ORNAMENTAL FISH PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Ornamental fish culture also known as aquariculture, is the culture of

attractive, colorful fishes of peaceful nature in confined aquatic
systems. Ornamental fishes are also called as "living jewels".
1.1.2 Benefits of ornamental fish keeping as a hobby

 Ornamental fish hobby gives pleasure to young and old

people.  
 Relaxation to the mind.
 Keep blood pressure at normal level and therefore heart
related diseases could be prevented.
 Increases life span.
 Children could acquire new knowledge and skills, by counting
the number of fishes in an aquarium they get mathematical
knowledge and by observing the behaviour, colour and fin
shape of fishes they get scientific knowledge.
 Children could develop sense of attachment with nature.
 Ornamental fish keeping is easy over other pets as they don’t
make noise and also tank cleaning once in a while is enough
(Dog barks, sheds fur and daily cleaning of shed is a must).
 Ornamental fishes like Arowana is believed to bring good luck,
wealth and prosperity.
 Ornamental fish keeping can make hobbyists to start their own
farms in due course of time thus creates self employment
opportunites.

.1.3 Origin of keeping ornamental fishes as pets

 The hobby of ornamental fish keeping as pets has originated from China
during the year 1163. Gold fishes were the first used for hobby which was

1
 kept in glass bowls. The first aquarium was set up by Englishman S.H.Ward
during the year 1855 in United Kingtom.
 The Frenchman Carbonnier was the first ornamental fish
breeder succeeded in breeding paradise fish Macropodus
opercularis (1869-70). In India, the first aquarium called
Taraporevala aquarium was built in Mumbai in 1951.

1.1.4 Percentage of peoples involved in ornamental fish

keeping hobby – country wise

Percentage of peoples
Country
Holland 20%
England 14%
USA 8%
Germany 5%
Belgium & Italy 4%
Japan 3%
USA – 7.2 million houses, EU – 3.2 million houses, India – 1 million
fish hobbyist.

1.1.5 International market

 The international market for ornamental fishes is valued at about US $ 5.9

billion. The world export of ornamental fish in 2006 was 282.6 million US $
and imports valued at 308.9 million US $. Around 200 million ornamental
fishes are sold every year of which 80% are freshwater and 20% are marine. In
freshwater 90% are captive bred and in marine 99% are wild caught. More
than 120 countries are involved in ornamental fish trade and there are about
1800 species of ornamental fishes available in the market of which 1000 are
freshwater. Guppy is the dominating species followed by Neon tetra.

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1.1.6 Major countries involved in ornamental fish buying

 USA
 Europe
 Japan

1.1.7 Major suppliers of freshwater ornamental fish

 Singapore
 Thailand
 Hongkong
 Japan
 Malaysia

Major suppliers of gold fish and koi carp :

Israel and Japan.

Major suppliers of marine ornamental fishes :

 Indonesia
 Phillippines
 Sri Lanka

1.1.8 Status of ornamental fish farming in india

(domestic / national market)

 India is still in a marginal position just contributing 1% of total

ornamental fish trade. An estimate carried out by Marine
Products Exports Development Authority of India shows that
there are one million ornamental fish hobbyists in India. The
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 internal trade is estimated to be about 3.26 million US $ and
the export trade is about 0.38 million US $ in India. The annual
growth rate of ornamental fish trade is 14%. A rich diversity of
species and favourable climate, cheap labour make India
suitable for ornamental fish culture. Tamilnadu, Kerala and
West Bengal are the major states involved in ornamental fish
farming. Two categories of ornamental fishes are being
marketed from India - exotic and native. The exotic varieties
have been marketed domestically and dominating with 99%.
Already 288 exotic varieties have been recorded in Indian
market. More than 200 species of these freshwater fish are
bred in different part of India. Mostly native ornamental fishes
are exported. North eastern states, West Bengal, Kerala and
Tamilnadu are blessed with highly potential indigenous
ornamental fishes. Around 85% of native fishes are from North
eastern states. 90% of native ornamental species are collected
and reared to meet export demand. Presently about 100 native
fish species have been earmarked as aquarium fish. Kolkata,
Mumbai and Chennai are major exporting centres. About 90%
of India exports go from Kolkata followed by 8% from Mumbai
and 2% from Chennai. Around 4000 peoples involved in this
trade including breeding, live food collection, trading and
exporting. There are 20 registered exporters.

1.2.1 Exotic species

(i) Egg layers

Common Name
Scientific Name
Carassius auratus Goldfish
Cyprinus carpio var koi Koi carp
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Balantiocheilus melanopterus Bala shark / Silver shark
Labeo bicolor Red-Tailed black shark
Rasbora heteromorphy Rasbora, Harlequin Fish
Paracheirodon axelrodi Cardinal Tetra
Paracheirodon innesi Neon Tetra
Colisa lalia Dwarf gourami
Trichogaster trichopterus Three spot gourami
Helostoma temmincki Kissing gourami
Betta splendens Siamese Fighting Fish
Pterophyllum scalare Angel fish
Symphysodon discus Discus / Pompadour fish
Astronotus ocellatus Oscar
Cichlasoma meeki Firemouth cichlid
Scleropages formosus Asian arowana
 
(ii) Live bearers

 Guppy 
Poecilia reticulata  
Poecillia velifera                 Sail fin molly
Poecillia sphenops           Marble molly
Xiphophorus helleri          Sword tail 
Xiphophorus maculatus        Platy
          

1.2.2 Indigenous species

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 Common Name
Scientific Name
Puntius denisonii Deninson, S barb
Puntius conchonius Rosy barb
Colisa chune Honey gourami
Brachydanio rerio Zebra fish
Chandra nama Glass fish
Botia lohachata Reticulated loach
Notopterus notopterus Black knife fish
Lebeo calbasu All black shark
Labeo nandina Pencil gold labeo
Oreichthys cosuatis Hi fin barb

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Fabrication

2.1.1 Introduction
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Ornamental fish tank is otherwise called an aquarium. An aquarium is
a set up in which ornamental fishes of aesthetic value are displayed
for recreation.

2.1.2 Different types of ornamental fish tanks

Aquarium can be made of materials like glass, concrete, wood, fiberglass acrylic
sheet etc., depending on its location, cost and durability.

Glass tank

They are either all glass tanks or metal framed ones. In the metal
(steel or iron) framed tanks glass panels are held in place with putty
(battery compound). On the other hand in all glass tanks, glass walls
are fitted together edge-to-edge using silicone rubber adhesive.
Nowadays, all-glass tanks have completely vanished due to the
popularity of metal-framed tanks, which are known for their slim
appearance and suitability for keeping marine fishes also.

Shape of aquarium tanks

The shape of the aquarium tank may be circular, square,

rectangular, oval, hexagonal or octagonal. However, rectangular
tanks are preferred as they provide sufficient area for free swimming
of the fishes.

2.1.3 Materials required for construction of tank

Silicon gel

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Squeezing gun

Glass panes (5 no’s) with required size

2.1.4 Construction of all glass aquarium tank

These are constructed with only glass sheets. Rectangular all glass
tanks are made with a glass wall thickness of 5 – 10 mm. In all glass
tanks, the cut glass walls are fitted together with synthetic rubbery
sealent called silicone gum. Prior to fabrication of the tank, sidewalls
of the tank are arranged so as to have the desired shape. The glass
walls are tied with a rope in order to keep the correct shape of the
tank. Then the bottom sheet of the tank is kept flat below the
arranged sidewalls so as to get the desired and correct shape of the
tank. A cut thermocol sheet is kept at the bottom to rest the
temporarily tied glass sheets. Now the silicone sealent is evenly
applied all along the inner vertical and horizontal cut ends with the
help of a hand applicator. Care must be taken to see that the joining
ends of the glass pieces are free of oil, moisture or stains. A good
sealent compound binds the glass walls in 10 to 20 minutes.
However, a curing time of about 10 hrs is required to keep the set
tank in position and water should be poured only after 24 hours.

Seating the tank

Soon after curing, the tank is kept on a firm wooden or slotted iron
stand. The base of the stand should be even and smooth, as
irregular placing of the stands would break the tank bottom. A
uniform sized thermocol is also used in between the tank and stand
surface to safeguard the tank from pressure.

2.2.1 Setting up of aquarium

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Setting up of an aquarium is otherwise called aquascaping.
Aquascaping of an aquarium has two purposes.

i) To make the bare tank more attractive for the viewer.

ii) To simulate natural environment by keeping aquatic plants, rocks,

gravels, etc.

Steps involved in fabrication of aquarium

1. Cut the glass according to the size of the aquarium

required.
2. Evening of glass edges.
3. Cleaning of glass sheets.
4. Making of glue line(silica gel lining)
5. Side sheets attached to the base sheet.
6. Attaching back and front sheets.
7. Cementing back wall at base.
8. Use adhering tapes.

Choosing a location

The tank should be set up in an attractive and convenient place,

which should be free from direct sunlight. Aquarium can be set up in
home, hospitals, restaurants, hotels and other public places. The
aquarium should stand on a very firm base in order to avoid jerking
and toppling.

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2.2.2 Steps involved in setting up of aquarium
i) Fitting an under gravel filter

The purpose of the filter is to remove dirty materials from the

aquarium. Under gravel filters are otherwise called as biological
filters. Toxic substances like ammonia and nitrite are converted to
relatively harmless substances like nitrate by the beneficial bacteria
developed on the gravel added in the biological filter.

ii) Adding the gravels

Gravels with a particle size of 3-5 mm are used to allow good water
circulation and to enable the plants to root.

iii) Installing the air pump

Air pump is installed to operate biological filter for airlifting and

aeration.

iv) Adding rocks

Suitable rocks are firmly laid down on the gravel. The rocks are
grouped for creating natural look. Several rock pieces can be stuck
together with silicon gel to make a cave like structure, which is
essential for maintaining cichlid fishes.

v) Filling the tank

Tank can be filled with water through hose pipe directed over a rock
in order to avoid displacement of gravels.

vi) Keeping plants

Tall plants are kept at the back and sides. The corners are filled with
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short species. The roots are buried in the gravel.

vii) Putting the cover glass into position

Cover glass or plastic sheet are used to cover the top. This type has
cutouts for cables and for feeding access.

viii) Fitting the electrical wiring

Electrical wiring with respect to light and filters are properly

connected.

ix) Setting up the hood and lighting

This is the last stage before introducing the fishes. Fluorescent tubes
are used which is fitted inside the hood. The hood may be made of
metal, wood or fiberglass sheets.

x) Adding the fishes

Companionable and compatible fishes are introduced in order to

avoid fighting between the fishes. The recommended stocking
density of fishes in ornamental fish tank is given below. Surface area
of the tanks is taken into consideration for calculating stocking
density.

Tropical freshwater species

For 1 cm length of fish, 30cm2 surface area is required.

Freshwater (Cold water) species

For 1 cm length of fish, 75cm2 area is required.

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2.2.3 Introduction care

The newly purchased fishes should not be released into the

aquarium tank immediately. The transported polythene bags
containing live fishes should be first placed in the tank water so that
the water temperature in the bag as well as in the tank water
becomes equal. Then the small quantity of tank water may be mixed
with that of the polythene bag and this may be kept for about 15
minutes so that the fish would acclimatize to the new water
environment. Subsequently the fishes are transferred into the new
tank by using hand nets. Immediate feeding of fishes after stocking in
the tank should be avoided.

2.2.1 Setting up of aquarium

Setting up of an aquarium is otherwise called aquascaping.

Aquascaping of an aquarium has two purposes.

i) To make the bare tank more attractive for the viewer.

ii) To simualte natural environment by keeping aquatic plants, rocks,

gravels, etc.

Choosing a location

The tank should be set up in an attractive and convenient place,

which should be free from direct sunlight. Aquarium can be set up in
home, hospitals, restaurants, hotels and other public places. The
aquarium should stand on a very firm base in order to avoid jerking
and toppling.

12
2.2.2 Steps involved in setting up of aquarium

i) Fitting an under gravel filter

The purpose of the filter is to remove dirty materials from the

aquarium. Under gravel filters are otherwise called as biological
filters. Toxic substances like ammonia and nitrite are converted to
relatively harmless substances like nitrate by the beneficial bacteria
developed on the gravel added in the biological filter.

ii) Adding the gravels

Gravels with a particle size of 3-5 mm are used to allow good water
circulation and to enable the plants to root.

iii) Installing the air pump

Air pump is installed to operate biological filter for airlifting and

aeration.

iv) Adding rocks

Suitable rocks are firmly laid down on the gravel. The rocks are
grouped for creating natural look. Several rock pieces can be stuck
together with silicon gel to make a cave like structure, which is
essential for maintaining cichlid fishes.

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v) Filling the tank

Tank can be filled with water through hose pipe directed over a rock
in order to avoid displacement of gravels.

vi) Keeping plants

Tall plants are kept at the back and sides. The corners are filled with
short species. The roots are buried in the gravel.

vii) Putting the cover glass into position

Cover glass or plastic sheet are used to cover the top. This type has
cutouts for cables and for feeding access.

viii) Fitting the electrical wiring

Electrical wiring with respect to light and filters are properly

connected.

ix) Setting up the hood and lighting

This is the last stage before introducing the fishes. Fluorescent tubes
are used which is fitted inside the hood. The hood may be made of
metal, wood or fiberglass sheets.

x) Adding the fishes

Companionable and compatible fishes are introduced in order to

avoid fighting between the fishes. The recommended stocking
density of fishes in ornamental fish tank is given below. Surface area
of the tanks is taken into consideration for calculating stocking
density.
14
Tropical freshwater species

For 1 cm length of fish, 30cm2 surface area is required.

Freshwater (Cold water) species

For 1 cm length of fish, 75cm2 area is required.

2.2.3 Introduction care

The newly purchased fishes should not be released into the

aquarium tank immediately. The transported polythene bags
containing live fishes should be first placed in the tank water so that
the water temperature in the bag as well as in the tank water
becomes equal. Then the small quantity of tank water may be mixed
with that of the polythene bag and this may be kept for about 15
minutes so that the fish would acclimatize to the new water
environment. Subsequently the fishes are transferred into the new
tank by using hand nets. Immediate feeding of fishes after stocking in
the tank should be avoided.

Aquarium accessories
3.1.1 Introduction

A person maintaining ornamental fishes in his house/work place may

need only limited equipments and accessories. On the other hand an
entrepreneur may need a lot of equipments and accessories to
satisfy his customer’s needs.

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3.1.2 Equipments and accessories needed for small scale
ornamental fish farm
Glass / Fibre Glass Tank

 A small tank made of sheetglass/floatglass or transparent fiberglass

may be kept in a strong stand made of wood, steel etc. To prevent
accumulation of dust particles a hood may be provided. Such hoods
will serve as ‘lid’ for the tank.

Accessories for fish tanks:

To beautify aquarium tank, various accessories are used depending

on one’s taste and affordability. They are as follows :

Hood

Hood or tank cover is made of glass, wood or tin plate.

Stand:

To keep aquarium tank in position a stand made of wood or metal is

required. It must be capable of carrying the weight of tank

Light Source: Aquarium lights to be fixed inside the hood give bright
illumination to the inner environment and help to maintain healthy
plants and fishes. Direct and excessive sunlight increases water
temperature and development of algal bloom. Lamps may be
fluorescent tubes, mercury vapour lamps or metal halide lamps.
Lighting for 10 to 15 hours a day is considered sufficient for an
aquarium of 5 l capacity a lamp with 10 watt is enough.

Heaters:

Heaters are required in cool places where the temperature is less

16
especially during night hours. Heating is most commonly done by
using immersion heaters with adjustable thermostat.

Air Pumps and Accessories

In order to keep good water quality in the ornamental tanks and for
maintaining the fish in a healthy manner, oxygenation of water is
very important. For this purpose, air pumps costing Rs.200 to 500
per piece are available in the market. Air tubes and controlling
devices are also needed to regulate the airflow to the system. Air
stones are useful for production of small air bubbles and for efficient
oxygenation.

Filter

Biofilters and mechanical filters are frequently used to maintain

ornamental fish in an aquarium. Some of the filters used in
ornamental fish farming include under gravel filter, box filter, poly U
filter, power filter, etc. Biofilter can be set up by ornamental fish
culturist himself by knowing the principle and by using the easily
available raw materials. For institutional establishment and for
aquarium maintenance, biofilters coupled with a sump and overhead
tank will be of much use. In such flow through systems, a small
electric pump (of lesser capacity) will be needed to lift water from
sump to overhead tank/filtering units.

Hand Nets

To handle ornamental fishes without subjecting them to

injury/diseases, hand nets are very important. Hand nets made of
mosquito nets or velon screen or bolting silk are in common use. The
brood stock of ornamental fish should normally be handled by hand
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nets made of velon screen (no.30-40).

3.2.1 Aeration Devices

If ornamental fishes are mass reared in pond systems, good aeration

facilities are very much essential. Various aeration devices are used
in aquaculture to oxygenate the water in the culture system. They
can be mainly classified as surface aerators, diffuser aerators and
turbine aerators. Besides, the water inlet system can also be set up
in such a way to facilitate gravity aeration (splash board, race way,
transversely corrugated inclined plane etc). Among the various
aerators, paddle wheel aerators (a surface aerator type) are readily
available in the market at reasonable price (1 HP aerator costs
Rs.15,000 to 20,000). Aspirator type aerators are also available in
different brand names in global market. For oxygenation of pond
bottom, aspirator aerators (air injectors) are efficient. If the depth of
the culture system is more than 2m, one can choose aspirator type
aerator.

3.2.2 Pumps and pipe lines

For mass rearing of ornamental fishes, the culture system should be free from any
weed fish and predator fish. For keeping the weed fish and predator fish at bay, it is
advisable to avoid using water from natural water bodies such as rivers, irrigation
tanks, reservoirs, etc. Underground water with good quality especially from rich
aquifers is always preferable. In the above background, quality pumps are highly
essential. In order to maintain good water quality, water exchange may be needed
under high density stocking. In such cases, to carryout periodic flushing and
emergency irrigation, pumps assume priority.
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3.2.3 Other equipment and accessories

To bring brood stock of fish from far off places to the farm, fish
transportation tins are needed. In addition to brood stock,
transportation of ornamental fish seeds also needs certain common
accessories. Polythene bags are needed for fish transport. An
oxygen cylinder with a pressure gauge is highly essential for
oxygenating the water kept in the transportation tin and polythene
bags. To make the eggs hatch out, hapas made of gada cloth/bolting
silk/velon screen are also essential.

3.2.4 Food / feed production units

For the production of live food organisms, cement tanks and FRP
tanks of assorted size will be beneficial. To prepare fish feed pellets,
mixers, grinders, steaming devices, pelletizers, driers, etc., are
needed in commercial ornamental fish farms. To produce pure algal
culture (single cell food needed for baby ornamental fish), algal
culture units with air conditioned facilities, illumination system,
containers, autoclave etc, may be needed in large scale intensive
aquarifarm.

Aeration and filtration 

4.1.1 Introduction
Aquarium fish like other fish breathe in water by means of gills, using
oxygen dissolved in water. A certain minimum level of dissolved

19
oxygen in water (normoxic condition) is essential for their survival.
For a number of reasons, the water may have oxygen level critically
depleted, endangering fish. The confined water of the aquarium is
more prone to risk of depletion in level of dissolved oxygen (hypoxic
condition). To offset the risk, it is necessary to provide additional
means of aeration of water because oxygen of atmospheric air
diffuses only slowly into water at the interface between it and air (the
surface of water). Aeration achieves fast oxygen optimization in the
following manner:

(a) a stream of air-bubbles, when forced through a column of water,

provides enhanced interface area between air and water; smaller the
bubbles better is aeration.

(b) water when sprayed like a fountain head (broken into tiny parts or
drops) has increased surface area at the interface with air, achieving
efficient aeration.

(c) a turbulence produced in water due to rising air bubbles as they

break at the surface greatly increases the surface area of water at
the interface with air.

(d) a movement of water (air driven or pump driven) speeds up

circulation of dissolved oxygen (which in still water is a very slow
process) as it spreads from surface down to bottom by diffusion.

Aeration is accomplished by any one of the following ways, singly or

in combination:

(i) Air is bubbled through the column of water using an aerator (air
pump) and an air stone (diffuser). This combines the three processes

20
stated above.

(ii) Pumping water out of the aquarium tank (as during filtration) and
returning it directly into the tank water or spraying it over its surface
using spray-bar. In this case processes b and d are involved.

In a small aquarium (home aquarium), agitation of water produced by

air-bubbling is more important for oxygenation than air-bubbling
itself. The fact is that a bubble takes only a few seconds to rise to
surface and burst there. Such a short time of exposure to water does
not permit much oxygen diffusion from air to water as it is a slow
process. Use of an air stone increases chance of oxygenation as air
is broken down into very fine numerous air bubbles. However, air-
bubbling is instrumental in oxygenation of water rather indirectly. The
agitation and turbulence produces circulation of water – an unending
renewal of surface water (most oxygenated) by less oxygenated or
oxygen depleted water brought from below with rising stream of air
bubbles. The main oxygenation of water takes place at water-air
interface at the surface.

Aeration, on the one hand, increase dissolved oxygen concentration

in water and, on the other hand, removes equally fast free carbon-di-
oxide from it. It also helps in preventing “cold spots” in the aquarium
tank which otherwise may develop in still water of large tanks.
Aeration should be looked upon not as a substitute for management
but a mere part of it.

Aerator

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Aerator is an air-pumping device which is electrically operated. The
device consists of a vibratory air pump – a tiny rubber diaphragm.
When alternating current (A.C) passes a shaft bearing a magnet
vibrates briskly under a magnetic field effect. As the shaft is attached
to the diaphragm, the latter is allowed to vibrate up and down like a
piston, producing a forceful stream of air. The air flow is then
directed into the bed of the aquarium tank using plastic air tubing

22
(thin pipe). At the opening, a diffuser (air stone) may be used to
produce tiny bubbles of air. The aerator is a very useful handy device
for small home aquarium. They are cheap, long lasting and need
little maintenance. However, there are a number of drawbacks too.
First, they produce an unpleasant, rather loud, humming sound.
Second, they are ineffective in large and deep tank. It must be noted
that an aerator does not generate fresh air. On the contrary, it only
pumps out into the tubing the air of the surrounding. An aerator is
likely to drive any fumes, chemical vapours and so forth alongwith
the air into the aquarium tank which may prove harmful to fish. It
should therefore not be operated if any such situation exists in the
room.

Apart from its role in aeration of tank water, aerator has a role of air-
lifting of water for filtration. In undergravel filter, an aerator is used to
confine the rising stream of air-bubbles into a narrow vertical tube
(the uplift pipe) to bring about air-lifting of water and any suspended
particles in it.

4.1.3 Power air-pump

To produce aeration in large and deep aquarium or a battery of
aquaria, such as those installed in public aquaria, more powerful
electric motor driven piston-pumps or rotary pumps are used. They
are more efficient due to high output and noiseless running.
However, they are expensive and need care and maintenance more
frequently.

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4.1.4 Spray bar
The outlet of power filter is fitted with a spray bar to enhance
aeration of water as the filtered water is returned to the
aquarium tank. The spray bar is a perforated tube which
produces a rain of small droplets of water falling on the surface
of tank water. The agitation of water produced at the surface by
falling water drops helps in better oxygen diffusion at air-water
interface.
4.2.1 Introduction
Filtration of aquarium water is an essential element of water
management. The process serves two purposes:

 1. Maintenance of good water quality.

2. Partial correction (within certain limits) when the water goes

wrong.

Good quality of water means a water that ensures a proper

environment for fish to “drink”, “breathe”, “move” and even “pass
metabolites” (excreta, urine and carbon-di-oxide) into it without
becoming harmful to fish’s health and well-being. A water is said to
be of good quality when its contents (chemicals, dissolved gases,
organic matter) or condition (temperature and turbulence) are in a
state which is good for fish, and is free from undesirable suspended
particles and pollution. Pollution may arise from intrinsic (developing
within the aquarium) or extrinsic (accidentally introduced) factors and
will make the water wrong, weakly harmful or lethal to fish. Even a
very well planned and properly stocked aquarium will need filtration

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in the long run.

In a filtration process the aquarium water is allowed to pass through

a filter medium to cleanse it and is finally returned to it. Filtration is
done basically in three ways:

(a) Mechanical filtration : Solid suspended particles are trapped and

filtered out just mechanically.

(b) Chemical filtration : Harmful soluble chemical contents of water

as those which alter its pH, impart it hardness or fish’s metabolites
are rendered harmless by changing their chemical composition
chemically.

(c) Biological filtration : Conversion of ammonia and nitrite which are

highly toxic into non-toxic nitrates is done biologically by using a
population of bacteria to feed upon the excretory products and
similar detritus wastes.

Except the chemical filtration, mechanical and biological filtration

combine in any filter eventually. All the three kinds of filtration
process may be incorporated in a single filter. Accordingly, in a filter
one or more filter media are used.

One has to be prudent in deciding which filtration to choose for a

given aquarium. A number of factors need to be considered such as
size, effective water volume and movement / turbulence and
metabolic loading due to fish / other animals (stocking density and
feeding and locomotory habit). On the other hand, it is also important
to monitor filtration efficiency (filter volume and turnover rate) of the
filter used in the aquarium which may be done by estimating the

25
concentration of ammonia (NH3), nitrites (NO2) and nitrates (NO3).

Filtration also helps in aeration by circulating the water of the tank

irrespective of whether water is power driven or air-driven.

4.2.2 Filter media

A number of filter media are available.  The more common ones are
given in Table.
Filter media
Sl.No. Filter Medium Working Items removed
1. Nylon floss Mechanical Solid suspended
particles
2. Filter (glass) wool do do
3. Plastic foam do do
4. Sand do do
5. Gravel do do
6. Diatomite (diatomaceous do do
earth)
7. Sponge do do
8. Diatom Skeleton do do
9. Activated charcoal Chemical (CO2, pH &
hardness)
10. Limestone chips do (pH & hardness)
11. Coral sand do do
12. Peat do do
13. Resin (zeolite) do Hardness & NH3
          Infact, all media work mechanically, and biologically if left
undisturbed over long period.  In the latter case, all media will be
eventually colonized by bacteria.  Plastic, glass and gravel may offer
good bed (surface area) for bacteria to grow on.
26
          Of all the filter media, the cheapest are floss, foam and gravel. 
Peat, on the other hand, is not long lasting and needs replacement at
quick intervals (as it is quickly exhausted).

27
4.2.4 Canister filter (external or internal type)
It is a self-contained unit comprising of a container, provided with an
aerator or an electric pump. It operates on principle 'A' described
above. It may be situated inside or outside the aquarium. The
external types have inlet and outlet pipes while the internal types are
provided with slits for the purpose. The filter media used include
nylon floss, glass wool, foam, activated charcoal, resin etc. It may be
used for mechanical, biological and / or chemical (optional) filtration
by combining it with a subgravel filter.

 It is used for both freshwater (air-lifting type) and marine aquarium
(power lifting type). The power driven type can remove all solid
debris and maintains a constant forceful circulation of water
dislodging food particles trapped in gravel or corals.

Canister filter

(b) external canister filter (air lifting type)

(c) external canister filter (motor power type)

28
 4.2.5 Trickle filter

It is a modified version of external canister filter. A stack of several

trays with perforated bottoms are placed above the aquarium and
used in conjunction with an external canister filter. The aquarium
water after initial filtration in the canister filter is sprayed into the top
tray from where it trickles from one tray to the other and is finally
returned to the aquarium. The trays are part-filled with filter media
and thus reinforce filtration. The main advantage of the trays
atmospheric oxygen. Optimization of oxygen uptake of water results
in enhanced bacterial activity.

4.2.6 Submersible power filter (box filter / corner filter)

It is a very compact filter that works under submerged condition at
any depth of water. The plastic box sits at the gravel bottom in a

29
corner. It is very suitable for small aquarium in which metabolic
loading is less. A flow of water is continually maintained in and out of
the filter unit. The flow is driven by a powerhead. The aquarium
water is drawn in through a slit in an outer chamber and then passed
through a sponge / foam, held against a sieve, and finally driven out
of the unit to be returned to the aquarium. The box filter silently
works to carry out mechanical and biological filtration. It will need to
be supplemented with chemical filtration, if necessary. The outer
chamber is so designed as to trap detritus “dirt” in a partitioned
portion from where it can not escape. Filter, however, needs
periodical cleaning. The powerhead also needs maintenance; the
impeller attached to the pump shaft needs periodical cleaning.

It is generally used for freshwater aquarium only.

4.2.7 Submersible air-lifting filter (inside filter / corner

filter)

The submersible filter is rather compact. It is attached to the

aquarium wall on the inside in a corner by means of a sucker. It
works on the principle of bubble-air-lifting of filtered water, which is
produced at the air stone fed by an aerator pump. A foam filter is
used. Obviously, the filter combines filtration with aeration. Aeration

30
takes place during the bubble-airlifting as well as the outlet where
water is returned to the aquarium in the form of a spray.

Water quality management

5.1.1 Introduction

Water is the prerequisite for the maintenance, breeding and culture of

tropical ornamental fishes. For ornamental fish farming water is
mainly obtained from rain, river, artesian well, canal and reservoir.
The physico-chemical characteristics of water such as pH, hardness,
temperature, dissolved oxygen; chlorine and carbondioxide content
play a key role in the breeding and production of many ornamental
fish species.

5.1.2 pH

The pH of water usable for ornamental fish farming may vary from
acidic to alkaline depending upon its source, chemical and biological
factors. Marshy and peaty water has acidic pH. Similarly, water
springing from a soil poor in calcium will have acidic pH.. Some
ornamental fishes such as oscar and discus will spawn only in slightly
acidic pH and soft water. To this, various makes of water softeners
are used and inorganic acids, for example, hydrochloric acid can be
used. If the pH of the water falls below the desired value, it must be
increased by the addition of required doses of calcium hydroxide
(slaked lime). The optimal pH for the growth and breeding of majority
of the ornamental fishes should be neutral or slightly alkaline i.e. 7-8.

31
Water in ornamental fish tanks should never fall below 5 or rise
above 8.5. Ornamental fishes preferring slightly acidic pH (6.2-7)
include rosy barb, tiger barb, tetra, angel and danio. On the other
hand, certain fishes like cichlids, goldfish, koi and gourami prefer
alkaline pH.

5.1.3 Chlorine
Ornamental fish culturists in cities often have water quality
problem as the tap water used by them contains chlorine beyond
permissible level. The growth and survival of any sensitive fish are
affected by chlorinated tap waters. Chlorine content as low as
0.1.ppm itself is toxic to fishes. The chlorine content of such waters
can be dechlorinated by heating the water.. Alternatively water with
chlorine will have to be kept over night where the chlorine escapes
and the water becomes usable.
5.1.4 Water hardness

It is nothing but the total soluble calcium and magnesium salts

present in the water expressed as its calcium carbonate equivalent.
The total hardness of water however, includes the sulphates and
chlorides of calcium and magnesium. The total hardness is mainly
used to classify waters into ‘hard water’ or ‘soft water’. Water with
hardness of 100-300 ppm have been found to be optimal for the
normal growth of majority of ornamental fish. Water with less than 12
ppm require liming for higher production of fish. Hard water is also
known to influence feed intake and growth of cichlids such as angel,
black zebra, firemouth, blue morph and auratus.

5.1.5 Carbondioxide

32
Free carbondioxide at a concentration of less than 8 ppm is
detrimental to ornamental fishes.

5.1.6 Temperature

Water temperature is one of the most important factors influencing

the breeding, rearing and transport of tropical fishes. Although
majority of the ornamental fishes tolerate water temperatures
between 21 and 30oC, 28oC, have been found to be most suitable for
the breeding of tropical ornamental fishes. In order to maintain
optimal temperatures, suitable devices have to be used.

5.1.7 Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen content of the water plays a crucial role in fish
culture. Fishes of aquarium tank would be under stress and be liable
for parasitic attack if optimal oxygen levels are not maintained. The
solubility of oxygen in water depends on its temperature and also on
the rate at which it is kept in contact with water. Oxygen dissolved in
water by direct diffusion at the air-water interface. Further, it is also
made available by the presence of aquatic plants. The oxygen level
of aquarium tanks can be enhanced by constant aeration, circulation
of water, sprinkling of water, surface agitation, etc.

OPTIMUM LEVEL OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

REQUIRED FOR ORNAMENTAL FISH CULTURE

Optimum Level
Factors
Temperature 24-280C
Oxygen More than 5ppm

33
pH 7-8
Hardness 150-200ppm
Ammonia Trace
Nitrite Trace
CO2 less than 8ppm

Aquarium plants
6.1.1 Importance

 Aquarium plants give natural look to aquarium.

 They provide food for fishes. Herbivorous fishes directly eat the
plants. Other fishes eat the organisms attached on the leaves.
 They provide shelter, shade and hiding place for smaller fishes.
 They serve as spawning site for certain fishes.
 Plants and fishes have symbiotic relationship. The fish waste is
used as an excellent fertilizer for plants. Plants in turn remove
nitrate and CO2 from water.
 Plants are best filters and thus help to maintain water quality.
 Some of the plants are believed to reduce pH of water which is
suitable for breeding of certain fishes like tetra, angel etc.

6.1.2 Types of plants

1. Floating plants :

Plants have their foliage (leaves) above the surface of water with
roots hanging free. Ex. Eicchornia, Pistia, Spirodela, Lemna, Azolla,
Wolffia, Salvinia, Riccia sp.

2. Emergent plants :

Plants having their leaves and flowers above the water surface but
34
rooted in the bottom. Ex. Nymphaea, Nelumbo, Nymphoides.

3. Submerged plants :

Leaves are submerged in the water, may or may not be rooted. Ex.
Hydrilla, Ceratophylum, Myriophylum, Ottelia, Bacopa, Ludwigia,
Saggitaria, Aponogeton, Cabomba, Limnophila, Ceratopteris.

Rooted plants : Hydrilla, Najas, Ottelia, Vallisneria, Potomogeton,

Lagarosiphon, Chara, Nitella.

Devoid of roots : Ceratophyllum, Utricularia.

4. Marginal plants :

They are growing in the shallow areas of the water body (near
shore). Ex. Typha, Cyperus, Ipomea, Eleocharis, Cryptocoryne,
Echinodorus.

6.1.3 Important aquarium plants

1. Lemna minor :

Commonly called as duck weed. Minute (tiny) free floating aquatic

weed. The roots are minute. It is a good source of feed for
vegetarian fish and ducks. It is capable of purifying waste water. It
spreads spontaneously at an amazing speed. It will cover the entire
surface of the tank if unchecked.

2. Hydrilla sp. :

Submerged weed. It grows under water. But some of their leaves are
coming out of water. Usually they are anchored to the hydrosoil.
35
However, it may get completely detached from hydrosoil and
continue to grow as free floating near the water surface. The stalks
are upto 3 m long. It bears whorls of 2-9 straight dark green leaves at
short intervals. The leaves are 2 cm long, and 0.3 cm wide. It is easy
to grow either it’s rooted or free floating form provided it is given
good light.

3. Najas minor :

Submerged aquatic plant. Plants are 20-30 cm long. Stems are thin.
Narrow leaves of 1-2 cm in length. The leaves are green in colour.
Sickle-shaped, 6-10 pairs of teeth. It lives in shallow, stagnant
waters. The Najas is easy to grow. It requires good light and clear
water. It can thrive and grow as free floating.

4. Marsilia quadrifolia :

Common Name : Four leaved water clover, clover fern

Family : Marsiliaceae Shoreline weeds.

Found in shallow waters. It has thin rhizoids anchored at the bottom.

It has long filamentous stems each ends with a cluster of four oval
shaped leaves.

5. Vallisneria sp. :

Family : Hydrocharitaceae

Common Name : Tape-grass, eel grass, ribbon grass.

Submerged aquatic plant. It anchors to the hydrosoil. It is a most

common aquarium plant. They need bright light, but grow slowly in

36
dim light. Ribbon like green leaved tall plant. The leaves are 30-80
cm long and 0.4 – 0.8 cm broad.

6. Ipomoea aquatic :

Common Name : Water spinach

It is a common aquatic plant in India. This is used for human

consumption. Found in shallow waters. It grows in shore, when water
is filled in that area it detaches and become free floating. Hollow
stems with white spongy floats and rooting at nodes. Leaves are
elliptic or ovate-oblong. Flowers are white or pink.

7. Ceratophyllum (Horn wort) :

Family : Ceratophyllaceae

Submerged, rootless, free swimming plants. Consist of long stems

bearing side branches. Leaves are short, thin spikes, sharp and
harsh to touch. Darkish green colour leaves. Stems bear whorls of at
most 10 leaves growing at a slightly upward angle. Each leaf with 2-4
leaflets, forked and spiky reminiscent of a pair of horns.

8. Nymphaea sp. (water lily) :

Family : Nymphaeaceae

It has roundish or oval shaped leaves floating at the water surface.

Bears long stems. Attached to bottom mud rhizoid roots. Flowers are
very large. White or coloured. They have a delicate scent and float at
the surface (N.nouchali). N. stellata is another lily. The leaves are
submerged with serrated edges. Smaller than N.nouchali. It bears

37
small light blue flowers, purple or pink.

9. Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) :

Floating plant has a rosette of large round leaves and swollen stalks
that give the plants its buoyancy. It has hanging roots. Most
abundantly growing water plant. The plant can multiple at a
phenomenal rate of 15% surface area per day.

10. Cabomba sp. :

Family : Nympheaceae

Submerged plant. Plant has stems upto 150-200 cm long. Fan

shaped leaves grow opposite each other at regular intervals. Leaves
are beautiful, light green. It grows easily. Good light is required. It is
easy to propagate by top cuttings.

11. Echinodorus sp. :

Family : Alismataceae

Submerged plant. Commonly called Amazon sword plant. The

leaves are arranged in a rosette growing out of rhizome. The leaves
vary in shape. They are elongated lance-shaped, oval shaped (or)
heart shaped. The leaves are 20-40 cm long and 2-4 cm wide. Light
green colour.

12. Salvinia :

Family : Salvinaceae 

Stalk lies horizontally just below the surface and bears whorls of
three leaves. Two of which float on the surface. They are oval
38
shaped. The third leaf hangs down freely in the water (which is
transformed into feathery branch similar to little roots hanging below
the water). The surface of the leaf is rough with short stiff bristles.

6.1.4 Other important aquatic plants and their common

names

 Aponogeton fenestralis - Lace plant

 Pistia sp. - Water lettuce
 Ceratopteris thalictroides - Indian fern (or) water sprite
 Crypotocoryne willisini - Hidden club
 Limnophila sessiliflora - Ambulia
 Myriophyllum - Milfoil
 Sagittaria sagitaefolia - Arrow weed
 Eleocharis acicularis - Hair grass or needle grass

Feed and feeding management

7.1.1 Introduction

Proper feeding of aquarium fish requires patience. It is important to

understand the different species, and their life cycles. The amount of
food required depends upon the type of food, culture conditions, and 
individual fish. Newly hatched larvae may feed almost continuously.
Fish generally will not overeat, unless they are fed too infrequently.
One to two feedings a day are best for most fish. More for newly
hatched fish and less often for larger fish.

Most problems with overfeeding result when wasted food spoils the
quality of water in fish tank. Ammonia and other products of decay
will degrade water quality and stimulate disease organisms. In the
39
aquarium with under gravel filters, it is common for the under gravel
to clog from accumulated uneaten food and debris. This problem can
be eliminated with frequent aquarium care, including water changes,
redistributing the aquarium decorations, and cleaning external filters.
Common bottom-feeding fish such as loaches, plecostomus, and
catfish can also help to keep the aquarium clean.

7.1.2 Live food organisms

A number of live foods can be used to add colour and to condition

the fish for breeding.  Feeding a restricted range of live foods, and
exclusion of all other kinds of foods, is unlikely to provide a balanced
diet, and may even lead to nutritional or other internal disorders for
the fish. As many live foods originate from ponds, streams or rivers,
they may bring with them aquarium pests, such as hydra, snails, or
disease causing organisms. The risk of introducing disease
organisms can be reduced by collecting live foods from fish free
water, but the possibility of introducing aquarium pests still remains. It
may be safer to use live foods disinfected before use.

Earthworms are an excellent, live food for all kinds of fish, including
goldfish. Anyone, who has access to a garden or patch of waste
ground should be able to collect enough for their fish. After collection,
the earthworms must be kept for a few days in a sealed container.
This should have small air holes. During this time the worms will
clean themselves of solid and wastes and will then be more palatable
for the fish. The worms can be given as whole or chopped,
depending on their size and the size of the fish.

7.1.3 Feeding of young ones (fry)

40
Fish fry require smallest size of food. Generally fry of live bearers are
bigger than that of egg layers. Live bearers fry eat food items
immediately after release from the parents. In the case of egg layer,
after hatching the fry takes yolk as food from its throat region. They
search food only after 3 to 5 days when they become free swimming.

7.1.4 Oxbow theory Feeds of fry

The fry immediately after they become free swimming can be fed
with either of the following items or all the items alternatively.

1. Green water – Green water is collected from pools or ponds or

tanks. Small containers are used to produce green water. Scrapings
of green algae are inoculated and urea and super phosphate are
added as fertilzier. After 5 days, the green water is ready to feed the
fry.

2. Infusoria – Infusoria can be either cultured or collected and fed to

fry.

3. Baker’s yeast suspension – Yeast is dissolved in water and this

milky liquid is used as food.

4. Egg yolk suspension – Yolk of boiled egg is dissolved in the fry

tank through bolting silk cloth.

In case of feeding with egg yolk, water exchange should be done

every day to remove excess food to avoid bad smell and mortality of
young one.

7.1.5 Feeding frequency- 5 or 6 times daily

41
The above feeds are continued for 7 to 10 days. In case of cichlid fry
and live bearers fry, the above food items can be skipped and directly
the following food items can be given as their size are comparatively
bigger. Early hatched (immediately after hatching) daphnia and
artemia nauplii can be given. Finely ground formulated feeds can be
given to live bearers fry immediately after their birth for 10 – 15 days.
The following food items can be given after 25 to 30 days of birth -
Daphnia, blood worms, earth worms, tubifex, mosquito larvae,
artemia and formulated feeds.

7.1.6 Collection and culture of Infusoria

Collection :

Infusoria belong to the class Ciliata under the phylum Protozoa. They
serve ideally as starter feed for early stages of ornamental fishes.
The tiny microscopic one celled animalcules like Paramaecium are
collectively called Infusoria. They are found in ponds, tanks and
ditches. They can be easily collected with 0.13 mm mesh cloth.

Culture of Infusoria :

By using Banana peelings, cabbage, potato, hay, lettuce leaves :

Any one of the above material is kept in a container filled with water.
The container is covered to prevent the entry of mosquitoes but air
should be allowed. The container is kept in a cool place. In two days
the water will turn milky and have foul smell. This is due to the
multiplication of bacteria which decay the material. A film of slime will
be formed on the water surface. In about 4 or 5 days the water will
turn clear, with light yellow colour. This is because of the floating

42
spores of Infusoria in the air which have settled in the water and are
feeding upon the bacteria and multiply. Subsequently the film of
slime on the water surface will break up and disintegrate. The culture
is now ready for feeding the early stage of fish larve. The culture will
continue to flourish for 2 to 3 weeks if a few drops of milk are added.

Culture of daphnia
Daphnia are commonly called as water fleas. They are
cladocerons. Daphnia inhabits in freshwater ponds and tanks. It
feeds on algae, bacteria etc.

Natural collection :

Daphnia can be collected from pools, ditches and any stagnant

water bodies. They swims on the water surface before sun rise
and after sun rise they go to bottom. Hence Daphnia should be
collected during early morning hours. Daphnia can be collected
with the help of a scoop net having 100-200 micron mesh.

a) Stock and pure culture

Daphnia can be cultured in mass scale level. To prepare stock and

pure culture daphnia should be collected and the sample has to be
diluted and taken in a glass beaker. Individual Daphnia is picked with
the help of a dropper and placed one in each tube containing 10 ml
of filtered freshwater. Daphnia is fed with yeast or groundnut oil cake
at 200 ppm daily. These tube cultures are transferred to 1 litre jar
and feeding is continued. After 5-6 days, the jar culture is inoculated

43
in mass culture tanks.

b) Mass culture

Depending on the requirements, Daphnia is cultured in 500 to 20,000

litre capacity cement or plastic tanks. The culture tanks is thoroughly
cleaned and filled with filtered freshwater. Before starting a mass
culture, medium is prepared as follows :

Medium preparation :

Slurry is prepared by adding 10 kg of chicken droppings, 5 kg of

groundnut oil cake and 2.5 kg of single super phosphate in 250 litre
freshwater. Continous aeration is given for 3 days for the escape of
obnoxious gases, fermentation and release of nutrients. After 3 days
the slurry is used as fertilization solution in the mass culture tanks. In
the mass culture tanks, the medium is added at 3 to 4 ml per litre of
water regularly for 3 to 4 days. On 4th day, Daphnia is inoculated at
50 individuals per litre. In about 7 days, Daphnia multiplies and
density reaches from 10,000 to 25,000 individuals per litre. The
Daphnia is harvested using 100-200 micron mesh scoop net in the
early morning or late evening when they are on water surface. The
Daphnia is washed thoroughly and fed to fish fry.

 Moina culture and Brachionus culture :

Culture of monia and brachionus are similar as that of Daphnia

culture. Inoculation is done with respective live foods.
7.1.8 Culture of tubifex
Tubifex comes under the phylum Annelida. Tubifex are small,
reddish worms up to 2 cm long which occur in the mud of ditches

44
and streams. Their front portion is inside the mud for taking food and
posterior end is above the mud for respiration. Tubifex worms form
an ideal food for faster growth and reproduction of ornamental fishes.

Natural collection :

They can be collected from ditches and canals. The mud along with
tubifex is collected and kept in a large bucket for drying of water.
During drying, the worms will congregate to the surface due to lack
of oxygen. Then, they are collected and washed to remove the
residual mud attached to the body. But their guts still may contain
mud which they have eaten and should be kept under the stream of
water for the mud to be evacuated from the intestine. After proper
cleaning, they are fed to fishes.

Method – 1 :

Cement tank can be used. Mud from ponds or canals is kept upto 5
cm. Water is filled to 5 cm depth. Rice bran is spread over the
surface and left to ferment for 3 days. After 3 days the Tubifex
worms are inoculated. Care must be taken not to let the pond mud
dry completely. After one month the pond can be refilled with water
up to 4 to 6 inches aboue the mud. After the filling the worms will
congregate on the mud surface where they can be easily harvested.
The cycle can be repeated after three days.

Method – 2 :

It can be cultured in any container with 5 cm thick pond mud on the

bottom mixed with decaying vegetable matter and rice bran and
bread. Continuous mild water flow is to be maintained in the
45
container with a suitable drainage system. Then Tubifex worms are
inoculated. Within 15 days, clusters of Tubifex worms develop.

7.1.9 Culture of blood worms

Blood worms are otherwise called as Chironomus larvae. The

intermediate larval stage of the midge fly is commonly called blood
worms. They belong to the family Chironomidae of the phylum
Arthropoda. They are usually red in colour. It is one of the best live
food items for ornamental fishes.

Culture :

Flat trays are used as container. Water is filled and then soil and
compost cattle manure is added to attract the chironomous flies to
deposit eggs. Each female lay about 20000 eggs which hatch out
about 3 days. The larvae are harvested and washed thoroughly and
kept for conditioning to evacuate the gut contents before feeding to
the fish.

7.1.10 Mosquito larvae

It comes under the phylum Arthropoda. They breed in stagnate water

bodies. Cow dung is the medium for culture of mosquito larvae. They
can be harvested using scoop ne

7.1.11 Live food feeders

46
Worm feeder

When feeding with live food like Tubifex care should be taken. By
dropping tubifex, the worms go to the bottom and burrow in to the
substratum before the surface and mid water fish get at them. In
order to facilitate the feeding for the surface and mid water fishes,
worm feeder is used. Worm feeder is a plastic conical device
perforated with minute holes. This device is attached on the sides of
the glass tank. The worms are introduced into the feeder and worms
wriggle free of the holes. Thus allowing fish plenty of time to eat.

7.2.1 Formulated feeds

Ornamental fishes are classified into three feeders according to the
feeding level.

i) Surface feeders

ii) Column feeders

iii) Bottom feeders

Like other fishes their feeding habits resembles, omnivore, carnivore,

herbivore and piscivore.

Nutritional requirement :

47
 7.2.2 Types of feeds

 i. Dry feed – 8 – 10 % moisture – Further classified into five

categories :

a). Pellets – Sinking or floating

b). Flakes – Flat in shape. It floats at first and then sinks slowly. It is
available in different colours.

c). Freeze dried feed – kept for longer time without degradation of
nutritional value. These are available in cubes which adhere to glass
tank. Fishes nibble at it as it dissolves.

d). Tablet form – It can be stuck at different water levels.

e). Granular or crumble feed – small particles suitable for larvae.

ii. Moist feed : It can be prepared daily and fed to fishes.The

moisture content of the feed is 35%. It can not be kept longer periods
due to their high moisture content.

iii. Semi-moist / paste feed : For baby fishes, this can be given by
squeezing through mesh.

Preparation of artificial feeds

7.2.1 Formulated feeds

Ornamental fishes are classified into three feeders according to the

feeding level.
48
i) Surface feeders

ii) Column feeders

iii) Bottom feeders

Like other fishes their feeding habits resembles, omnivore, carnivore,

herbivore and piscivore.

Nutritional requirement :

7.2.2 Types of feeds

 i. Dry feed – 8 – 10 % moisture – Further classified into five

categories :

a). Pellets – Sinking or floating

b). Flakes – Flat in shape. It floats at first and then sinks slowly. It is
available in different colours.

c). Freeze dried feed – kept for longer time without degradation of
nutritional value. These are available in cubes which adhere to glass
tank. Fishes nibble at it as it dissolves.

d). Tablet form – It can be stuck at different water levels.

e). Granular or crumble feed – small particles suitable for larvae.

ii. Moist feed : It can be prepared daily and fed to fishes.The

moisture content of the feed is 35%. It can not be kept longer periods
due to their high moisture content.

iii. Semi-moist / paste feed : For baby fishes, this can be given by
49
squeezing through mesh.

Breeding of live beares

8.1.1 Introduction

Livebearers are fish that bear live youngones. There are two types of
livebearers: ovoviviparous, where the eggs form and hatch within the
female before birth; and viviparous, where no eggs are formed, and
the young are nourished through an umbilical-like cord or from
secretion by the female. Livebearers are generally prolific and are
easily bred.

The important live bearers are guppy, molly, swordtail and platy.

8.1.2 Maturity

Usually live bearers mature between 4 and 6 months. However,

guppy and platy may mature even within two months.

8.1.3 Sex identification

50
Male Female

Smaller Larger

Brightly coloured and attractive Dull coloured

Fins especially dorsal and Comparatively smaller

caudal fins are longer

Belly region is flat Belly region is bulged

Anal fin is modified into Anal fin is normal in shape.

gonopodium which is a rod or
tube like structure

8.1.4 Conditioning

Before placing the parent fishes together for spawning, they should
first be conditioned. Conditioning is feeding the fish with a variety of
healthy foods to make them attain suitable condition for spawning.
Many species may be conditioned using a well-balanced flake food,
though others may be conditioned with live foods such as brine
shrimp, insect larvae, and earth worms. The parent fishes should be
separated while conditioning. Such fishes when reintroduced, will
ready to spawn.

8.1.6 Number of young ones

The number of young ones i.e. brood varies from fish to fish and also
it depends on the size, feed given and tank environment. In an

51
average 20-40 young ones can be expected.

Guppy maximum 100 numbers 

Platy maximum 50 numbers

Molly maximum 100 numbers

Swordtail maximum 200 numbers.

After 2-3 days the female again becomes pregnant even without the
contact of male. The sperm transferred during first mating is stored in
the female body and when eggs are formed the sperm will join with
eggs and form young ones. Thus by single mating youngones can be
released 8-10 times. In an year it is possible to get young ones 10
times from one female.

8.1.7 Feeding of fry

Baby fish i.e fry can swim and eat from the moment they are born. It
accepts infusoria,finely crushed dried food, brine shrimp naupli, etc.,

Breeding of egg layers

9.1.1 Introduction

The majority of aquarium fish are egg-layers with external

fertilization. Egg-layers can be divided into five groups: egg-
scatterers, egg-depositors, egg-burriers, mouth-brooders, and nest-
builders.

9.1.2 Egg-scatterers

52
These species simply scatter their adhesive or non-adhesive eggs to
fall to the substrate, into plants, or float to the surface. These species
do not look after their brood and may even eat their own eggs.
These, fish spawn in groups or in pairs. Often there is a large number
of the small eggs laid. The fry hatch quickly.

9.1.3 Egg-depositors

These species deposit their eggs on any of the substrata such as a

tank glass, wood, rocks, plants, etc. Egg depositors usually lay less
eggs than egg-scatterers, although the eggs are larger.

9.1.4 Egg-burriers

These species usually inhabit waters that dry up at some time of the
year. The majority of egg burriers are annual Killifish, which lay their
eggs in mud. The parents mature very quickly and lay their eggs
before dying when the water dries up. The eggs remain in a dormant
stage until rains stimulate hatching.

Mouth-brooders: species that carry their eggs or larvae in their

mouth.

9.1.5 Mouth-brooders

Mouth-brooders: species that carry their eggs or larvae in their

mouth.

9.1.5 Mouth-brooders

Mouth-brooders: species that carry their eggs or larvae in their

mouth.

53
9.1.6 Nest- builders

Nest builders build some sort of nest for their eggs. The nest is
usually in the form of bubble-nest formed with plant debris and saliva-
coated bubbles (labyrinth fish, catfish), or a excavated pit in the
substrate (cichlids). Nest builders practice brood care.

9.2.1 Conditioning of parent fish

Before placing the parent fish together for spawning, they should be
conditioned. Conditioning is feeding the fish with a variety of healthy
foods to get them in top condition for spawning. Many species can be
conditioned using a well-balanced flake food, though others should
be conditioned on live foods such as brine shrimp, insect larvae, and
flying insects. The parent fish can be separated while conditioning.
This way, when the fish are reintroduced, they are eager to spawn.

9.2.2 Spawning tank

Though some species readily spawn in the aquarium, the eggs or fry
often do not survive because of predatory parents or other fish. Often
the fry die because of unfavourable, water conditions. Many species
that practice brood care will harm other tank mates in attempting to
guard the eggs. Because of all these problems; most aquarists who
breed fish use a separate spawning tank. The spawning tank should
be like the hospital tank with protected heater so the fish are not
burned; a slow-moving filter (sponge filter), so the eggs or fry are not
sucked up; and good aeration. Depending on the spawning method,
the spawning tank can be set up in a number of different ways.

54
9.2.3 Spawning tank set up for egg- scatters

Because egg scatterers often eat their own eggs, the spawning tank
has to be set-up so the eggs fall out of the reach of hungry parents. A
25-50 litre tank is sufficient for spawning of most egg scatterers. For
egg scatterers like barbs and danios, which lay non-adhesive eggs,
the spawning tank can be furnished with a substrate consisting of two
layers of marbles or a nylon netting just above the tank floor. As the
eggs are laid, they fall through the marbles or the netting out of the
reach of the parents. After spawning is over, the eggs or the parents
can be removed. For egg scatterers that lay adhesive eggs like
tetras, the spawning tank should be furnished with a substrate. The
tank should be planted with fine-leafed plants. The eggs are laid
amongst plants, and adhere to the fine-leaves. The parents should
be removed after spawning.

55
Depending on the type of egg depositor, the tank should be furnished
differently. For those egg-depositors that care for their young, the
parents can remain in the tank after spawning. Substrate spawners,
depending on the species, should be given tanks with furnished glass
panes, broad-leafed plants, or flat stones as spawning sites. Some
species such as Discus and Angelfish prefer vertical surfaces. For
cavity spawners, flowerpots turned on their side, coconut shells, and

56
rocky caves are suitable spawning sites. The tank should be
furnished with either live or plastic plants to give the fish a sense of
security.

Breeding of Goldfish

57
9.2.5 Spawning tank set up for egg- burriers

A peat-moss substrate is one of the best substrates for egg-burying

species. The peat moss can be removed after spawning and placed
in a plastic bag to be stored for weeks to months (depending on the
species). A new peat moss substrate can be placed in the tank for
further spawning. In order to initiate hatching, the stored peat can be
immersed in soft water.
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9.2.6 Spawning tank set up for mouth-brooders

Ovophile mouth-brooders can be bred in the main aquarium because

the eggs are protected in the mouth cavity. However, it is better to
separate mouth-brooders with eggs because of their potentially
aggressive behavior. There are no special breeding tank
requirements other than the usual tank set-up for the species.
Larvophile mouth-brooders should be placed in a breeding tank
because the eggs are not protected in the mouth, but laid on a
surface.

9.2.7 Spawning tank set up for nest-builders

Nest-builders should be provided with material with which the nests

are build. For bubble-nest builders, fine leafed and floating plants
should be provided, species that build nests in the substrate should
be given fine gravel or sand.

9.2.8 Stimulating spawning

One of the best ways to induce fish to spawn, especially difficult-to-

spawn species, is to simulate natural conditions. Among factors that
encourage fish to spawn are the environment, the food, and the rainy
season.

9.2.9 Water conditions

The right water conditions are among the most basic requirements in
spawning fish. Thus the water conditions should be similar to those in
the natural environment of the species. Another important
environmental conditions is the right tank set-up including hiding

59
places, spawning sites, lighting, water current, and social conditions
(schools).

9.2.10 Food

The right foods are important to encourage spawning. Without proper

foods, natural conditions cannot be entirely recreated. Some of the
live foods that often can make a difference in spawning success are
earth worm, mosquito larvae and fruit flies.

9.2.11 The rearing tank

A rearing tank is not required with species that take care of their
young, although they are still recommended. For species that do not
take care of their young, the rearing tank can be the same tank as
the spawning tank as long as the parents are removed. The rearing
tank should have a protected heater, a sponge filter and plastic or
live plants. In addition, three of the tank sides should be covered with
black paper, because a light can encourage fungal infections and
cause discomfort for the fry. The water in the rearing tank should be
similar to the water used for spawning.

9.2.12 Raising the fry

When the eggs hatch, the larvae that emerge look nothing like the
parent fish. Instead, the larvae have a large, yellow yolk sac and are
barely able to move, let alone swim. The larvae will feed off the egg
sac until all the yolk is gone. Once the yolk sac disapperas, the
hungry fry will begin to look for food. The fry of small fish can be first

60
fed infusoria, “green water,” or egg yolk. Later these fry can be fed
larger foods like whiteworms, Daphnia, Artemia nauplii, and ground
flakes. These foods are good for slightly larger fry such as those of
cichlids. Once the fish grow larger, larger foods like brine shrimp,
larger Daphnia, flakes, insect larvae, and chopped Tubifex worms are
accepted. 25-50% of the water in the rearing tank should be changed
daily. Be sure that the “new” water added has characteristics like the
water taken out, because fry are more sensitive to sudden changes
in the water. The fry should be fed several times a day. Many species
need periodic sorting by size, so that larger fish do not cannibalize
smaller fish. With favourable water conditions, regular water
changes, and generous feeding, the fry should grow quickly.
Unhealthy and deformed fish should be removed.

Common diseases

10.1.1 Introduction
A fair knowledge of fish diseases and the methods of their
treatments along with prophylactic measures are indispensable in
ornamental fish farming. Natural processes and man-made activities
mainly cause diseases in ornamental fishes. Inadequate nutrition,
unusual weather conditions, accumulation of feed and wastes in the
rearing medium, unhygienic handling and other environmental
factors are some of the reasons responsible for the emerging of
certain diseases in ornamental fishes.:

Precautions to be taken to reduce the possibility of diseases

• Good-quality and compatible fish should be procured

• New fishes should always be quarantined before adding them to

61
the aquarium. (A hospital tank can be used for this).

• Rough handling and sudden changes in tank conditions to be

avoided

• Overfeeding of fish to be avoided

• Sick fishes should be given treatment in a hospital tank

• Nets used needs to be disinfected.

• Transferring water from the quarantine tank to the main aquarium

to be avoided.

10.1.2 Bacterial diseases

(i) Red Pest

Symptoms: Bloody streaks on fins or body.

Treatment :

Aquarium should be treated with a disinfectant. Acriflavine ( 0.2% )

solution may be used at the rate of 1 ml per litre.

(ii)Mouth Fungus

Symptoms: White cotton patches around the mouth.

Mouth Fungus is so called because it looks like a fungus attack of

the mouth. It is actually caused by the bacterium Chondrococcus
columnaris. It shows up first as a gray or white line around the lips

62
and later as short tufts sprouting from the mouth like fungus.
Penicillin at 10,000 units per liter is a very effective treatment.
Second dose with chloromycetin, 10 to 20 mg per liter may be given
after two days.

(iii)Dropsy

Symptoms: Bloating of the body, protruding scales.

Dropsy is caused from a bacterial infection of the kidneys, causing

fluid accumulation or renal failure. The fluids in the body build up and
cause the fish to bloat up and the scales to protrude. It appears to
only cause trouble in weakened fish and possibly from unkept
aquarium conditions. An effective treatment is addition of antibiotic
such as chloromycetin (chloramphenicol) and tetracycline at the rate
of 10 mg per liter of water.

(iv)Tail Rot & Fin Rot

Symptoms: Disintegrating fins that may be reduced to stumps,

exposed fin rays, blood on edges of fins, reddened areas at base of
fins, skin ulcers with gray or red margins, cloudy eyes. Tail and fin rot
appears to be a bacterial infection of the tail and/or fins and may be
caused by generally poor conditions, bully, or fin nipping tankmates.
An effective treatment is addition of antibiotic such as chloromycetin
(chloramphenicol) and tetracycline at the rate of 10 mg per liter of
water.

10.1.3 Protozoan diseases

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(i)Velvet or Rust

Symptoms: Clamped fins, respiratory distress (breathing hard),

yellow to light brown "dust" on body.

This disease has the appearance of a golden or brownish dust over

the fins and body. The fish may show signs of irritation. The gills are
usually the first thing affected. Danios seem to be the most
susceptible, but often show no discomfort. This disease is highly
contagious and fatal. The best treatment is with copper at 0.2 mg per
liter (0.2 ppm) to be repeated once in a few days if necessary.
Acriflavine may be used instead at 0.2% solution (1 ml per liter). As
acriflavine can possibly sterilize fish and copper can lead to
poisoning, the water should be gradually changed after a cure has
been effected.

(ii)Costiasis

Symptoms: Milky cloudiness on skin.

Similar treatment followed for velvet diseases may be done.

(iii)Ich (Ichthyphthiriosis)

Symptoms: Salt-like specks on the body/fins. Excessive slime.

Problems breathing (ich invades the gills), clamped fins, loss of
appetite. The drug of choice is quinine hydrochloride at 30 mg per
liter (1 in 30,000). Quinine sulphate can be used if the hydrochloride
is not available. The water may cloud but this will disappear. By
reducing the time (with raised temperature) of the phases, you
should be able to attack the free swimming phase effectively.Most
commercial remedies contain malachite green and/or copper, which

64
are both effective.
10.1.4 Fungal diseases
Fungus (Saprolegnia)

Symptoms: Tufts of dirty, cotton-like growth on the skin, can cover

large areas of the fish, fish eggs turn white.

Fungal attacks may lead to other health problems like parasitic

attack, injury, or bacterial infection. The symptoms are a gray or
whitish growth in and on the skin and/or fins of the fish. Eventually, if
left untreated, these growths will become cottony looking. The
fungus, if left untreated, will eventually eat away on the fish until it
finally dies.

Treatment: Use a solution of phenoxethol at 1% in distilled water. 10

ml of this solution to be added per liter of aquarium water. The
treatment should be repeated after a few days if needed. If the
symptoms are severe the fish can be removed from the aquarium
and swabbed with a cloth that has been treated with small amounts
of povidone iodine or mercurochrome. For attacks on fish eggs, most
breeders will use a solution of methylene blue adding 3 to 5 mg/l as
a preventative measure after the eggs are laid.

0.1.5 Parasitic diseases

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(i) Fish louse (Argulus)

Symptoms: The fish scrapes itself against objects, clamped fins,

parasites about 1/4 inch in diameter are visible on the body of the
fish. The fish louse is a flattened mite-like crustacean about 5 mm
long that attaches itself to the body of fish. They irritate the host fish,
which may have clamped fins, become restless, and may show
inflamed areas. With larger fish and light infestations, the lice can be
picked off with a pair of forceps. Other cases can best be done with a
10 to 30 minute bath in 10 mg per liter of potassium permanganate,
or treat the whole tank with 2 mg per liter, but this method is messy
and dyes the water.

(ii) Anchor Worm (Lernaea)

Symptoms: The fish scrapes itself against objects, whitish-green

threads hang out of the fish skin with an inflamed area at the point of
attachment. Anchor worms are actually crustaceans. The young are
free swimming and borrow into the skin, go into the muscles and
develop for several months before showing. They release eggs and
die. The holes left behind are ugly and may become infected. The
anchor worm is too deeply imbedded to safely remove. Treatment
can best be done with a 10 to 30 minute bath in 10 mg per liter of
potassium permanganate. Or treat the whole tank with 2 mg per liter,
but this method is messy and dyes the water.

(iii) Flukes

Symptoms: The fish scrapes itself against objects, rapid gill

movement, mucus covering the gills or body, the gills or fins may be
eaten away, the skin may become reddened. There are many
species of flukes, which are flatworms about 1 mm long, and several
66
symptoms that are visible. They infest gills and skin much like ich,
but the difference can be seen with a hand lens. You should be able
to see movement and possibly eye spots, which is not found in ich.
Gill flukes will eventually destroy the gills thus killing the fish.
Symptoms of a heavy infestations are pale fish with drooping fins,
rapid respiration, glancing off aquarium decor, and /or hollow bellies.
Treatment can best be done with a 10 to 30 minute bath in 10 mg
per liter of potassium permanganate.

(iv) Nematoda

Symptoms: Worms hanging from the anus. Nematodes

(threadworms) infect just about anywhere in the body but only shows
itself when they hang out of the anus. A heavy infestation causes
hollow bellies. Lighter infestations usually cause no problems with
the fish. Food containing thiabendazole as a nematode (threadworm)
cure should be fed to the fish.

(v) Leeches

Symptoms: Leeches are visible on the fish's skin. Leeches are

external parasites and affix themselves on the body, fins, or gills of
the fish. Usually they appear as heart shaped worms (they are just
curled up) attached to the fish. They are usually introduced to the
aquarium via plants or snails. Since leeches are sucking and
borrowing into the surface of the fish, removal with forceps can
cause great damage, if not death, to the fish. If the fish is bathed in a
2.5 percent solution of salt for 15 minutes, most of the leeches
should just fall off. Those that do not fall will be removed with forceps
with minimal damage. Another treatment is to add Trichlorofon at
0.25 mg/l to the aquarium. Live plants should be removed and
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treated with potassium permanganate at 5 mg/l before replanting.

Application of biotechnology and genetics

11.1.1 Introduction

Genetics and biotechnology have played a vital role in increasing the

world food production. But the applications of recent genetic
manipulations and biotechnological innovations to aquaculture and
fisheries management have been very limited as compared to
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. It is only recently that break
through have been achieved in the standardization of some genetic
techniques and biotechnologies which hold promise for enhancing
aquaculture production.

11.1.2 Selective breeding

One of the potential and conventional ways of improving the genetic

status of aquaculture stock is through selection and hybridization.
These are classic breeding techniques for improvement of qualitative
traits in fishes.

11.1.3 Selection

Selection is of greatest use in aquaculture and hatcheries. The mass

selection, family selection and multiple trait selection make use of
additive genetic variation for improvement of fish strains. The indirect
selection, sib selection and progeny selection is used when the
phenotype is difficult to measure. The mass, family and within family
selections have been the main types of selection strategies employed
68
so far in aquaculture for stock improvement. Mass selection is simple
and works well only when the heritability is high and population is
large so that large selection differentials can be employed.

Selective breeding is a breeding programme that tries to improve the

breeding value of the population by selecting and mating only the
best fish (largest, heaviest, those with the desired colour, etc.) in the
hope that the select brood fish will be able to transmit their superiority
to their offspring. If this occurs, the next generation will be more
valuable because the fish will grow more efficiently, which will lower
the feed costs; or all fish will have a more desired body colour, which
will increase their market value.

11.1.4 Crossbreeding

Crossbreeding is a breeding programme that tries to find mating

combinations between different populations of fish which produce
superior offspring for grow-out, offspring that are said to exhibit
hybrid vigour. Although crossbreeding is a method of increasing
yields, the results of crossbreeding programmes are impossible to
predict (unless the mating have been made previously), so the
production of superior offspring is a hit-or-miss proposition. Many
combinations often have to be evaluated before one is discovered
that produces offspring with hybrid vigour. Crossbreeding
programmes usually involve different strains within a species
(intraspecific hybridization), but different species can also be
hybridized (interspecific hybridization). To date, much of the breeding
work in aquaculture has been devoted to hybridization among the

69
different species of tilapia in an attempt to produce all-male hybrids
for grow out.

11.1.5 Hormonal induction of sex reversal

Sexuality in fish has a great role to play in aquaculture as there are
differences in growth rate, body form and external characters
between males and females in several species. The sex determining
mechanism of some of the ornamental fishes is given below:

I. Hermaphrodites – Guppy, sword-tail, fighter fish

II. Polygenic determination of sex – sword-tail

III. Sex chromosomal sex determination

a) XX female – XY male – Goldfish

b) ZZ male – WZ female – mosquito fish

c) WXY – XY, YY – males

XX, WX – females – platy

The process of sex differentiation in teleost is protracted and labile

rendering the hormonal induction of sex reversal possible in
gonochoristic and hermaphroditic species. The induction involves
administration of optimum dose of a sex steroid (e.g. 17α-methyl
testo-sterone) during the labile period, which reverses the phenotypic
expression of a genetic female into a male but the genetic male
remains a male. The process of endocrine sex reversal comprises
the entire sequence of differentiation, gametogenesis,
ovulation/spermiation, courtship behaviour, secondary sexual
characters and sex pheromone production. In most teleosts males

70
grow faster than female (e.g. cichlidae); males of most ornamental
fish are more colourful than females and thus have a higher
commercial value. Ferminization has been attempted in 30 species
to understand the process of sex differentiation and for the
development of broodstock for all male or all female population. For
example, hormonal sex reversal was induced to produce XY females
in Poecilia reticulata which when crossed with normal males (XY),
sired 25% homogametic (YY) males.

As many as 31 natural and synthetic steroids have been tested for

sex reversal in economically important species. In general, the
optimum dose required to induce complete sex reversal is species
specific and in some species, strain specific. Among androgens, 17
α-methyltestosterone and estrogens, estradiol 17 α B was widely
used for brooding (viviparous) poecilids higher dose of 300-500 mg
per kg diet is required.

In the direct hormone sex reversal the hormones are administered to

the fish in their feed. Almost any feed can be used as the hormone
carrier provided it has a sufficient nutritional value for fry and is
readily consumed. Simple pellet feeds made locally are suitable,
provided that they have a high enough protein content (30-40%). It is
not the concentration in the feed that is the determining factor, but
rather the actual quantity of hormone consumed; the later is
dependent on the feeding rate and how well the fry consume the
hormone feed mixture. The treatment is easy to manage and carry
out in farms. Generally, the hormones are administered for only a 40-
60 day period, rarely 100 days. The hormones are reduced to
unmeasurable quantities within 5 days after their withdrawal from the
feed. These hormones are also very similar or identical to the

71
naturally occurring hormones. If used at the correct levels they will
cause no adverse changes in the fish under treatment.

In recent years, biotechnological research has led to the

development of three additional breeding programmes that can be
used to increase yields. One of the most common breeding
programmes in aquaculture is the production of sex-reversed brood
stock to produce mono sex populations for grow-out. This is done
either because one sex is superior or more desirable or to prevent
reproduction during grow out.

The production of sex-reversed broodstock is usually accomplished

by feeding either estrogens or androgens (sex hormones) to sexually
undifferentiated fry to sex-reversed them. Sex-reversed fish are
individuals that are one sex phenotypically but the other genetically
(XX O) is as example phenotypically male genitically female. If sex
reversal is done properly, sex-reversed fish are capable of producing
monosex populations for grow-out. The type of hormone used
estrogens to produce sex reverse females or androgens to produce
sex-reversed males depends on the sex determining system of the
species and whether you want to produce an all male or an all
female population.

Species used for genetic improvement

11.2.1 Goldfish
The goldfish is a domesticated form of the so called Crucian carp,
Carassius carassius, which is still widely distributed in Asia as well
72
as in Eastern Europe. The wild fish are generally of a silver
appearance. The colouration and other aspects of present-day
goldfish are believed to have been developed from the wild type,
somewhere in China, before the 16th Century. They are reported to
have been introduced into Japan in the same century and into
Europe about 100 years later. Various explanations for their quite
distinctive colouration have been given of which the most rational are
selective breeding from albino stock, distant hybridization and
degradation of pigment cells by virus particles. Whatever the genetic
basis, the gold colour appears during the early months of life of the
fish and seems to involve the progressive depigmentation or
destruction of melanophores. The brilliance of the final colour is
probably determined environmentally. The goldfish of warmer
climates, Israel or India, for example, certainly seem to be a vastly
more colouful appearance than those reared in the cooler temperate
regions of Europe.

There are three basic body colours in goldfish varieties. The

commonest is the rich red-gold appearance, but all-black is typical of
some forms and the well known shubunkin exhibits a blue, red and
black mottled appearance plus the transparent scale characteristics.
Kirpichnikov (1981) reviewed evidence on the genetic control of
these major colour variants. Blue is reported to be determined by a
simple Mendelian recessive with brown colouration under more
complex control. Depigmentation itself is described as under control
of two distant loci, the recessive allele of which confers the black
colouration.

The fin and body shape of goldfish are also of great antiquity but
have undergone much recent development. The range of varieties is
very large – including body colour, these are reputed to be almost
73
100 individual strains of goldfish i.e. forms for which body proportions
and colours have been defined for the purpose of selective breeding
for show purposes. Selective breeding is likely to be feasible for
modification of such fin and body shape traits. Selection by culling
can be very efficient where visible criteria are employed and where
fecundity is large as in most fish species.

1.2.2 Koi-carp
The name koi in Japanese means carp but these are usually taken to
be the colourful derivatives of Cyprinus carpio, alternatively called
nishikigoi (coloured cloth in Japanese). Developed in Japan from
black ancestors originating in China, the coloured varieties date from
the 16th century. The major colour and scale variations popular today
have been generated in the last 50 years and are still being added
to. Koi enjoy world-wide reputation and command extraordinary high
prices. Like goldfish, they can live for many years and represent
valuable ‘investments’.

They are classified according to a Japanese system devised for

show purposes and the names frequently reflect aspects of the
varieties, history or place of origin. Simple patches of one colour
superimposed on the background of another is the basis of most of
the traditional varieties. Thus Kohaku are white fish with red patches,
Taisho sanke white, whilst Showa sanshoku contain much more
black, to the extent that it can be regarded as a black fish with added

74
kohaku, a white fish with a solitary red patch on top of the head in
the most valued specimens this is round like the rising sun symbol
on the national flag of Japan. All of these varieties and the non-
valued all-white specimens are said to be found amongst offspring of
any cross within these varieties.

Further varieties include black on white (Bekko) and its obverse

(utsuri) together with Shusui in which linear scale patterns are
combined with other characteristics. These scale patterns are closely
akin to the scaly and line characteristics of common carp.

Colour patterns are not so simply inherited but may also be due to
the varied segregation of a few simply Mendelian alleles. There is
also a common theme in fish genetics of duplicated loci where this
can lead to tetrasomic inheritance. i.e. four genes segregating and
not tow and so greater complexity arises.

Other body colours of orange and yellow are also found, and a blue
type probably relates to dilution of the normal black pigment. Scale
pigmentation variation characterizes some varieties, and others
show the metallic sheer probably produced by excessive deposition
of guanine in the scales.

The history of varied colour patterns is not well documented but

seems to follow a pattern of inbreeding with the chance occurrence
of distinctive mutations. The overall gold form is stated to be the
consequence of recessive allele at two loci which the metallic sheer
is due to one single recessive allele. All three in combination produce
the white fish. In addition to this it seems likely that scale
transparency follows the model observed earlier with common carp
and is determined by a recessive or partially dominant gene. The
75
reticulation pattern of melanphores on scales resembles ‘gold’ in the
guppy and that was controlled by a simple recessive allele. Thus
more than seven loci seem to be involved, with differing degrees of
dominance. The genetic situation with respect to koi varieties is thus
very complex: strains breed true to some basic features but give rise
also to much further variation, and the prospects for developing yet
more forms seen excellent, particularly if different strains are
crossed.

Most of the world’s finest koi now come from Japan but a growing
interest in selective breeding of these fish is taking place in many
countries. New developments include the introduction of fin shape
into the koi gene pool, and body shape may come next.
Chromosome engineering would also be usefully developed in koi
culture if only as a means of protecting valuable genetic stock by
providing for sale only sterile triploids. Thus the selective breeding of
koi has some potential.

11.2.3 Guppy

The natural variation in these fish comprised lots of colour and black
pigmentation and some extensions of the caudal fin, mostly sex
linked inheritance and limited in expression to the males. The
principal developments in fancy Guppy breeds include the production
of distinctive body colours and very greatly extended caudal fins as in
the veiltail Guppy. The body colours red, blue and green seem likely
to be derived from the inheritance of simple Mendelian characteristics
of autosomal linkage. The black guppy, however, is probably derived
by selection of the half-black phenotype due to a gene located in the

76
X chromosome and having a dominant effect in both males and
females. The overall genetic control mechanisms are simple, but the
combinations are very numerous and the range of strains which have
been produced is a tribute to the skill patience of amateur breeders.
Further developments seem assured; one special goal should be the
separation of the factors determining size of the paired and unpaired
fins.

11.2.4 Platy
Fish of the genus Xiphophorus are amongst the most variable of
animals within the natural environment. They also comprise a range
of species which hybridize readily amongst themselves and thus
provide the breeder with two sources of variation with which to work.

Three sets of colour are inherited: the macromelanophore and

micromelanophore patterns are so valuable to scientific study and a
series of body ground colour or fin colours. In addition to this, fin
shapes and sizes are also developed in the fancy strains. The
genetics of the fin shape may derive from hybridization between X.
maculates, the common platy of aquarium fame, and X. montezumae
or X. xiphidium followed by selection for enhanced expression. The
other characteristics have a complex genetic background involving at
least 19 loci, but these too seem to have been selected for vivid
expression of individual genes. The possible manifestations of this
array problems of platy breeding are largely to do with keeping
crosses simple and stabilizing the variation. The black and black-
stippled forms probably represent another example of duplicate locus
inheritance. These fish make excellent material for educational use.
Crossbreeding with the readily available short tail also provides good
material for demonstrating hybridization and the melanic forms

77
represent a good response to selection.

Management practices in ornamental fish farm

12.1.1 Pond fish keeping

The majority of garden ponds contain a range of coldwater fish

species notably goldfish, carp, koi carp and tench, and are often
relatively well-planted. Accessories and equipment are usually kept
to a minimum and the establishment of local wildlife (e.g. aquatic
insects and amphibians) in the pond may be encouraged. However,
the establishment of ponds especially for the maintenance of koi
carp, usually with a minimum of submerged vegetation and
sometimes with quite elaborate filtration systems, is increasing.

12.1.2 Pond construction

There are three basic methods of pond construction: concrete,

moulded glass fibre, and plastic or polythene flexible liners. The
construction of a garden pond from concrete is hard work and
although the finished article is permanent, it may crack as a result of
frost and ice. Moulded pools are very easy to install but can be
expensive and some are too shallow to maintain fish through the
coldest winter months.

Flexible liners are a popular choice; several types exist ranging from
little more than a thin sheet of plastic or polythene, to very tough butyl
liners, which are almost as permanent as a concrete of moulded
pool. Full details on pond construction can be found in the popular
literature.

78
12.1.3 Sitting a pond

A garden pond is best situated in an area of level ground where it

receives some shade form the mid-afternoon summer sunshine and
some protection from the cold winter winds. Nonetheless, it should
not be sited below over-hanging trees and bushes (which may shed
their leaves into the pool in the autumn, causing pollution), and the
entry of fertilized or pesticide run-off into the pool should also be
prevented.

Naturally, a tap water supply will be needed to fill the pond, top-up
evaporative losses and carry out occasional water changes, with any
excess water being discarded to the surrounding garden or to a
soakaway. Fountain pumps, filters, pond heaters and pond lights all
require a source of electrical power, provided according to the
equipment manufacturers safety instructions.

12.1.4 Size of ponds

A pond may be almost any size and shape although it should always
have an area deeper than 18” (90 cms), to provide protection for the
fish during the colder months and some shallow shelves for emergent
vegetation and perhaps fish spawning. Generally speaking garden
ponds are always longer and wider than they are deep (to provide a
reasonable water surface area), and 6 ft. (approx. 2 m) long, by 4 ft.
(approx. 1.5 m) wide, by up to 1.5 ft. (approx. 0.9 m) deep is
suggested as a minimum size. Very small ponds will be prone to
overstocking and fluctuating water conditions.

12.1.5 Equipment
A number of items of optional equipment are frequently used by

79
pond keepers.

Small water pump fountain units add attractive water movement to

the pond, as wall as providing aeration in warm, still weather. Such
pumps can also be used to provide water for a waterfall and some
can be converted to also carry out a small amount of mechanical and
/ or biological filtration. More elaborate filters are available and are
commonly used in association with koi keeping. Such filters can
result in very clear water as well as encouraging very stable water
quality conditions. Under-gravel filters over some or all of the pond
bottom are used, although it is more common to-treat or use some
form of out-of-pond system which may range form a single polythene
water tank filled with gravel, to compartmental concrete filter tanks,
high-pressure and filters and even ultraviolet irradiation. Naturally,
such systems require a pump to pass water through the filter tank or
tanks (usually at least several times during a twenty-four hour period)
and regular filter maintenance is essential for their efficient running.

As was mentioned above, for indoor aquaria, the aeration and

filtration devices for garden ponds must not be turned off for long
periods during the spring / summer although it is common practice to
turn them off (or at least reduce their flows) each winter and turn
them on (or up) again the following early spring.

Low wattage electrical pond heaters are available and can be used
to keep a small area of the pond surface free form ice during a hard
winter, thus permitting continued gaseous exchange with the
atmosphere. Such heaters do not warm the water enough to affect
fish activity.

Although irrelevant to the fish and plants in a garden pond,

80
decorative lighting units are available to illuminate the pond and the
surround area.

12.1.6 Stocking of ponds with plants

As was described for freshwater aquaria, plants can carry out a

number of very important functions and their effect on algal growth
and on stabilizing water conditions are both particularly pertinent in
garden ponds.

The simplest and most convenient way to plant out a pond is using
the baskets that are available form most retail outlets. These come in
a range of sizes and permit easy rearrangement of plants at a later
date. The baskets are best lined with clean sacking and then filled
with unfertilized garden soil. Following careful planting of these
baskets and before placing them into the pond, a layer of pea gravel
or pebbles can be added to the basket to prevent fish disturbing the
soil causing discolouration of the water.

Pond plants are generally divided into marginals,submerged and

floating.

12.1.7 Stocking of ponds with fish

A smaller range of fish are generally kept in a garden pond than in an

indoor aquarium and these fish are often limited to specifically
ornamental varieties that are brightly coloured and easily visible.
Some of the more unusual and long-finned varieties of goldfish are,
however, a little delicate to be left in the pond throughout the year
and may develop fin problems in cool weather. Other types of fish

81
such as those native to the UK, Europe and North America may be
kept in a garden pond but are less distinctively marked and therefore
less easily seen and appreciated. Salmonoid fish such as trout do not
usually fare particularly well in a garden pond, where temperatures
may get too high and dissolved oxygen levels too low. Naturally
predatory species (pike, perch and coldwater catfish) should be
avoided they will be rarely seen and will grow and feed on the other
fish. Certain species of tropical freshwater fish can be kept in a
garden pond during the warmer months.

12.1.8 Invertebrates and amphibians

Various invertebrates (e.g. snails, crayfish) can be added to the pond

but are of questionable benefit, and (in the case of crayfish) will be
seldom seen. Amphibians can co-exist quite well, although the fish
may eat some of the amphibians.

12.1.9 Stocking levels

The maximum safe stocking level for fish in a garden pond is to be

decided based on its size and other factors. Although this may be
exceeded by experienced pond keepers, especially if some form of
filtration or aeration is used, it is a useful guide for a newly-
established pond as it includes a margin for fish growth. Stocking
should begin with a number of relatively inexpensive fish (to ensure
there are no unforeseen problems) and then proceed towards the
above-maximum figure over a few weeks. “New pond syndrome” (as
opposed to “new tank syndrome”) is less often referred to in the
hobbyist literature, although it is still unwise to stock a pond with too
many fish too soon.

12.2.1 Quarantine
82
Since infectious diseases can be quite difficult to treat in a large
garden pond, quarantine of all new fish is quite important. All new fish
should be floated in their new home or in the quarantine tank for
fifteen to twenty minutes, to let water temperatures equalize.

12.2.2 Pond maintenance

 FEEDING 

Extra care must be exercised to avoid overfeeding in cool weather,

and feeding suspended for most of the winter. If the fish are active on
a warm day in winter, small feeds will do them no harm. Uneaten
food must never be allowed to accumulate in the pond however. As a
rough guide during the spring / summer, pond fish should be fed two
to four times a day on a good quality flake, pellet or stick foods,
offering only enough that can be consumed in a few minutes.

12.2.3 Plant growth

Plant growth will increase through the spring and summer with an
autumn die-back, when all the dead and dying plant material should
be removed from the pond. A coarse-meshed net over the pond will
prevent autumn leaves entering and rotting in the pond which can
result in pollution problems.

12.2.4 Algal blooms

83
These are caused by tiny suspended algal cells causing green
water, or beds of filamentous algae. They can be both unsightly
and potentially dangerous for the fish. Like plants, the algae
photosynthesise during the day so there is a net output of
oxygen, although this ceases overnight when there may be a net
uptake of oxygen as the algal material carries on respiring. In
addition, the sudden die-back of an algal bloom can result in
large amounts of rotting material in the pond and obvious
pollution problems. Algal blooms are normally caused by a
number of factors including too much sunlight, too few
submerged plants, inadequate shading, over-feeding of the fish
and fertilized run-off from the garden entering the pond after
heavy rain. To control algal blooms CUSO4 can be used.
2.2.5 Pond disturbance

This should be kept to a minimum during the cooler months of the

year, with one or two partial water changes carried out during the
summer and early autumn. Should the pond ice over during the
winter, a small hole should be melted in the ice using boiling water
thus permitting gaseous exchange with the atmosphere. A pool
heater will prevent this icing up, and the ice must never be smashed
with a hammer or rock as the shock waves may harm the fish. New
fish and plants are best added in the spring and summer when they
have plenty of time to settle in before the winter. Every few years a
major overhaul may be required; this should be carried out in the
early summer before the plants begin growing in earnest.

Prepare a plan for the preparation of garden pond and list out the
methods for setting up of the pond.

84
 Transport of ornamental fishes
13.1.1 Introduction

As most of the ornamental fish produced in Southeast Asia are

destined for export, the fish must not only be attractive but also
robust to withstand long air transportation. For consignments from
Asia to USA, shipping may cost more than the fish in the
consignment. Hence modern packaging technology to increase fish
loading density and improve post – shipment survival assumes
importance. The exporters are responsible for post – shipment
survival of fishes. Warranty is given to customers by exporters that
the death of fish after 7 days of arrival should not exceed more than
5%. If it exceeds 5%,losses will be compensated by the exporters.

13.1.2 Fish packaging system

Packaging of fish in polythene bags filled with water that is pretreated

with chemicals and over saturated with pure oxygen. After packing,
bags are placed in a Styrofoam box to provide thermal insulation to
prevent sudden change in temperature of the transport water. Fish
loading density depends on the transit time (eg. The transit time from
Singapore to Europe is 30 hours). The fish loading density
(Biomass/g) per unit volume of water (L) increases with increasing
body weight. As large fish consume less oxygen and produce less
nitrogenous wastes per unit weight than small ones.

13.1.3 Steps to be taken while transporting fish

1. Control of temperature of transport water :

Metabolism during transport is about three times higher than the

85
routine metabolism. Low temperature lower the metabolic rate thus
reduce oxygen consumption and accumulation of CO2 and NH3 fish
can tolerate upto 22oC.

2. Control of metabolic wastes :

Ammonia and CO2 are the two major metabolic wastes produced in
transport water. Bacterial growth is another major source of
metabolic waste . To remove ammonia, zeolite is used (15-20 g / litre
water). To prevent bacterial growth neomycine sulphate, methylene
blue and acriflavine are used.

3. Osmoregulatory dysfunction :

When fish are exposed to transport stress, osmoregulatory

dysfunction is common in fish. Addition of salt to transport water is
effective in reducing the osmoregulatory dysfunction (0.5-3% salt).

4. Stress resistance test :

Saline water is used to test the ornamental fishes for stress

resistance. For guppies 35 ppt, for swordtail and platy 25 ppt, for
tetra 15 ppt salinity used. The fish activity is observed for 2 hours.

13.1.4 Conditioning of fish for packaging

Three stages :

1. Prophylactic treatment

2. Starvation

86
3. Pre-packing

Prophylactic treatment :

1 day to 1 week.

Need of prophylactic treatment :

To prevent post-shipment mortality, prophylactic treatment is

essential. Post-shipment mortality is partly associated with less
stress resistance of fish. Hence resistance of fish to stress has to be
enhanced by nutritional prophylaxis and health prophylaxis.

Nutritional prophylaxis :

The ornamental fishes for export should be resistant to stress. Hence

fish should be given nutritious feed for developing strong fish. Feed
supplementation of vitamin C enhances stress resistance in fish.

Health Prophylaxis :

Healthy fishes alone should be transported in order to avoid

mortality. Even infection is mild (harmless infection) the fishes should
not be selected for export. When fishes are exposed to abnormal
situation stress is unavoidable. Transportation creates stress. If
fishes with mild infection are selected for transport corticosteroid
level in plasma will be elevated and therefore immune
suppresiveness results. It increases vulnerability of the fish to
pathogens. Hence even harmless infection may become lethal.
Therefore only healthy fishes should be selected for transport. In
order to enhance health the immunity of fish should be enhanced by
87
suitable feeds.

Starvation :

To reduce amount of excreta during transport (1-2 days).

Pre-packing :

Fishes are placed in air-conditioned room at 22-23oC to enable them

to acclimate packing conditions, crowding and low water
temperature. Fish that fails to adapt to the packaging conditions and
show signs of sickness are eliminated.

Acclimation and recovery of fish after shipment :

After shipment the fishes should not be stocked directly in the

aquarium tank. The fishes should be acclimatized for the new
environment. The fish bag should be floated for 30 minutes to
equalize the temperature of water.

Ornamental fish trade, its regulations and wildlife act

 Chapter 1: Ornamental fish trade

14.1.1 Introduction
The FAO statistics indicated that the world export of ornamental fish
steadily rose from US $ 160.7 million since 1999 to a peak of US $
282.6 million in 2006. Most of the world’s supplies of ornamental
fishes are from Asian countries. Singapore is the largest exporter of
ornamental fish contributing 21.70 per cent followed by Spain, Czech
Rep and Malaysia during 2006 (Dey, 2008). USA is the world’s
largest single market for ornamental fishes and imported US $ 48.40
million worth of fish in 2006, followed by UK (US $ 30.80 million) and

88
Japan (US $ 27.20 million).

The ornamental fish market can be divided into four main sectors.
The largest sector is the tropical freshwater species sector, which
occupies about 80 – 90% of the market. The other sectors are
tropical marine and brackish water species, including invertebrates;
coldwater (freshwater) species, mainly goldfish and koi and cold
water marine and brackish water species.

In all there are about 1600 species of ornamental fish in the market,
out of which 750 are freshwater species. More and more species are
being added to the list as a result of advances in breeding, transport
and aquarium technology. Some 90% of the species are cultured
while the remaining 10% are collected from the wild. The annual
world turnover for ornamental fish aquaculture is estimated at about
US$ 200 million. The marine fish species constitute about 20% of the
market. About 95% of marine fish are collected from the wild while
5% are bred fish.

The price of an ornamental fish is considerably higher than the price

of a fish destined for human consumption. On average, there is a
ratio of 1:100 between prices of food fish and aquarium fish. In
general, marine ornamental fish have higher unit value compared to
freshwater ornamental fish. The freshwater species dominating the
market are mainly from the families Poecilidae, Characidae,
Cyprinidae, and Cichlidae. The main species are guppy, platy,
swordtail, molly, goldfish neon tetra, angelfish, , zebra danio and
discus. The guppy and the neon tetra represent more than 25% of
the world market in volume and more than 14% in value.
Last modified: Monday, 21 November 2011, 10:23 AM

14.1.2 Supply situation

World exports of ornamental fish rose from US$ 125.819 million in
1996. There was a dip during 1997 – 98 to a low of US$ 162.399
million in 1998 after which exports rose again to US$ 182.668 million
in 2001. The downtrend during 1996-98 is attributed mainly to the
Asian financial crisis.

With a share of 22.8% (US$41.58 million), Singapore was the world’s

largest exporter in 2001. It is also the main trading hub for Asia.
Singapore does not produce all its exports but re-exports additional
species, which are collected or reared in other Asian countries.
Singapore is a duty free zone, so there are no heavy imports to pay.
89
It exports to more than 60 countries around the world, including
Japan, USA, UK, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands
and Australia.

The second largest exporter was Malaysia with exports valued at

US$14.37 million, 7.9% of exports. This was followed by Indonesia
(US$ 13.72 million, 7.5%) Czech Republic (US$ 11.27 million, or
6.2%) and Peru (US$9.78 million, 5.4%). China came next with total
exports of US$ 11 million. China’s exports were mainly through its
special Administrative Region of Hong Kong, which also serves as a
trading center. Hong Kong’s exports amounted to US$8.97 million.
This was followed by Japan (US$7.69 million, 4.2%), USA (US$7.05
million, 3.9%), the Philippines (US$ 6.50 million, 36%) and Sri Lanka
(US$ 5.94 million, 3.3%).

Asia is by far the biggest exporter contributing 59.1% of world

exports or US$107.96 million in 2001. The other regions which
export in significant quantities are Europe (20.6%, US$37.68million),
South America (10.0%, US$18.34 million), North America (3.9%,
US$7.06 million) an the Middle East (3.2%, US$5.81 million). The
major Asian countries involved in the export of ornamental fish are
Singapore (38.5% of Asian supplies), Malaysia (13.3%), Indonesia
(12.7%), China including Hong Kong and Macau (10.2%), Japan
(7.1%), the Philippines (6.0%), Sri Lanka (5.5%), Thailand (3.1%),
Taiwan (1.6%) and India (1.2%).
Last modified: Monday, 21 November 2011, 10:29 AM

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FAQ 212
14.1.3 Demand situation
Total world imports of ornamental fish rose from US$216.327 million
in 1991 to a peak of US$5337.625 million in 1994. Thereafter,
imports declined gradually to US$244.097 million in 1999, raising
slightly to US$246.161 million in 2000 and finishing off at
US$244.618 million in 2001.

Fish keeping is a hobby, which is practiced mainly in the

industrialized countries. Consequently, the main importers of
ornamental fish are USA, Japan and countries in Western Europe.
Total world imports of ornamental fish in 2001 were valued at
US$244.62 million. The top importer was the USA with US$61.77
million worth of imports equivalent to 25.3% of total imports. This
90
was followed by Japan with US$528.40 million or 11.6% of total
imports. The other major importing countries were Germany
(US$21.09 million; 8.6%), UK (US$21.09 million; 8.6%), France
(US$20.56 million; 8.4%), Singapore (US$9.93 million; 4.1%),
Belgium (US$9.45 million; 3.9%), Italy (US$9.07 million; 3.7%), the
Netherlands (US$8.16 million; 3.3%), China/Hong Kong (3.1%) and
Canada (2.7%). Both Singapore and Hong Kong, being important
trading hubs, re-export a major portion of their imports.
Last modified: Monday, 21 November 2011, 10:29 AM

14.1.4 US market

The USA is the world’s largest single market for ornamental fish. Its
imports declined in value from US$ 77.860 million in 1996 to a low of
US$57 359 million in 1999, and then rose again from 2000 to a figure
of US$61.766 million in 2001. With about 10% of households
possessing aquaria, the country is estimated to have more than 10
million home aquaria. Some 40% of the households with aquaria
have more than one aquarium. The imports are mainly of freshwater
species. With two species the guppy and the neon tetra accounting
for 40% of the market. Some of the other popular species are mollies,
swordtails, goldfish, discus, angelfish, African cichlids, zebra danios
and platies. The major suppliers to the US market are Singapore,
Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia and Brazil.

14.1.5 Japaneese market

Japan is the second largest single market. The growing prohibitions

on keeping animal pets such a cats and dogs in high-rise apartments
has given a boost to the aquariums becoming an important feature of
the home décor. The country is estimated to have some 1.2 million
aquarists. The most popular species are guppy (28% of the market),
neon tetra, red nose tetra, cardinal tetra, black tetra, tiger barb,
harlequin fish, discus, angelfish. Siamese fighting fish, gourami,
platy, swordtail, julli catfish (corydoras), algae eater, white clouds and
Zebra danio. Imports fell in value gradually from US$73.94 million in
1996 to US$28.398 million in 2001. The decline has been attributed
mainly to the recession the country has been going through. The
main suppliers to the Japanese market are Singapore, Brazil,
Indonesia, Malaysia, USA and China (Hong Kong).

14.1.6 Western Europe market

91
Western Europe is the largest trade block. It imports almost 40% of
world ornamental fish production. Freshwater species account for
more than 90% of imports by value, the rest being marine fish,
invertebrates and live rocks. Among the most popular species are
neon tetra, cardinal tetra, guppy, platy, swordtail. Siamese fighting
fish, angelfish, corydoras, rasbora, gouramy and loach. Imports fell
from US$123.226 million in 1996 to US$107.217 million in 2000
rising slightly to US$107.767 million in 2001. The major suppliers to
this market are Singapore the Czech Republic Israel and Japan. The
top importing countries in 2001 were Germany (21.0%), UK (19.6%),
France (19.1%), Belgium (8.8%), Italy (8.4%) and the Netherlands
(7.6%). The main suppliers to the Western Europe market are
Singapore, Czech Republic, Israel, Japan, Malaysia, Indonesia,
China (Hong Kong), Sri Lanka, Thailand, USA and Brazil.

14.1.7Indian scenario
India, despite its vast area of sea coast and flow of perennial rivers
and consequent abundant resources of freshwater and marine
ornamentals, is still way behind other developing countries in the
matter of development of this trade. In fact, the natural resources of
India are more varied as compared to those of Sri Lanka, Africa,
Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia. Several freshwater varieties of
Indian fishes are well known in the international market. The lagoons
and coral reefs of lakshadweep and Minicoy islands. Andaman &
Nicobar Islands, Gulf of kutch complex, coast of kerala around cape
comorin, Gulf of mannar and Palk Bay abound with highly attractive
and varied species of ornamental fishes. We could certainly makes a
good deal of money and enjoy a considerable share in the world
trade by supplying marine ornamental fishes and live rocks
originating from the vast resources which are the basic material
essential in keeping the aquarium environment healthy. Live rocks
afford organisms living in it a much longer life span. Poor knowledge
on the part of our people about aquariculture and live fish trade could
be the principal reason for our backwardness in this field.

India’s contribution to global aquarium trade is worth of Rs.5.7

crores, 0.5 per cent of international trade in 2005-06 while we have a
great potential to increase the level of exports to about US$30 million
(about Rs.110 crores) every year.
Last modified: Monday, 21 November 2011, 10:33 AM

14.2.1 Trade regulations and wildlife act in relation to

ornamental fishes
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The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 refers to a package of legislation
enacted in 1972 by the Govt. of India applicable to entire India except
Jammu and Kashmir which has its own separate act. The act
consists of established schedules that lists protected plant and
animal species and hunting or harvesting these species was largely
outlawed.

It has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection.

Schedule I and part II of Schedule II provide absolute protection -
offences under these are prescribed the highest penalties. Species
listed in Schedule IV are also protected, but the penalties are much
lower. Enforcement authorities have the power to compound offences
under this Schedule (i.e. they impose fines on the offenders).

14.2.2 Definitions under the act

The act provides valid definitions for every set of subject described.
Accordingly;

1. "Animal" includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish,

other chordates and invertebrates and also includes their
young and eggs

2. "Animal article" means an article made from any captive or wild

animal, other than vermin, and includes an article or object in
which the whole or any part of such animal has been used and
an article made therefrom.

3. "Hunting" includes

(a) capturing, killing, poisoning, snaring, or trapping any wild animal,

and every attempt to do so

(b) driving any wild animal for any of the purposes specified in sub
clause

(c) injuring, destroying or taking any body part of any such animal, or
in the case of wild birds or reptiles, disturbing or damaging the eggs
or nests of such birds or reptiles.

4. "Taxidermy" means the curing, preparation or preservation of

trophies.

5. "Trophy" means the whole or any part of any captive or wild

animal (other than vermin) which has been kept or preserved

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 by any means, whether artificial or natural.

This includes:

(a) rugs, skins, and specimens of such animals mounted in whole or

in part through a process of taxidermy

(b) antler, horn, rhinoceros horn, feather, nail, tooth, musk, eggs, and
nests.

"uncured trophy" means the whole or any part of any captive animal
(other than vermin) which has not undergone a process of taxidermy.
This includes a freshly killed wild animal, ambergris, musk and other
animal products.

6. "Vermin" means any wild animal specified in Schedule V.

(Vermin refers to mammals and birds harmful to game and
crops, foxes and rats, parasitic worms or insects).

7. "Wildlife" includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacean,

fish and moths; and aquatic or land vegetation which forms
part of any habitat.

Last modified: Monday, 21 November 2011, 10:39 AM

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FAQ 212
14.2.3 Prohibition of hunting

No person shall hunt any wild animal specified in Schedule, I, II, III
and IV except as provided below. However hunting of wild animals to
be permitted in certain cases like in defense of oneself or of any
other person shall not be an offence.

Provision of grant of permit for special purposes like

a) Education, scientific research and scientific management. The

"scientific management" means – translocation of any wild animal to
an alternative suitable habitat; or population management of wildlife,
without killing or poisoning or destroying any wild animals.

b) Collection of specimens for museums and similar institutions

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c) Derivation, collection or preparation of snake-venom for the
manufacture of life saving drugs.

14.2.4 Trade or commerce in wild animals, animal articles

and trophies

Every wild animal, animal article and trophies is treated as

Government property under the following circumstances

a) Animal, other than vermin, which is hunted or kept or bred in

captivity or hunted in contravention of any provisions of this Act, or
found dead, or killed by mistake is considered as Government
property;

b) Any animal article, trophy or uncured trophy or meat derived from

any wild animal in respect of which any offence against this Act has
been committed;

c) Vehicle, vessel, weapon, trap or tool that has been used for
committing an offence and has been seized under the provision of
this Act shall be the property of the State Government and, where
such animal is hunted in a sanctuary or National Park declared by the
Central Government such animal or any article, trophy, uncured
trophy or meat derived from such animal or any vehicle, vessel,
weapon, trap, or tool used in such hunting, shall be the property of
Central Government.

14.2.5 Reporting of possession of government property

Any person who obtains, by any means, the possession of

Government property, shall, within forty-eight hours of obtaining such
possession, report it to the nearest police station or authorized officer
and shall, if so required, hand over such property to the officer in
charge of such police station or such authorized officer, as the case
may be.

No person shall, without the previous permission in writing of the

Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer acquire or keep in his
possession, custody, or control, or transfer to any person, whether by
way of gift, sale or otherwise, or destroy or damage such
Government property.

14.2.6 Certificate of ownership

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The Chief Wildlife Warden may, issue a certificate of ownership, to
any person who, in his opinion, is in lawful possession of any wild
animal or any animal article, trophy, or uncured trophy, and may,
where possible, mark, in the prescribed manner, such animal article,
trophy or uncured trophy for the purposes of Identification.

14.2.7 Regulation for transfer of animal

A person (other than a dealer) who does not possess a certificate of

ownership shall not sell or offer for sale or transfer whether by way of
sale, gift or otherwise, any wild animal specified in Sch. I or Part II of
Sch. 11 or any captive animal belonging to that category or any
animal article, trophy, uncured trophy or meat derived therefrom;

No person who does not possess a certificate of ownership shall

transfer or transport from one State to another state or acquire by
transfer from outside the State any such animal, animal article, trophy
or uncured trophy as is referred to except with the previous
permission in writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized
officer within whose jurisdiction the transfer is to be effected.

14.2.8 Features of schedule I of wild life act

The Schedule I of wild life act consists of IV parts with enlisted
species protected under the act Viz.

PART I – MAMMALS

PART II – AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

1. Audithia Turtle (Pelochelysbibroni)

2. Crocodiles (including the Estuarine or salt water crocodile)
(Crocodilus porosus and Crocodilus palustris)
3. Gharial (Gravialis gangeticus)
4. Ganges Soft-shelled Turtle (Trionyx gangeticus)
5. Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas)
6. Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata inlscata)
7. Leathery Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
8. Logger Head Turtle (Caretta caretta)
9. Olive Back Logger Head Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea)
10. Peacock-marked Soft-shelled Turtle (Trionyx hurum)

PART IIA – FISHES

1. Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus)

2. Shark and Ray (All Elasmobranchii)
96
 3. Sea Horse (All Sygnathidians)
4. Giant Grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus).”

PART IV- CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS

PART IV A – COELENTERATES

1. Reef Building Coral (All Scleractinians).

2. Black Coral (All Antipatharians).
3. Organ Pipe Coral (Tubipora musica).
4. Fire Coral (all Millipora Specias).
5. Sea Fan (All Gorgonians).

PART IV B – MOLLUSCA

1. Charonia tritonis.
2. Lambis truncata.
3. Lambis chiragra.
4. Lambis chiragra arthritica.
5. Lambis millepeda.
6. Lambis cricea,
7. Lambis scorpius.
8. Conus bengalensis.
9. Conus malne-edwardsi.
10. Conus textile.
11. Conus nobilis.
12. Conus geographus.
13. Conus marmoreus.
14. Cypraea lamacina.
15. Cypraea cribraria.
16. Cypraea tigris.
17. Cypraea mappa.
18. Cypraea talpa.
19. Cypraea carneola.
20. Cypraea mauritiana.
21. Cypraea onyx.
22. Cypraea argus.
23. Cypraea testudinaria.
24. Cypraea moneta.
25. Ovula ovum.
26. 26 Volva volva.
27. Turbo marmopratus.
28. Trochus niloticus.
29. Xancus pyrum.
30. Harpulina lapponica.
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 31. Harpulina arausiaca.
32. Tudicla spiralis.
33. Cypracasis rufa.
34. Cassis cornuta.
35. Murex palmorosae.
36. Murex haustellum
37. Murex ramosus.
38. Strombus plicatus sibbaldi.
39. Strombus listeris.
40. Fasciolaria trapazium.
41. Fusinus longicaudus.
42. Mitra mitra.
43. Mitra papalis.
44. Cymatium pileare.
45. Nautilus pompilius.
46. Tridacna maxima.
47. Tridacna squamosa.
48. Hippopus hippopus.
49. Piter erycina.
50. Pteria brevilata.
51. Placenta placenta
52. Paphia ala-papilionis

Part IV C – ECHINODERMATA

1. Sea Cucumber (All Holothurians).

2. Sponges (all Calcareans)

Last modified: Monday, 21 November 2011, 10:47 AM

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FAQ
Important marine ornamental fishes

 Chapter 1: Food and feeding habits

15.1.1 Important marine ornamental fishes

 Family : Pomacentridae
       1. Damesl : Dascyllus trimaculatus (Three spot Damsel)
       They lay eggs on rocks or pots.
       2. Clown or Anemone fish – Amphiprion sp. (A. clarkia)
 Family : Pomacanthidae

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        1. Marine Angel : Pomocanthus sp. and Centropyge sp.
       Angel has spine on the gill cover.
 Family : Chaetodontidae
      1. Butterfly fish : Chaetodon sp. It has long shout to feed in
the    corals.
 Family : Acanthuridae
      1. Surgeon – Acanthurus sp.
       2. Tang – Zebrasoma flavescens (yellow tang)

15.1.2 Other important marine ornamental fishes

Wrasses
Blennies
Hawk fishes Grammas
Gobies Cat fishes
Squirrel fish Lion fishes
Jaw fishes Sea horses and pipe fishes
Box fishes Puffer fish
Rabbit fish Porcupine fish
Sea bass Trigger fish
Groupers Mandarins
 Last modified: Monday, 21 November 2011, 10:49 AM


15.1.3 Important characters

 1. Marine ornamental fishes are beautiful fishes.

 2. They found in coral reefs.
 3. High care should be taken to maintain marine ornamental
fishes in aquarium.
 4. Good water quality with high dissolved oxygen. Very low
nitrite and ammonia. Hence filters are used to reduce
ammonia.
 5. They fetch higher price than freshwater in the international
market.

15.1.4 Captive breeding is successful only in few marine

ornamental fishes
Breeding of clown fish and sea horses

1. Clown fish

The popular clown fish is brown colour body with two to three white
bands. They have symbiotic relationship with anemones. In an
aquarium, one pair of clowns will become dominant and this will
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harass others or even kill. Clown fish feeds both live and frozen
foods.

Breeding

The naturally paired anemones are introduced in the aquarium or

breeding tank along with anemones. Rocks are provided in order to
facilitate the female to release eggs. The male clean the rock. Then
the female releases 200-300 eggs and male guard the eggs. The
eggs are yellowish in colour. In due course of time, they turn to dark
colour. Hatching takes 7-10 days. The fry are separated and given
rotifiers.

2. Sea horse

Sea horses are very poor swimmers. They have very small mouth.
They anchor most of the time to the corals with their tail.

Breeding :

They have an interesting method of reproduction. The male carries

the eggs in a brood pouch on his belly. During courtship the female
came close to male and expels eggs from its oviduct to the brood
pouch of male. Fertilization takes place when the eggs are in the
pouch. Incubation period is 2 to 8 weeks. After that the fry are
released from the pouch. Fine live foods are give to raise the fry.
 Last modified: Monday, 21 November 2011, 10:51 AM

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