Animals that "female
cats are naturally lecherous." The Greeks later syncretized their own goddess Artemis with the
Egyptian goddess Bastet, adopting Bastet's associations with cats and ascribing them to
Artemis. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, when the deities flee to Egypt and take animal forms, the
goddess Diana turns into a cat.[216][217]
Cats eventually displaced weasels as the pest control of choice because they were more
pleasant to have around the house and were more enthusiastic hunters of mice. During
the Middle Ages, many of Artemis's associations with cats were grafted onto the Virgin Mary.
Cats are often shown in icons of Annunciation and of the Holy Family and, according to Italian
folklore, on the same night that Mary gave birth to Jesus, a cat in Bethlehem gave birth to a
kitten.[218] Domestic cats were spread throughout much of the rest of the world during the Age of
Discovery, as ships' cats were carried on sailing ships to control shipboard rodents and as good-
luck charms.[50]
Several ancient religions believed cats are exalted souls, companions or guides for humans, that
are all-knowing but mute so they cannot influence decisions made by humans. In Japan,
the maneki neko cat is a symbol of good fortune.[219] In Norse mythology, Freyja, the goddess of
love, beauty, and fertility, is depicted as riding a chariot drawn by cats.[220] In Jewish legend, the
first cat was living in the house of the first man Adam as a pet that got rid of mice. The cat was
once partnering with the first dog before the latter broke an oath they had made which resulted in
enmity between the descendants of these two animals. It is also written that neither cats
nor foxes are represented in the water, while every other animal has an incarnation species in
the water.[221] Although no species are sacred in Islam, cats are revered by Muslims. Some
Western writers have stated Muhammad had a favorite cat, Muezza.[222] He is reported to have
loved cats so much, "he would do without his cloak rather than disturb one that was sleeping on
it".[223] The story has no origin in early Muslim writers, and seems to confuse a story of a
later Sufi saint, Ahmed ar-Rifa'i, centuries after Muhammad.[224] One of the companions of
Muhammad was known as Abu Hurayrah ("father of the kitten"), in reference to his documented
affection to cats.[225]

The ancient Egyptians mummified dead cats out of respect in the same way that they mummified people[4]
Ancient Roman mosaic of a cat killing a partridge from the House of the Faun in Pompeii

A 19th-century drawing of a tabby cat