RESEARCH ARTICLE

Framing a satellite based asset tracking (SPARTACUS)

within smart city technology
Fabio Casciati1, Sara Casciati2, Clemente Fuggini3, Lucia Faravelli1, Ivan Tesfai3 and Michele
Vece1*
1
DICAr, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 3, Pavia 27100, Italy
2
DICAr, School of Architecture, University of Catania at Siracusa, P.za Federico di Svevia, Siracusa 96100, Italy
3
D’Appolonia S.p.A., Piazza Duca D’Aosta 14, Milano 20124, Italy

Abstract: “Smart city” is a term currently used to denote cities moved by the opportunity to enhance the quality of life
and the security of their citizens. Attention is here focused on the concept that the development of smart cities can also
be achieved by improving the efficiency of civil infrastructures through a real-time monitoring. This is the specific tar-
get of the European Union FP7 project (SPARTACUS), moved from the parallel chance to develop industry pull appli-
cations for the European EGNOS and GALILEO satellite systems. In this paper, laboratory tests are carried out to pro-
vide specific devices the ability to run while satisfying the requirements of the incoming GALILEO system. Moreover,
some of the targets are achieved within the current GPS system. An extensive experimental campaign is offered to vali-
date the units in such a scenario.
Keywords: smart cities, asset tracking, security, positioning, data transmission, GNSS

*Correspondence to: Michele Vece, DICAr, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 3, Pavia 27100, Italy; Email: [email protected]

Received: October 30, 2016; Accepted: November 17, 2016; Published Online: December 30, 2016
Citation: Casciati F, Casciati S, Fuggini C, et al., 2016, Framing a satellite based asset tracking (SPARTACUS) within smart city
technology. Journal of Smart Cities, vol.2(2): 40–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.18063/JSC.2016.02.003.

1. Introduction this paper is focused on the concept that the smart city
development provides opportunities to enhance the

“S
mart city” is a term recently introduced to quality of civil infrastructures as well. Indeed, smart
denote a city that uses Information and cities lead to a significant evolution of roads, bridges,
Communication Technologies (ICTs) in tunnels, and rail through a real-time monitoring for
order to enhance the quality of life of the citizens and maximizing the services security of the residents
to contribute to its sustainable development. Smart while optimizing the use of resources.
city initiatives attracted the attention of many resea- Within this framework, special care is paid to the
rchers and politicians on issues such as mobility, secu- European Union FP7 project named SPARTACUS
rity, environment, or any combination of them, since (Satellite Based Asset Tracking for Supporting Emer-
they are driven by the goal of serving citizens in a gency Management in Crisis Operations), currently in
better way[1]. Moreover, smart cities facilitate the gov- progress[4]. It is moved from the parallel opportunity
ernment to monitor, understand, analyze, and plan the to develop industry pull applications and solutions for
city in order to improve the equity, efficiency, and the European EGNOS and GALILEO satellite sys-
quality of life[2,3]. tems. Within the project, satellite-based positioning
The attention of the research activity summarized in units, also mounting Inertial Navigation Systems (INS),

Framing a satellite based asset tracking (SPARTACUS) within smart city technology. © 2016 Fabio Casciati, et al. This is an Open Access article
distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
40
 Fabio Casciati, Sara Casciati, Clemente Fuggini, et al.

are tested in order to track critical transport assets, A real case is used to highlight current operational
relief goods distribution, and first responders in disas- challenges and technology gaps occurring in a disaster
ter management operations[5]. The idea is not new, but situation. It is used to emphasize how the SPA-
its extensive use in full-scale tests makes the dissemi- RTACUS architecture has to operate.
nation of interest. Trains in Italy frequently use the rail system in the
One of the main challenges is related to the security Piedmont region, where several areas are exposed to
issues. Indeed, smart cities require access to cost ef- erosion. During the winter period, the situation is ag-
fective, high performance security services, and so- gravated by severe weather. In late February 2016, it
phisticated control systems, which ensure the higher was reported that there was an alert status due to oc-
network reliability. Therefore, it is important to instil casional storms, abundant rains, and flooding until, on
awareness that digital infrastructures may be subjected February 28, a passenger train from Biella to Novara
to information thefts and thus results in an increase in derailed after a landslide from the rock overlying the
cyber-crimes. Potential can be undermined in case of retaining wall that caused its collapse (Figure 1). For-
unauthorized electronic access, and technological is- tunately, the thirteen travelers on board were un-
sues can arise from hardware/software incompatibility harmed, but the effects were dramatic because the rail
because everything in smart cities has to be automated links were blocked over a large period of time due to
and any fragmentation may lead to serious failures and the complexity of the rescue and restoration operations.
accidents.
This paper starts from the current state of the art in
order to understand the need of the proposed system.
After an overview of the adopted system architecture,
the integration of some devices is discussed. A broad
experimental campaign of field tests follows to vali-
date the units in the presented scenario. Simulations of
test results are also carried out in order to provide an
already running system exploiting features of the in-
coming GALILEO.

2. Governing Relations
Before detailing the innovative aspects of the solution Figure 1. Disaster scenario of the railway system in Piedmont
proposed within the abovementioned FP7 project region.
(SPARTACUS), it is convenient to show the current
drawbacks faced daily by rescue teams, which need to The case illustrated above shows that, every time
be informed in time when a catastrophic event occurs. and anywhere, such events can happen and vehicles
have to be equipped with a satellite-based tracking
2.1 Transportation and Security unit in order to know exactly where the train is located
Throughout the world, the transport of goods is great- at the moment of a disaster. This bit of information is
ly increased in terms of volume and variety over the also a must to stop other trains traveling to the affect-
last decades. This growth is the main cause of some ed area. Indeed, the effects for the mentioned case
substantial costs such as cumulative congestion levels become catastrophic if another train hits the one that is
and associated environmental pollution, but especially obliged to stop. A real-time positioning is also re-
in term of accidents risk and time wastage during quired for transport of critical goods. Moreover, since
traveling[6]. Traditional approaches failed to solve is- surveillance of data (temperature, humidity, etc.) with-
sues like these. in each wagon is also necessary during the travel, data
New ways are currently under investigation with on local conditions should also be collected.
the aims to develop an effective system able to in-
2.2 Global Navigation Satellite Systems: A Brief
crease network efficiency, without compromising safty,
Overview
and to provide accurate and reliable data for mainte-
nance and planning purposes in case of emergency. Consolidated and available technologies for a precise

Journal of Smart Cities (2016)–Volume 2, Issue 2 41

Framing a satellite based asset tracking (SPARTACUS) within smart city technology

location are based on Global Navigation Satellite resents the target of the work. Both receivers observe
Systems (GNSS). The navigation systems provided by the same constellation of satellites at the same time,
engineering advances in satellite technologies were and since the base position is known, corrections may
initially the NAVSTAR GPS (Navigation System with be generated in order to improve the solution at the
Time and Ranging - Global Positioning System) de- Rover, as shown in Figure 2.
veloped and maintained by the U.S. Department of
Defense and Transportation, and the Russian Global
Navigation Satellite System GLONASS (Globaluaya
Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema)[7]. Although
both are national military systems, they were available
for use by the international private and commercial
communities[8,9].
Recently a Chinese system (BeiDou) was complet-
ed as well as two of them designed and implemented
by India, the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite
System (IRNSS) and Japan, the Quasi Zenith Satellite
System (QZSS), respectively[10,11].
In Europe, concern was voiced about dependence
on a foreign military system and thus plans for a ci-
vilian global navigation satellite system were put in
place.
GPS employs two fundamental observables for po-
sitioning and navigation, the pseudo-ranges and the
carrier-phase. The first one is a measure of the dis-
tance between the satellite at the time of transmission Figure 2. Differential GNSS with RTK Positioning.
and the receiver when receives the signal. When used
in instantaneous stand-alone mode, one obtains an The GPS signal is affected by a number of error
accuracy of 10–20 m after the removal of selective sources including orbital and atmospheric propagation
availability. The second one can be used to determine errors[15]. An improvement in the GPS performance
ranges with millimetric accuracy, provided the integer can take the form of enhancements in the geometry of
ambiguity problem is solved[12-14]. data sources (satellites), measurement quality, or both.
The system was divided in an overlay for the exist- It is wellknownthat GPS is also unable to measure low
ing systems (GNSS-1), and a completely autonomous velocity, therefore, radar odometer or wheel sensors
one with a separate space segment (GNSS-2). Further, can be adopted in order to measure speed and improve
the drop of equipment prices over the past ten years the position accuracy in transport applications, as fully
led to an enormous growth in the number of GPS us- described in Section Four.
ers and new applications emerged such as car naviga-
3. The European Challenge
tion systems, fleet management, aircraft approach,
bridge deformation monitoring, and the navigation of The strategy for the European involvement in the next
agricultural field machinery. These multiple applica- generation of Global Navigation Satellite Systems
tions increased the necessity to improve accuracy, (GNSS-2) consists of an independent navigation
availability, and integrity in the systems. space-segment and respective ground infrastructure
Currently, Differential GNSS (DGNSS) represents under the designation of GALILEO[16–18]. The aim of
a solution for these user requirements, where correc- this decision is to overcome the unacceptable de-
tional data are emitted from a reference system placed pendency on third-party states, which is directly
in a known position and sent to a receiver. In differen- linked to the sovereignty issues emerging if Europe
tial positioning, a minimum of two receivers, named uses foreign-controlled navigation systems for critical
Base Station and Rover, are involved. The Base Sta- security applications. Moreover, the possible introduc-
tion occupies a known position during the session, and tion of user-fees for GPS infrastructure and services
the determination of the Rover related to the base rep- has to be considered as well as the drawback of having

42 Journal of Smart Cities (2016)–Volume 2, Issue 2

 Fabio Casciati, Sara Casciati, Clemente Fuggini, et al.

no access to the technical development of the system, used to upgrade the system in the acquisition and
in order to ensure the participation of European indus- transmission of the message from the data collector to
try in the fast-growing market of satellite navigation. a control center. After that, the path is compared with
The first two satellites, which are part of the opera- the GPS reference track within Google Earth through
tional system, were launched in October 2011 and are the NMEA standard format[21], as shown in Figure 3.
denoted as ProtoFlight Model (PFM) and Flight Mod-
el 2 (FM2), reported as E11 and E12 in RINEX ob-
servation files. The second pair of IOV satellites (FM3
and FM4) was launched on October 2012, and started
signal transmission in December of the same year. All
IOV satellites are equipped with two Passive Hydro-
gen Masers (PHMs) and two Rubidium Atomic Fre-
quency Standards (RAFSs) which are used as quality
indicator for the orbits.
As of December 2015, GALILEO counts 12 satel-
lites in orbit, but the implementation of the complete
30-satellite constellation (24 operational and 6 active Figure 3. Scenario of a real time trajectory simulation for la-
spares) continues to be postponed so that the Full Op- boratory test.
erational Capability (FOC) is currently planned for
The experimental results proposed in this section
year 2020.
aim to estimate the value of the upgrade option of the
3.1 Simulations of Realistic Scenarios software expected for the collection of positioning
data with the upcoming European Satellite System
The delay of the European release, which is expected (GALILEO) in the urban canyon of Pavia, Italy. For
to have an open architecture, completely independent this reason, two different trajectories respectively with
of the current navigation systems, forced the consor- 4 and 8 satellites are carried out, both starting from the
tium involved in the research activity reported in this Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture
paper to use the GPS signals for testing the imple- (DICAr), up to the Campus Aquae, placed nearby (Via
mented prototype. Nevertheless, laboratory tests with Cascinazza 15) and the Railway Station (located in
the help of a multi-GNSS simulator provided by Sp- Via Brichetti 40), respectively. The latitude and longi-
ectracom Corp. (GSG-62) were also carried out at the tude can be extracted by NMEA strings and imported
University of Pavia in order to design, develop, and in Google Earth to provide a visual comparison of the
validate GALILEO-ready solutions, i.e., solutions performed track (Figure 4A). Azimuth and elevation
with functionalities able to exploit the features of the are also handled in Matlab® software environment in
innovative satellite system[19]. order to offer a GALILEO satellites view (Figure 4B).
The opportunity to use systems that simulate satel- The described approach was essential first for the
lite constellations arises from the need for all the pro- hardware integration required by the design of the
viders of GNSS receivers to test their devices and en- proposed tracking system. Moreover, it made the
suring or improving their capabilities in term of accu- software updating possible in two aspects: (i) the local
racy and reliability. A GSG-62 multi-channel simula- storage of the needed positioning information, and (ii)
tor generates the same RF signals that are broadcast its sending to the operative center using a low-power
by either GALILEO or GPS navigation satellites. Ind- wireless communication. Once the GALILEO signal
eed, it offers multiple simulation of constellation with simulator has been set for the transfer of NMEA sen-
a base of 32 channels, expandable up to 64, and allows tences, to configure the acquisition code for the on-
the building of real time trajectories within the Stud- coming European Satellite Navigation System was
ioView™ software environment. In this way, the GPS eventually done.
signals are used to check the position accuracy of the
4. The SPARTACUS Solution
receiver chosen by the consortium for the SPAR-
TACUS project (Ellipse-N)[20]. Simultaneously, the GALILEO intends to provide a more robust position-
trajectory provided by the GALILEO satellites may be ing capability enhancing the adoption of satellite

Journal of Smart Cities (2016)–Volume 2, Issue 2 43

Framing a satellite based asset tracking (SPARTACUS) within smart city technology

(A) (B)

Figure 4. Trajectories comparison in Google Earth (A) and GALILEO satellites view (B).

technologies for solutions that requires signal continu- cabling method suffers problems due to inflexible in-
ity and integrity. The impact is on various application stallation and negative impact on the transportation
areas, including emergency and disaster management, vehicle.
rescue tasks and location-based services supporting As shown in Figure 5, the local wireless network
responders in critical operations. The ongoing SPAR- for transport application consists of several GNSS
TACUS project started to develop new EU-specific sensors integrated with a ZigBee Node through RS232
services for the following three application areas: (i) serial port (tracking units), and each of them com-
critical transport assets in case of major failure of ex- municates with the collecting unit integrated with a
isting networks, (ii) flow of relief support goods from ZigBee Base Station. The GNSS sensors acquire the
the sending side to the receiving place, and (iii) first wagons/container position from the GNSS satellites
responders ensuring their safety in crisis management signal with a frequency of 1 Hz and send the position
operations. data to a centralized unit, which is located on board
These application areas are in line with the overall the locomotive through the multi-hop ZigBee mesh
scope of the project, that is to design, realize, test and network. Finally, the collecting unit is linked to a re-
validate GALILEO-ready tracking/positioning solu- mote centre through a satellite backhauling device
tions in simulated and real world for critical asset (communication unit), avoiding the existing terrestrial
tracking and crisis management. The output is the communication infrastructure.
definition of system architectures and components
with features targeted to satisfy the needs of the users
involved.
The solutions designed are based on providing pre-
cise localization of goods in harsh environment during
absence of signal (canyons, tunnels etc.), guaranteeing
effective local storage with a communication point
from multiple tracking units to a remote site, and en-
suring communication network over the failure of the Figure 5. Case under study: transport application.
existing terrestrial infrastructures in disaster situa-
tions.
4.1 Features of a Single Board Tracking Unit
The research activity carried out in this paper is fo-
cused on the positioning of all components concerning Reliability, accuracy, low cost and low power are the
the freight transport, such as containers, wagons and main qualities required by a positioning system for the
locomotives (Figure 3). Particular attention is paid to infrastructure monitoring of a smart city. The selected
the data transmission from each GNSS based tracking devices for the development of a single board tracking
units to the collecting centre, since the conventional unit consist of an inertial sensor with internal GNSS

44 Journal of Smart Cities (2016)–Volume 2, Issue 2

 Fabio Casciati, Sara Casciati, Clemente Fuggini, et al.

receiver, a credit-card sized computer, and a GBAN and supports standard protocols such as the NMEA-
ZigBee Wireless Data Transmission Device. The spe- 0183 for direct integration into existing applica-
cific functions for each component of the tracking unit tions[22].
are listed in Table 1. Once the positioning data are correctly stored inside
the memory of the data collector, the information is
Table 1. Technical specifications and functions of the tracking sent by ZigBee devices to a collecting unit placed on
unit
board the locomotive in order to be transmitted via
Hardware Function satellite to a remote centre for monitoring in real-time
Ellipse-N Exploit INS capabilities without navigation goods and vehicles. Among those available ZigBee
satellites signal
technology offers a great trade-off in terms of power,
GNSS antenna Acquire GNSS positioning data with quality
field (accuracy/precision) range, data rate, and security. The ZigBee organizes
Raspberry Pi 2 Collect positioning information to allows local multi-hop network and imposes that two devices ex-
storage and post-processing change data depending on other intermediate for-
PiFace Shim RTC Provide a continuous timing through an external warding devices. Further, the nature of this system
local clock
requires that each device perform a specific network-
External sensors Supply information on temperature, humidity, ing function that determines its role within the net-
and limit switch
GBAN ZigBee Send information to the collecting unit using
work. The developed network consists of a Coordina-
Wireless Transmission Devices tor, Router and End device nodes, but the device type
does not restrict the type of application that may run
Therefore, in order to achieve data post-processing, on the particular device because it is usually deter-
the system has to be equipped with a data collector mined at compile-time[23].
(Raspberry Pi) able to manage a local storage of the 4.2 System Performance in Harsh Environment
information to be transmitted to the remote control.
Figure 6 shows all the hardware components for the The SPARTACUS tracking system is designed to
final prototype used for the testing activity. The work anywhere in the same way, regardless of GNSS
Raspberry Pi 2 is based on the Broadcom BCM2835 signal availability. Currently, Europe’s Transport posi-
system on a chip (SoC). It is supplied with 512MB of tioning applications are based on Radio-Frequency
RAM, four Universal Serial Bus (USB), and Micro Identification (RFID) and European Rail Traffic
Secure Digital (Micro SD) sockets for boot media and Management System (ERTMS). For this kind of ap-
persistent storage. Figure 6 also shows the Ellipse N plications the absence of signal coverage cannot occur
with its GNSS antenna provided by SBG Systems, because the position is determined by a set of precise
which is a miniature sensor with high-performance points located along train paths.
Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS). It also SPARTACUS proposes to determine the position
includes an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), an independently from external infrastructures ensuring
on-board enhanced Extended Kalman Filter (EKF), low cost and dead reckoning capabilities. Indeed, the
adopted sensor integrates an Extended Kalman Filter
(EKF) to estimate the real time position, velocity and
orientation of the train. Figure 7 shows the accelera-
tion response produced by the three-axial Crossbow
CXL01F3[24] and the EKF integrated into the inertial
navigation system.
When aiding data such as GPS positions are availa-
ble, the EKF corrects the current state preventing
drifts, but when the measurement is not received, the
estimation error tends to increase.
In this case, the system only relies on the inertial
sensor in order to continuously track position, velocity
and orientation. Since cost constraints are strict within
the project, MEMS technology represents the most
Figure 6. Hardware components of the positioning system. suitable solution, but sometimes the position drift can
Journal of Smart Cities (2016)–Volume 2, Issue 2 45
Framing a satellite based asset tracking (SPARTACUS) within smart city technology

(A) and for this reason is necessary to validate also the

system capabilities in dead reckoning mode[26].
The tracking unit is placed inside a car to reply
the train motion profile and the entire system is sup-
plied directly from the power supply of the vehicle.
The paths with GNSS satellite signal coverage are
repeated detaching the external GNSS antenna during
the test. In this way, the satellite signal cannot be re-
ceived by the sensor and the condition of a train inside
a tunnel is obtained.
The two parameters used to measure the position
(B)
accuracy of the system are the Average Positioning
Error (μ) and its Standard Deviation (σ), expressed in
Equation 1.
N
xi ( i )
N x −  µ 2
=µ  ∑
= σ ∑ (1)
=i 1 =i 1 N − 1
N
where xi is the i-th positioning error, and N is the total
number of data. The robustness of the entire system
has to be checked in case of disturbances or whatever
changing of boundary conditions for very long period
as well. Table 2 summarizes the results from the field
test sessions carried out at several speeds in harsh en-
Figure 7. Crossbow accelerations (A) and EKF effect on the vironments.
adopted sensor (B).
Table 2. Experimental results obtained for the field test ses-
reach meters after just few seconds of free inertial sions
navigation. For this reason, additional information to Set μ(m) σ(m) vm(m/s)
Positioning error
after 60s (m)
maintain proper accuracy are needed, even during
T01 1.172 0.788 8.30 0.320
long term GNSS drop outs. An odometer (GSS25 pro-
vided by Pegasem Messtechnik GmbH) is adopted[25]. T02 2.924 2.505 9.70 4.019
The GSS25 has to be placed on the wheel of the vehi- T03 4.240 3.564 15.0 2.030
cle and can be used to measure its average velocity T04 8.406 5.675 15.8 2.560
when GNSS are not available. The odometer aiding T05 0.996 0.597 varying 0.219
reduces the position drift. The sensor can be simply T06 6.670 6.212 20.0 13.34
added at the head of the train. Possible performance T07 1.710 0.939 21.2 3.554
differences are explained by avoiding a thermal cali- T08 9.546 4.069 27.8 17.75
bration on wagons and containers in order to save
T09 7.271 5.498 30.5 11.53
production time and cost.
T10 3.264 1.144 varying 5.259
5. Experimental Data Set
The tests from T01 until to T05 are carried out in
The field tests reported in this section cover the area the urban environment, whilst those from T06 to T10
around the urban canyon of Pavia (Italy) in order to are addressed to the extra-urban one. The tracking
ensure anytime/anywhere the positioning accuracy of system behavior is affected by the density of sur-
the adopted system. Because it is designed to transport rounding trees and buildings. The results in Table 2
applications, the navigation system has to satisfy re- are computed only on the time window when the GPS
quirements for the urban environment. The precision antenna is detached. The wished positioning error
of the signal can be mined by the characteristics of the threshold is widely fulfilled in all of them, provided
urban areas, where physical restrictions are imposed the GSS25 sensor is connected to the receiver. Col-
such as buildings, narrow streets, tunnels or bridges, lected data are also imported within Matlab® software

46 Journal of Smart Cities (2016)–Volume 2, Issue 2

 Fabio Casciati, Sara Casciati, Clemente Fuggini, et al.

environment where, after one minute from the de- vide non-terrestrial based crisis management support.
tachment moment, accuracy is investigated by means Improving efficiency and saving costs are the two
the positioning error (Figure 8). main issues. One of the most important services that
The case studies reported in Figure 8 show the can be offered to the citizen of a smart city is the ca-
odometer impact when stops (3 in the tests) are in- pability of an independent network with satellite
cluded along the trajectory without GNSS satellite backhaul, which is always able to connect, even inde-
signal coverage. pendently of availability of local infrastructure,
At last, the data integrity of the data acquisition sof- providing access to large user groups (i.e. rescue
tware was investigated in order to check the perfor- teams as well as victims). The result of a broad ex-
mance of the described system. The correctness of the perimental campaign is here reported to validate the
message acquired by the tracking unit is achieved thr- inertial platform of the system in order to provide
ough the percentage of the uncorrupted NMEA senten- dead zone reckoning. Indeed, GNSS dead zones such
ces, and a detailed analysis demonstrated that they are as valleys, tunnels, and building interiors have to be
totally stored into the memory of the data collector. overcome for critical assets and crises. Moreover, the
involved technology envisages future use of the
6. Conclusions GALILEO signal, exploiting the important benefit of
The first 24 hours of an incident are the most critical the integrity information which is of highest im-
in view of saving human lives. This aspect is crucial portance in the Public Protection and Disaster Relief
in the urban design of a smart city. (PPDR) scenarios. It goes much beyond the possibili-
Past experiences proved that the availability of real ties of current GPS offer.
time information is necessary to promptly inform the Conflict of Interest and Funding
rescue teams and to protect the people suffering the
natural disaster. This research activity details the de- No conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
velopment of a portable and modular system to pro- The research leading to these results has received

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Figure 8. Case studies (A–C) and positioning error (B–D).

Journal of Smart Cities (2016)–Volume 2, Issue 2 47

Framing a satellite based asset tracking (SPARTACUS) within smart city technology

funding from the European Union Seventh Frame- ground water contents, Geomatics, Natural Hazards and
work Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agre- Risk, vol.6(5–7): 439–453.
ement n° [313002]. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2013.873084.
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48 Journal of Smart Cities (2016)–Volume 2, Issue 2