Lesson 3.

Fuels
Outline
3.1 Characteristics of a Good Fuel
3.2 Liquid Fuels
3.3 Gas Fuels
3.4 Solid Fuels
3.5 Combustion of Fuels
3.6 Calorific Value of Fuels

Fuels
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as a main constituent, which on proper burning gives large
amount of heat that can be used economically for domestic and industrial purpose. Examples of fuels are: wood,
charcoal, coal, kerosene, petrol, diesel, producer gas, oil gas, etc.

Fuels are classified into: a) primary or natural fuels, these fuels are found in nature and b) secondary or artificial
fuels, these fuels are derived from primary fuels. Primary and secondary fuels may also be divided into three
classes namely: solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. Table 3.1 shows the classification of fuels.

Table 3.1 Examples of fuels and its classification

Type of fuel Primary or Natural Fuels Secondary or Artificial Fuels
Solid Wood, coal, peat, dung coke, charcoal
Liquid Petroleum Diesel, gasoline, kerosene,
ethanol, tar, naphtha, LPG
Gaseous Natural gas Hydrogen, propane, methane, coal
gas, water gas, blast furnace gas,
CNG

Coal, petroleum and natural gas are called fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are those, which have been derived from fossil
remains of plant and animal life. They are found in the earth’s crust.

This lesson discusses the different types of fuels, and the combustion and calorific values of fuels.

3.1 Characteristics of a Good Fuel

A good fuel should have the following characteristics:
o High calorific value
o Moderate ignition temperature
o Low ash content
o Low moisture content
o Do not produce harmful products
o Moderate velocity of combustion
o Combustion should be controllable
o Easy to transport and readily available at low cost

The most important characteristics of fuels is calorific value. Calorific value is defined as the amount of heat
produced in kilojoules when one gram of fuel is completely burned. The high calorific value means more heat is
produced when burned. Table 3.2 lists the calorific values of some fuels.

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Table 3.2 Calorific value of some fuels
Fuel Calorific value (kJ/g)
Wood pellet 17
Coal 25-33
Charcoal 35
Cow dung cakes 7
Coke 33
Kerosene 48
Petrol 47
Biogas 35-40
LPG 50
Methane 55
Hydrogen 150
(Source: Syed Shaburdeen, P.S. Fuels and Combustion. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/265602602)

3.2 Liquid Fuels

Petroleum is a primary liquid fuel. It is a complex mixture of alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes and aromatic
hydrocarbons formed from the remains of plants and animals millions of years ago. Crude oil is a form of
petroleum that is pumped from the ground. The composition of crude oil and color vary with the location in
which it is found.

The early uses of petroleum were mainly as lubricants and as kerosene for burning lamps. But with the
development of automobiles with internal combustion engines, the need for liquid fuels that would burn
efficiently in these engines arises. So to meet the need for gasoline, crude oil requires refining.

Petroleum Refining
Petroleum is a complex mixture of thousands of different hydrocarbons that separation as individual pure
compounds are not economical, hence, petroleum refining is done by fractional distillation. Fractional
distillation separates petroleum into petroleum fractions. A petroleum fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbons
that have boiling points in a certain range.

Fractional distillation of petroleum starts with heating the crude oil in the pipe to about 400°C to produce a hot
vapor mixture that enters the bottom of the fractionating tower (Figure 3.1). As the vapor rises in the
fractionating tower, the vapor cools and condense so that different fractions can be removed at different
heights in the tower. The heavier compounds having higher boiling points get cooled first and condensed in the
trays whereas the fractions having lower boiling points condense near the top of the tower. Figure 3.1 also
shows the different fractions obtained from petroleum refining.

The gasoline obtained by this fractional distillation is called straight-run gasoline. The lower boiling fractions
of this fractional distillation are used after purification, while, the high boiling fractions are subjected to cracking
operations to get more useful lower fractions. Like for example, lubricating oil, when it is re-fractionated, it gives
the following fractions:

Name of fraction Uses

○ Lubricating oil - used as lubricants
○ Petroleum jelly or Vaseline - used in medicines and cosmetics
○ Grease - used as lubricants
○ Paraffin wax - used in candles and shoe polishes
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 ○ Pitch (asphalt) above 400 C - used for making roads, water proof roofing

Figure 3.1 Fractional distillation of crude oil

(Source: Moore, JW, Stanitski, CL & Jurs, PC. (2005). Chemistry: The Molecular Science. 2nd edition)

Cracking
The crude oil on fractional distillation yields only about 15 - 20 % gasoline known as Straight Run Gasoline. The
quality of straight run gasoline is not so good. It contains mainly straight chain paraffin’s, which ignite readily
and more rapidly than any other hydrocarbons and hence it produces knocking (unwanted sound) in internal
combustion (IC) engines. In order to overcome these difficulties and also to improve the quality of gasoline, high
boiling fractions are cracked into more valuable low boiling fractions suitable for IC engines. The gasoline
obtained by cracking is called Cracked Gasoline.

Cracking is defined as the decomposition of high boiling hydrocarbons of high molecular weight into smaller,
low boiling hydrocarbons of low molecular weight.

During cracking
○ Straight chain alkanes are converted into branched chain hydrocarbons.
○ Saturated hydrocarbons are converted into mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
○ Aliphatic alkanes are converted into cyclic alkanes.
○ All hydrocarbons obtained by cracking have lower boiling point than the parent hydrocarbons.

Cracking of decane
C10H22 C5H12 + C5H10
Decane n-Pentane Pentene
B.Pt : 174°C B.Pt : 36°C

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Octane Number
The octane number is a measure of the fuel’s ability to burn smoothly in an internal combustion engine. Smooth
burning depends on the autoignition temperature. Autoignition temperature is the temperature at which the
liquid will ignite and burn without a source of ignition. The autoignition temperature of hydrocarbons is related
to its molecular composition. Larger straight-chain hydrocarbon molecules have much lower autoignition
temperature than branched-chain hydrocarbons and smaller molecules. Gasoline consists mainly of smaller
molecules; it has a fairly high autoignition temperature. So, to efficiently burn gasoline in an engine, it requires
a source of ignition-the spark from a spark plug. Diesel fuel is composed mostly of larger, straight- chain
hydrocarbons, so diesel engine do not have spark plug because it uses autoignition to ignite the fuel.

The octane number rating is determined by comparing the burning characteristics of the liquid fuel when burned
in a one-cylinder test engine with the burning characteristics of the mixture of heptane and isooctane (2,2,4-
Trimethylpentane). Heptane does not burn smoothly and is assigned an octane number of zero, while the
isooctane burns smoothly and is assigned an octane number of 100. Table 3.3 lists the octane number of some
hydrocarbons.

Table 3.3 Octane number of some hydrocarbons

Name Class of Compound Octane Number
Octane alkane -20
Heptane alkane 0
Hexane alkane 25
Pentane alkane 62
1-Pentene alkene 91
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane alkane 100
Benzene aromatic hydrocarbon 106
Methanol alcohol 107
Ethanol alcohol 108
Tert-Butyl alcohol alcohol 113
Toluene aromatic hydrocarbon 118
(Source: Moore, JW, Stanitski, CL & Jurs, PC. (2005). Chemistry: The Molecular Science. 2nd edition)

Octane Enhancers
The octane number is increased by adding octane enhancers to prevent premature autoignition. Previously, the
most widely used octane enhancer or anti-knock agent was tetraethyllead, (C2H5)4Pb. Lead (Pb) contributes
to air pollution and because of the worsening pollution, tetraethyllead is banned. Since, tetraethyllead can no
longer be used, so other enhancers are now added to gasoline. These include toluene, tert-butyl alcohol,
methanol, and ethanol.

3.3 Gas Fuels

Natural Gas
Natural gas is a primary gas fuel. It is a mixture of low-molar mass hydrocarbons and other gases trapped with
petroleum in the earth’s crust. It is always found above the oil in the oil wells. It is also called Marsh gas. It can
be recovered from oil wells or from gas wells to which the gases have migrated through the surrounding rock.
The average composition of natural gas is as follows:

Constituents Percentage (%)

Methane 88.5
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 Ethane 5.5
Propane 4
Butane 1.5
Pentane 0.5

The calorific value of natural gas varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m 3. If natural gas contains lower
hydrocarbons like methane and ethane it is called lean or dry gas. If the natural gas contains higher
hydrocarbons like propane, butane along with methane it is called rich or wet gas.

Natural gas is used as:

○ a domestic and industrial fuel.
○ as a raw material for the manufacture of carbon black and hydrogen.
○ for the generation of electricity by using it in fuel cells.

Water Gas or Blue Gas

Water gas essentially is a mixture of combustible gases like CO, H 2 with little non-combustible gases like CO2
and N2. Its calorific value is 2800 kcals/m3. The average composition of water gas is: H2 = 48 %, CO = 44%, and
the rest are CO2, N2 and CH4.

Water gas is obtained by the action of steam on a bed of coke heated to 1000 °C.
C + H2O + 28 kcal CO + H2

The above reaction is endothermic so when the coke cools down after a few minutes, the reaction proceeds in
a different way to form CO2 and H2 instead of water gas (CO + H 2).
C + 2H2O CO2 + 2H2 - 19 kcals

Water gas has high calorific value and burns with non- luminous flame. Its flame is short but very hot.

The uses of water gas are:

○ It is used for the manufacture of ammonia by Haber’s process.
○ Carbureted water gas (water gas + oil gas) is used for lighting and heating purposes.
○ Water gas is also used for welding purposes.
○ Used for the manufacture of methyl alcohol.
○ Used for the manufacture of synthetic petrol.

Producer Gas
Producer gas is a mixture of CO and N2. The average composition of water gas is: N2 = 50 %, CO = 30 %, H2 = 10
%, and the rest CO2 and CH4. Its calorific value is 1800 kcals/m3. Producer gas is prepared by passing air mixed
with a little steam over a red hot coal (or) a coke bed maintained at above 1100 °C in a special reactor called
‘‘Gas Producer’’.

The carbon (of the coal) combines with oxygen (of the air) in the lower part of the reactor to form CO2:
C + O2 CO2 + 97 kcals

The CO2 so formed rises up through the red-hot coal and gets reduce to CO during its passage:
CO2 + C 2CO - 39 kcals

N2 of air remain unaffected throughout the process. Thus a mixture of CO and N 2 with traces of CO2 and
hydrocarbons comes out through the exit of the gas producer.

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Producer gas is a poisonous gas, insoluble in water, and heavier than air. It is used as fuel for heating open -
hearth furnaces (used in steel and glass manufacture) and muffle furnaces (used in coal gas and coke
manufacture). It provides a reducing atmosphere in certain metallurgical operations.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Liquefied petroleum gas is a mixture of propane and butane. Its approximate composition is: n-Butane = 70 %,
Isobutane = 17 %, n-Propane = 11 %, and the rest Butylene and Ethane. The calorific value of LPG is 27,000
kcals/m3. It is obtained as one of the top fractions in the fractional distillation of petroleum. It is easily liquefied
and so can be economically stored and transported in cylinders.

The uses of LPG are

○ It is used as a fuel for domestic cooking.
○ Used for heating industrial furnaces.
○ Used as an alternate for Gasoline in automobiles.

Biogas
Biogas is generally produced by the fermentation of bio wastes, sewage wastes, etc., by anaerobic bacteria.
Natural gas is an example of Biogas, which is a result after a long periodic decay of animal and vegetable matters
buried inside the earth.

The cheapest and easily obtainable biogas is Gobar gas, which is produced by anaerobic fermentation of cattle
dung. Gobar Gas is essentially methane. Its calorific value is 5400 kcals/m3. The average composition of Gobar
gas is: CH4 = 60 %, CO2 = 30 %, and H2 = 10 %. Gobar gas is obtained by fermentation of Gobar (dung) in the
absence of air. In a typical Gobar gas plant, the dung in the form of slurry is introduced into a brick - lined well
called fermentation well. An inverted drum is placed on top of the well (air tight) to act as gasholder. Formation
of gas starts in a week. The optimum temperature for this fermentation is 34 – 48 °C. As the gas starts collecting
in the drum, the drum begins to rise and float. The gas is taken out from the exit provided at the top of the drum.
Gobar gas is used as a domestic fuel in villages. It is used for domestic heating and small pump running.

3. 4 Solid Fuels
Coal is an important primary solid fuel that has been formed as a result of alteration of vegetable matter under
some favorable conditions. It consists of a complex and irregular array of partially hydrogenated six membered
carbon rings and other structures, some of which contain oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur atoms. Coal is classified
on the basis of its rank. The rank of coal denotes its degree of maturity. Vegetable matter, under the action of
pressure, heat and anaerobic conditions, gets converted into different stages of coal namely:

Wood → Peat → lignite → sub-bituminous coal → bituminous coal → anthracite

With the progress of coal forming reaction, moisture content and oxygen content reduces and the percentage
(%) of carbon increases. Also calorific value increases from peat to bituminous. Table 3.4 shows the classification
of solid fuels and its calorific value.

Table 3.4 Classification of solid fuels and its calorific value

Fuel Nature Calorific Value Composition Uses
(kcal/kg) (%)
1. Peat Highly fibrous, light 4000 - 54000 C= 57 Domestic fuel, power
brown color H=6 generation
O = 35
2. Lignite Fibrous, brown color 6500- 7100 C =67 Manufacture of producer
H =5 gas and steam

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 O= 26
3. Sub- Black color, 7000- 7500 C=77 Manufacture of gaseous
bituminous coal homogeneous smooth H= 5 fuels
mass O= 6
4. Bituminous Black color , brittle, 8000- 8500 C= 83 Power generation, coke
coal burns with yellow H=5 making, domestic fuel
smoking flame O=10
5. Anthracite Hard, most matured 8500-8700 C=93 Boiler heating,
coal, burns without H=3 metallurgical furnace
smoke O=3
(Source: Syed Shaburdeen, P.S. Fuels and Combustion. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/265602602)

Analysis of Coal
In order to assess the quality of coal, two types of analysis are made: a) Proximate analysis and b) ultimate
analysis.

a. Proximate analysis
Proximate analysis is finding out weight percentage of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash in coal.
This analysis gives the approximate composition of the main constituents of coal. Proximate analysis is useful
in deciding its utilization for a particular industrial use.

○ Determination of moisture content in coal

About 1 gm of powdered, air dried coal sample is heated in silica crucible at 100 to 105 °C for one hour.
Percentage of moisture can be calculated from the loss in weight of the coal sample as:

% of moisture in coal = (Weight of coal initially taken/ Loss in weight of coal) * 100

High moisture content in coal is undesirable because it reduces calorific value of coal, it increases the
consumption of coal for heating purpose, and lengthens the time of heating. Hence, the lesser moisture
content, the better is the quality of coal.

○ Determination of volatile matter (V.M.) in coal

After the analysis of moisture content, the crucible with residual coal sample is covered with a lid, and it is
heated at 950 ± 20 °C for 7.0 minutes in a muffle furnace. Percentage of volatile matter can be calculated from
the loss in weight of the coal sample as:

% of volatile matter in coal = (Weight of coal initially taken/ Loss in weight of moisture free coal) *100

During burning of coal, certain gases like CO, CO 2, CH4, H2 , N2 , O2 , hydrocarbons etc. that come out are called
volatile matter of the coal. The coal with higher volatile content, ignites easily (i.e. it has lower ignition
temperature), burns with long yellow smoky flame, has lower calorific value, and will give more quantity of coal
gas when it is heated in absence of air.

○ Determination of ash in coal

After the analysis of volatile matter, the crucible with residual coal sample is heated without lid at 700 ± 50 °C
for 30 minutes in a muffle furnace. Percentage of ash content can be calculated from the loss in weight of the
coal sample as:

% of ash in coal = (Weight of coal taken/ Weight of ash formed) * 100

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Ash is the combustion product of mineral matters present in the coal. It consists mainly of SiO 2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3
with varying amounts of other oxides such as Na 2O, CaO, MgO etc. Ash containing oxides of Na, Ca and Mg
melt early (low melting ash). During coke manufacture, the low melting ash forms a fused lumpy - expanded
mass which block the interspaces obstructing the supply of air leading to irregular burning of coal and loss of
fuel. High ash content in coal is undesirable because it a) increases transporting, handling, storage costs, b) is
harder and stronger, and c) has lower calorific value.

○ Determination of fixed carbon in coal

Fixed carbon is determined by subtracting the sum of total moisture, volatile and ash contents from 100.

% of fixed carbon = 100 - % of [moisture + V.M + ash]

Fixed carbon is the pure carbon present in coal. High fixed carbon content of the coal means higher calorific
value.

b. Ultimate analysis
Ultimate analysis is finding out the weight percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur of the
pure coal free from moisture and inorganic constituents. This analysis gives the elementary constituents of coal.
Ultimate analysis is useful to the designer of coal burning equipment and auxiliaries.

○ Determination of carbon and hydrogen in coal

A known amount of coal is burnt in the presence of oxygen thereby converting carbon and hydrogen of coal into
CO2 (C + O2 → CO2) and H2O (H2 + ½ O2 → H2O), respectively. The products of combustion (CO2 and H2O) are
made to pass over weighed tubes of anhydrous CaCl2 which absorbs H2O and KOH which absorbs CO2. The
increase in the weight of CaCl2 tube represents the weight of water formed while increase in the weight of KOH
tube represents the weight of CO2 formed. The percentage (%) of carbon and hydrogen in coal can be calculated
as follows:

% of carbon in coal = (12/44) * (Y/X) * 100

% of hydrogen in coal = (2/18) * (Z/X) * 100

where: X - the weight of coal sample taken

Y - the increase in the weight of KOH tube
Z - the increase in the weight of CaCl2 tube

The higher the percentage of carbon and hydrogen, the better the quality of coal and higher is its calorific value.
The percentage of carbon is helpful in the classification of coal. Higher percentage of carbon in coal reduces the
size of combustion chamber required.

○ Determination of nitrogen in coal

Nitrogen estimation is done by Kjeldahl’s method. A known amount of powdered coal is heated with
concentrated H2SO4 and K2SO4 in a long necked flask (called Kjeldahl’s flask), there by converting nitrogen of
coal to ammonium sulphate. When the clear solution is obtained, all the nitrogen in coal is converted into
ammonium sulphate, it is then heated with 50% NaOH solution.

(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2NH3

The ammonia thus formed is distilled over and is absorbed in a known quantity of standard 0.1N HCl solution.
The volume of unused 0.1 N HCl is then determined by titrating against standard NaOH solution. Thus, the
amount of acid neutralized by liberated ammonia from coal is determined.

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 % of Nitrogen = [(14 * volume of acid consumed x Normality)/(1000 * weight of coal sample, X )]*100

Let A ml = volume of 0.1N HCl

B ml = volume of unused HCl
(A-B) ml = acid neutralized by ammonia

Nitrogen does not have any calorific value, and its presence in coal is undesirable. Good quality coal should have
very little nitrogen content.

○ Determination of sulphur in coal

A known amount of coal is burnt completely in a bomb calorimeter in the presence of oxygen. Ash thus obtained
contains sulphur of coal as sulphate, which is extracted with dilute HCl. The acid extract is then treated with
BaCl2 solution to precipitate the sulphate as BaSO4. The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried, and weighed, from
which the sulphur in coal can be computed as follows.

% of sulphur in coal = (32/233) * (M/X) * 100

where: X = weight of coal sample taken

M = weight of BaSO4 precipitate formed

Sulphur increases the calorific value in coal but its presence in coal is undesirable because the combustion
products of sulphur, which are SO2 and SO3 are harmful and have corrosion effects on equipment. The coal
containing sulphur is not suitable for the preparation of metallurgical coke as it affects the properties of the
metal.

Carbonization of Coal
Carbonization is a process of heating coal in the absence of air at high temperature to produce a residue coke,
tar and coal gas. When coal is heated strongly and the mass becomes soft and coherent, this is called caking of
coal. But, if the mass produced is hard, porous and strong then it is called coking of coal. All the caking coals do
not form strong, hard and coherent residue coke. Hence all the caking coals are not necessarily coking coals but
all the coking coals have to be necessarily caking coal in nature.

When bituminous coal is heated strongly in the absence of air, the volatile matter escapes out and a lustrous,
dense, strong, porous and coherent mass is left, which is called metallurgical coke. It is called metallurgical coke
because the most important industrial use of coke is in the metallurgical industry, especially in the blast furnace.

Good coke for metallurgy should possess the following requirements:

○ Purity: Low moisture and ash content are desirable in metallurgical coke. It must contain minimum
% of P and S.
○ Porosity: High porosity is desirable in furnace cokes to obtain high rates of combustion.
○ Strength: The coke should be hard and strong to withstand pressure of ore/flux in the furnace.
○ Size: Metallurgical coke must be uniform and medium size.
○ Calorific value: The Calorific Value of coke should be high.
○ Combustibility: It should burn easily.
○ Reactivity: It refers to its ability to react with O2, CO2, steam and air. The metallurgical coke must
have low reactivity.
○ Cost: It must be cheap and readily available.

Coke is superior as a metallurgical fuel than coal because coke is stronger and more porous than coal, coke
contains lesser amount of sulphur than coal, and coke does not contain much volatile matter.

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3.5 Combustion of Fuels
Combustion is a reaction of the components of fuel with oxygen which is accompanied by development of heat
and light at a rapid rate and the temperature rises considerably. It is an exothermic chemical reaction. For proper
combustion, the substance must be brought to its kindling (or) ignition temperature. Ignition temperature is
defined as the minimum temperature at which the substance ignites and burns without further addition of heat
from outside.

During the process of combustion, carbon, hydrogen, etc., contained in fuel combined with oxygen, like for
example:
C + O2 CO2 + 94 kcals
2H2 + O2 2H2O + 68.5 kcals

In order to achieve efficient combustion of fuel, it is essential that the fuel is brought into intimate contact with
sufficient quantity of air to burn all the combustible matter under appropriate conditions. The correct
conditions are: a) intimate mixing of air with combustible matter and b) sufficient time to allow the combustion
process to be completed. If these factors are inappropriate, inefficient combustion occurs.

The elements usually present in common fuels which enter into the process of combustion are mainly C, H, S
and O. Nitrogen, ash and CO2 (if any) present in the fuel are incombustible matters and hence they do not take
any oxygen during combustion. Air contains 21% oxygen by volume and 23% of oxygen by weight. The amount
of air required for complete combustion of fuel can be calculated based on the amount of oxygen required for
complete combustion of the fuel.

The quantity of oxygen needed for the combustion of combustible matters will be based on the combustion
reaction equations. The reaction equation should be balanced to get correct ratios.

○ Combustion of carbon
C + O2 CO2
12 parts 32 parts 44 parts by weight
1 part 1 part 1 part by volume

12 parts by weight of carbon require 32 parts by weight of oxygen for complete combustion of fuel (or) 1 part by
volume of carbon requires 1 part by volume of oxygen for complete combustion.

○ Combustion of hydrogen
2H2 + O2 2H2O
4 parts 32 parts 36 parts by weight
2 parts 1 part 2 parts by volume

4 parts by weight of hydrogen require 32 parts by weight of oxygen for complete combustion (or) 2 parts by
volume of hydrogen require 1 part by volume of oxygen for complete combustion.

○ Combustion of sulphur
S + O2 SO2
32 parts 32 parts 64 parts by weight
1 part 1 part 1 part by volume

32 parts by weight of sulphur requires 32 parts by weight of oxygen for complete combustion (or) 1 part by
volume of sulphur requires 1 part by volume of oxygen for complete combustion.

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○ Combustion of methane
CH4 (g) + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
16 parts 64 parts 44 parts 36 parts by weight
1 part 2 parts 1 part 2 parts by volume

16 parts by weight of methane require 64 parts by weight of oxygen for complete combustion or 1 part by
volume of methane requires 2 part by volume of oxygen for complete combustion.

○ Combustion of carbon monoxide

CO(g) + 1/2O2 CO2
28 parts 16 parts 44 parts by weight
1 part 0.5 part 1 part by volume

28 parts by weight of carbon monoxide require 16 parts by weight of oxygen for complete combustion or 1 part
by volume of carbon monoxide requires 0.5 part by volume of oxygen for complete combustion.

○ Combustion of ethene
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
28 parts 96 parts 88 parts 36 parts by weight
1 part 3 parts 2 parts 2 parts by volume

28 parts by weight of ethane require 96 parts by weight of oxygen for complete combustion or 1 part by volume
of ethene requires 3 parts by volume of oxygen for complete combustion.

Example 1. Calculate the volume of air required for complete combustion of 1 liter of CO. Volume % of O2 in air
is 21.

Given: 1 liter of CO
Volume of O2 in air = 21%
Required: Volume of air required for complete combustion

Solution: CO(g) + 1/2O2 CO2

1 part 0.5 part 1 part by volume

a. Calculate volume of O2 required

V of O2 = V of CO * volume ratio
V of O2 = 1 L CO * (0.5 part O2/ 1part CO)
= 0.5 L of O2

b. Calculate volume of air required

V of air = 0.5 L O2 * 100/21
= 2.38 L of air

Example 2. A fuel contains C = 60 %, H2 = 9 %, O2 = 8 %, S = 13 %, and ash. Calculate the minimum quantity of

air required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel.

Given: 1 kg fuel contains C=60% H2= 9% O2= 8% S=13%, ash

C = 0.60 kg H2= 0.09 kg O2 = 0.08 kg S = 0.13 kg
Weight percent of O2 in air =23%
Required: Weight of air for complete combustion of fuel

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Solution:
a. Calculate the weight of O2 required for combustion of carbon
C + O2 CO2
12 parts 32 parts 44 parts by weight

Weight of O2 = weight of carbon * weight ratio

= 0.60 kg * (32/12)
= 1.6 kg of O2

b. Calculate the weight of O2 required for combustion of hydrogen

2H2 + O2 2H2O
4 part 32 parts 36 parts by weight

Weight of O2 = weight of H2 * weight ratio

= 0.09 kg * (32/4)
= 0.72 kg of O2

c. Calculate weight of O2 required for combustion of sulfur

S + O2 SO2
32 parts 32 parts 64 parts by weight

Weight of O2 = weight of Sulphur * weight ratio

= 0.13 kg * (32/32)
= 0.13 kg of O2

d. Total weight of air required for complete combustion

Total weight of O2 required = 1.6 kg + 0.72 kg + 0.13 kg
= 2.45 kg of O2

Net weight of O2 required = Total weight of O2 required – O2 in fuel

= 2.45 kg – 0.08 kg
= 2.37 kg of O2

Total weight of air required = 2.37 kg * 100/23

= 10.30 kg of air

Clicker Exercise 1
1. What is the volume of air required for the complete combustion of 1 m 3 of mixture containing 75 % of CH4 and
25 % of C2H6?

2. Calculate the minimum amount of air required for the complete combustion of 50 kgs of coal containing C =
75 %, H2 = 10 %, O2 = 2 %, S = 5 %, and the rest nitrogen by weight.

3.6 Calorific Value of Fuels

Calorific value is the most important characteristic property of any fuel. Calorific value as defined is the amount
of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit mass of a fuel. The quantity of heat can be measured by
the following units: calorie, kilocalorie, British thermal units, and centigrade heat units.

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Higher Calorific Value or Gross Calorific Value
The high calorific value (HCV) or gross calorific value (GCV) is the total heat generated when a unit quantity of
fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature. For example, when
a fuel containing hydrogen is burnt, it undergoes combustion and will be converted to steam. If the combustion
product is cooled to room temperature, the steam gets condensed into water and the latent heat is evolved.
Therefore, the latent heat of condensation of ‘steam’ so liberated is included in the calculation of calorific value.
The gross calorific value is calculated using the Dulong’s formula shown below:

GCV (or) HCV = (1/100) * [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S] kcal/kg

where: C, H, O & S represent the percentage (%) of the corresponding elements in the fuel. It is based on the
assumption that the calorific values of C, H & S are found to be 8080, 34500 and 2240 kcal, respectively, when 1
kg of the fuel is burnt completely. However, all the oxygen in the fuel is assumed to be present in combination
with hydrogen in the ratio H:O as 1:8 by weight. So the surplus hydrogen available for combustion is H – O/8.

Net Calorific Value or Lower Calorific Value (NCV or LCV)

The net heat produced (NCV) when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion
are allowed to escape is calculated as:

NCV = GCV – Latent heat of condensation of steam produced

NCV = GCV – 0.09 H * 587 kcal/kg

The latent heat of steam is 587 kcal/kg or 587 cal/g

The H is the percentage of H2 in the fuel

Example 3. Calculate the gross and net calorific values of a coal having the following compositions: C= 80 %, H2
=8 %, O2 = 8 %, S= 2 % and ash=2. Latent heat of steam is = 587 kcal/kg.

Given: C= 80% O2 = 8% Ash = 2%

H2= 8% S= 2%
Latent heat of steam= 587 kcal/kg
Required: a. GCV
b. NCV

Solution:
a. Calculation of GCV
GCV = (1/100) * [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S] kcal/kg
GCV = (1/100) * [8080*80 + 34500 * (8 – 8/8) + 2240 * 2] kcal/kg
GCV = (1/100) * [646400 + 241500 + 4480] kcal/kg
GCV = 8923.8 kcal/kg

b. Calculation of NCV
NCV = GCV – 0.09 H * 587 kcal/kg
NCV = 8923.8 – 0.09 * 8 * 587 kcal/kg
NCV = 8923.8 – 422.64 kcal/kg
NCV = 8501.16 kcal/kg

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Example 4. Calculate the gross and net calorific values of a solid fuel having 80% of carbon and 20% of
hydrogen. Latent heat of steam is = 587 kcal/kg.

Given: C = 80% S=0 Latent heat of steam = 587 kcal/kg

H2 = 20% O2 = 0
Required: a. GCV
b. NCV

Solution:
a. Calculation of GCV
GCV = (1/100) * [8080 C + 34500 (H – O/8) + 2240 S] kcal/kg
GCV = (1/100) * [ 8080*80 + 34500 (20 – 0/0) + 2240* 0] kcal/kg
GCV = (1/100) * [646400 + 690000] kcal/kg
GCV = 13364 kcal/kg

b. Calculation of NCV
NCV = GCV – 0.09 H * 587 kcal/kg
NCV = 13364 – 0.09* 20 * 587 kcal/kg
NCV = 13364 – 1056.6 kcal/kg
NCV = 12307.4 kcal/kg

Clicker Exercise 2
1. On analysis, a coal sample has the following composition by weight; C = 75 %, O 2 = 4 %, S = 5 %, and ash = 3%.
Net calorific value of the fuel is 9797.71 kcal / kg. Calculate the percentage of hydrogen and gross calorific value
of coal.

2. A coal sample on analysis gives C = 75%, H2 = 6 %, O2 = 3.5 % S = 03 % and the rest ash. Calculate the Gross
and Net calorific values of the fuel. Latent heat of steam is = 587 kcal/kg.

References
1. Moore, JW, Stanitski, CL & Jurs, PC. (2005). Chemistry: The Molecular Science. 2nd edition, Brooks/Cole,
Thomson learning, Canada.

2. Syed Shabundeen, P.S. Fuels and Combustion. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/265602602

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