Sprayed Concrete

for Ground Support

Sprayed Concrete for Ground Support

Acknowledgement

BASF wishes to thank all colleagues that were involved in the making of this
completely new edition including Atlas Copco MEYCO AG, BASF’s partner for
sprayed concrete equipment. Their broad practical experience from numerous
job sites worldwide, combined with chemistry and material science knowledge,
made this book possible.
Copyright © BASF Construction Chemicals Europe Ltd., 2014
13th edition, March 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or

introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior written permission of BASF Construction Chemicals Europe Ltd.
Contents

1. INTRODUCTION 13
1.1. Objectives of this book 14
1.2. History of sprayed concrete 15
1.3. Terms, definitions and abbreviations 17
1.4. Sprayed concrete as an application process 24
1.5. Sprayed concrete as a construction process 27
1.6. The current use of sprayed concrete 29

2. TYPICAL PROPERTIES AND PARAMETERS OF

SPRAYED CONCRETE 31
2.1. Water/cement ratio 31
2.2. Fresh concrete properties 32
2.2.1. Workability 32
2.2.1.1. Flow 33
2.2.1.2. Slump and Slump Retention 33
2.2.1.3. Pumpability 36
2.2.2. Temperature of the sprayed concrete mix 37
2.3. Hardened concrete properties 37
2.3.1. Early-age compressive strength 37
2.3.2. Final compressive strength 39
2.3.3. Flexural strength 39
2.3.4. Toughness 40
2.3.4.1. Residual strength classes 40
2.3.4.2. Energy absorption capacity 41
2.3.5. Modulus of elasticity 41
2.3.6. Bond strength to substrate 42
2.3.7. Shrinkage 43
2.3.8. Density 44
2.3.9. Resistance to water penetration 44
2.3.10. Permeability 44
2.3.11. Resistance to freezing and thawing 45
2.3.12. Absorption and volume of permeable voids 46
2.3.13. Durability 47

3. CONSTITUENT MATERIALS AND

REQUIREMENTS 49
3.1. Cement 49
3.1.1. Cement Production 49
3.1.2. Cement Types and Constituents 51
3.1.3. Cement Phases 52
3.1.4. Cement Hydration 54
3.1.4.1. Chemical reactions of cement hydration 54
3.1.4.2. Microstructure development: crystal growth 54
3.1.4.3. Contributions of hydration products to strength development 56
3.1.5. Typical characteristics of cement related to sprayed concrete 57
3.1.6. Economical and environmental megatrend 58
3.2. Aggregates 60
3.3. Additives 65
3.3.1. Silica fume (Microsilica) 66
3.3.2. Fly ash (Pulverized Fuel Ash or PFA) 68
3.3.3. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (BFS, GGBS, GGBFS) 68
3.3.4. Limestone 69
3.3.5. Summary 69
3.4. Water 70
3.4.1. Mixing water 70
3.4.2. Curing water 71
3.5. Chemical Admixtures 71
3.5.1. Admixture types 73
3.5.2. Plasticizers/superplasticizers 74
3.5.3. Hydration Control Admixture 81
3.5.4. Viscosity Modifying Admixtures (VMA) 84
3.5.5. Curing agents 85
3.5.5.1. Concrete improvers - internal curing compounds 87
3.5.6. Air Entraining Admixtures (AEA) 89
3.5.7. Accelerators 89
3.5.7.1. Sodium silicates 90
3.5.7.2. Aluminates 91
3.5.7.3. Alkali-free accelerators (AFA) 92
3.5.7.4. Physical properties and performance characteristics 92
3.5.7.5. Alkalinity and corrosiveness 102
3.5.8. Cement – set accelerator interactions 103
3.5.8.1. Hydration process by accelerators 103
3.6. Testing of early strength development 104
3.6.1. Laboratory scale testing of cement pastes and mortars 104
3.6.1.1. Standard materials preparation for laboratory scale testing 105
3.6.1.1.1. Mortar 105
3.6.1.2. Physical tests 105
3.6.1.2.1. The prism for physical testing 105
3.6.1.2.2. Initial and final setting time 106
3.6.1.2.3. Compressive strength 108
3.6.1.2.4. Measurement of the continuous development of resistance to
penetration 108
3.6.1.2.5. Isothermal Calorimetry 110
3.6.2. Full-scale testing of sprayed concrete in controlled conditions 112
3.6.2.1. The sprayed concrete laboratory 112
3.6.2.2. Measuring setting and hardening of sprayed concrete 113
3.7. Reinforcement of sprayed concrete 115
3.7.1. Steel reinforcement 115
3.7.2. Fiber reinforcement 117
3.7.2.1. Types and classification of fibers 117
3.7.2.2. Steel fibers 120
3.7.2.3. Polymer fibers 126
3.7.2.4. Design aspects 131

4. SPRAYED CONCRETE METHODS 133

4.1. The wet-mix method 134
4.1.1. Description 135
4.1.2. Economical aspects 136
4.1.3. Working environment 136
4.1.4. Quality 136
4.1.5. Advantages and disadvantages 137
4.2. The dry-mix method 138
4.2.1. Description 139
4.2.2. Problems related to the dry-mix method 142
4.2.3. Advantages and Disadvantages 143

5. MIX DESIGN 145

5.1. Requirements for the sprayed concrete mix 145
5.2. Requirements for durability 145
5.2.1. Chloride content 146
5.2.2. Alkali content 146
5.2.3. Environmental conditions 146
5.3. Specification for sprayed concrete 147
5.3.1. Data for specifying designed mixes 148
5.3.2. Data for specifying prescribed mixes 148
5.4. Guidance for mix proportioning 149
5.4.1. Wet-mix 150
5.4.2. Dry-mix 151
5.5. Assessment of conformity 156

6. BATCHING, MIXING AND TRANSPORTATION 157

6.1. Batching 157
6.1.1. Admixtures 157
6.1.2. Fibers 158
6.1.3. Prepackaged dry-mix material 158
6.2. Mixing of sprayed concrete 158
6.3. Transportation of sprayed concrete mixes 159

7. PLACEMENT OF SPRAYED CONCRETE 161

7.1. Preliminary procedures 161
7.1.1. Surface preparation 162
7.1.2. Reinforcement 165
7.1.3. Joints 166
7.1.4. Protection of adjacent surfaces 167
7.2. Application of sprayed concrete 167
7.2.1. Delivery and pump equipment 167
7.2.2. Access and visibility 168
7.2.3. Control of mixing water 168
7.2.4. Impact velocity 168
7.2.5. Nozzle technique and manipulation 169
7.2.6. Thickness and work position 169
7.2.7. Execution 169
7.2.7.1. Mechanized wet-mix spraying 171
7.2.7.2. Raising competence levels 172
7.2.8. Encasing reinforcement 173
7.2.9. Multiple layers 174
7.2.10. Rebound and overspray 174
7.2.11. Suspension of work 178
7.3. Finishing 178
7.3.1. Screed and float finish 180
7.3.2. Cladding systems 180
7.4. Tolerances 181
7.5. Curing 181
7.5.1. Curing methods 183
7.6. Hot-weather application 184
7.7. Cold-weather application 185
8. SPRAYED CONCRETE EQUIPMENT 187
8.1. Wet-mix spraying machines 188
8.2. Dry-mix spraying machines 196
8.3. Mobile spraying equipment 201
8.3.1. Carriers 201
8.3.2. Remote-controlled manipulators 202
8.3.2.1. Basic spraying booms 204
8.3.2.2. Spraying booms 204
8.3.2.3. Computer-assisted booms 207
8.3.2.4. Computer-controlled booms 207
8.3.2.4.1. MEYCO Logica Technology 208
8.3.3. Other equipment and systems 212
8.3.3.1. Ring beam installations such as for TBM 212
8.3.3.2. Shaft-sinking installations 213
8.3.4. Benefits of mechanized spraying 214
8.4. Compressed air requirements 215
8.4.1. Air requirements for dry spraying 215
8.4.2. Air requirements for wet spraying 216
8.5. Dosing equipment and systems 217
8.5.1. Dosing equipment for wet-mix spraying 218
8.5.2. Dosing equipment for dry-mix spraying 218
8.5.3. Dosing accuracy 219
8.6. Conveying systems and spraying nozzles 220
8.7. Data logging and testing equipment 221
8.7.1. MEYCO Data 222
8.7.2. Testing equipment 223
8.8. Trends and new developments 226
8.8.1. Measurement of layer thickness 227
8.8.2. Data exchange between underground equipment 228
8.8.3. High-pressure water scaling for surface preparation 228

9. TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL 232

9.1. Design and quality control 232
9.2. Materials 232
9.3. Application equipment 233
9.4. Craftsmanship 233
9.5. Inspection 233
9.6. Testing procedures 233
10. SAFETY, HEALTH AND ECOLOGY 234
10.1. Hazards related to application of sprayed concrete 234
10.2. Chemical admixtures and complementary products 235
10.3. Working environment 235
10.4. Environment 238
10.5. Conclusions 239

11. PERMANENT SPRAYED CONCRETE TUNNEL

LININGS 240
11.1. General requirements for permanent sprayed concrete 242
11.2. Durability issues 243
11.2.1. “Buildable” design 243
11.2.2. Durability and design life 244
11.2.3. Durability and tunnel use 245
11.2.3.1. Sulfate resistance of sprayed concrete with alkali-free accelerators 245
11.2.4. Design and specification for durability 246
11.2.4.1. Fire Resistance 247
11.3. Cost effectiveness 251
11.4. Recent developments 252
11.5. Conclusions 253

12. OUTLOOK 256

13. PROJECT REFERENCES 258

- EUROPE
13.1. Toven tunnel, Nordland County, Norway 258
13.2. Boliden Mines, Kristineberg & Renström, Sweden 259
13.3. NEAT Gotthard Base Tunnel, Lot 151 Erstfeld & Lot 252
Amsteg, Switzerland 260
13.4. Koralmtunnel, Lot 2, Austria 261
13.5. Schwäbisch Gmünd Tunnel, Germany 262
13.6. A3 Hindhead Road Tunnel, Surrey, England 263
13.7. Croix Rousse Tunnel, Lyon, France 264
13.8. A86 – Balbigny / La Tour de Salvagny Highway, France 265
13.9. C–15 Highway, Vilanova y la Geltrú, Manresa, Catalonia, Spain 266
13.10. High speed railway line from Madrid through Castilla
La Mancha and the region of Valencia and Murcia, Spain 267
13.11. Galleria Cassia-Monte Mario tunnel, Rome, Italy 268
- ASIA-PACIFIC
13.12. Downtown Line Stage 1, Contract 905 (DTL1, C905): Design &
 Construction of Tunnels between Promenade Station
and Marina Bay, Singapore 269
13.13. Pirpanjal Rail Tunnel, Jammu & Kashmir, India 270
13.14. Liyang Pumped Storage Hydro Project, Jiangsu Province, China 271
13.15. Perilya Mine, NSW, Australia 272
13.16. Olympic Dam Mine, SA, Australia 273
- NORTH AMERICA
13.17. Devil’s Slide Tunnel, San Francisco, USA 274
13.18. Niagara Tunnel Project, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada 275
13.19. No 7 Line Extension, Station Cavern, New York, USA 276
13.20. Soudan Mine, Soudan, MN, USA 277
13.21. Mexico City - Tuxpan Highway, Mexico 278
- SOUTH AMERICA
13.22. Metro Line A, Buenos Aires, Argentina 279
13.23. Metro Line 5, Caracas, Venezuela 280
13.24. Metro Line 4, Santiago, Chile 281
13.25. Volcan Mines, Andes mountain range, Peru 281
13.26. Amoya Hydroelectric dam, Tolima, Colombia 282

14. BIBLIOGRAPHY 284

1. INTRODUCTION
Underground construction contributes uniquely to the sustainable
development of new subsurface space for public and infrastructure
use. Improving the world beneath us means improving the world that
lies above us. The nature of today’s projects and future challenges
demand that the boundaries of technical limitations are pushed back
wherever they exist. To prevail over them, continuous advances in
equipment design, product technologies, working processes and
design engineering are required to expand horizons underground.

A well-known fact about the construction industry – and underground

construction in particular – is that all projects are unique. The degree
of complexity caused by the intertwining of a variety of project-related
parameters is higher than in many other industries, forcing designers,
contractors and suppliers to connect continuously to seek optimized
solutions.

Sprayed concrete has been defined as a building material, as a way of

placing concrete, and as a ground support method. It characterizes
a traditional but likewise highly innovative technology. The enormous
development of sprayed concrete, including material science and
performance together with advances in spraying equipment technology,
have made it the building material of choice for today’s underground
construction works. The development of modern wet-mix sprayed
concrete in particular has contributed considerably to this effort.
Projects that were impossible to realize have now become achievable.
Subsurface structures can be placed where they are needed by providing
appropriate excavation support, sealing and strengthening the ground
where required.

We take sprayed concrete further. Much more than simply a means of

temporary ground support, it can be applied as a final concrete lining
in tunnels and other underground structures, as part of an integrated
design concept including waterproofing and even fire protection. With
such novel concepts, sprayed concrete plays an integral part in faster,
more efficient and sustainable construction methods.

BASF, with its global underground construction team, broadens hori-

zons through continual innovation in the latest product technology and

13
 engineering knowledge, committed to accepting challenges and ensur-
ing safety for workers and the environment in the fields of tunneling and
underground mining. BASF’s Master Builders Solutions brand brings
expertise together to create chemical solutions for new construction,
maintenance, repair and renovation of structures. Master Builders
Solutions is built on the experience gained from more than a century in
the construction industry.

Figure 1-0: Permanent sprayed concrete lining, metro line M2,

Lausanne, Switzerland

1.1. Objectives of this book

This book covers many aspects of sprayed concrete construction

including materials, requirements, application processes, proportion-
ing of mixes, equipment, preliminary procedures, placement, test-
ing and quality control. New developments in the design of sprayed
concrete tunnel linings and special applications of sprayed concrete
are discussed. A chapter with reference projects from throughout the
world where BASF’s Master Builders Solutions products are used,
giving examples of mixes, product dosages and performances is also
included.

14
 The techniques and procedures described in this book are based on
many years of practice and experience. No attempt is made to provide
guidelines for the design of sprayed concrete structures or installations.
As procedures vary from one country to another, adjustments may be
required to meet the needs of the specific project.

1.2. History of sprayed concrete

The history of sprayed concrete is directly related to the limitations of the

application of conventional cast concrete. Concrete is surely the most
versatile construction material in use worldwide. Since concrete is strong
enough in compression, it forms the basic material for most massive
structures. Before concrete starts to set, its fluidity allows it to assume
the most complex geometries or shapes. With the addition of reinforce-
ment, every element of a structure can be formed from concrete. The
only drawback to the use of concrete is the need for formwork or shut-
ters, which are required to create a casting mould for the concrete as
long as it is in a fluid state.1

Sprayed concrete, like many new products, was developed in the 19th
century to meet specific, individual needs. In 1895 Dr Carlton Akeley, the
curator at the Field Museum of Natural Science in Chicago, USA, was
looking for a way to create models of prehistoric animals. The manufac-
ture of a skeleton frame had been successful, but the body shapes could
not be formed using conventional trowelled mortars.

The development of a device was required to enable the mortar mixture

to be sprayed. Dr Akeley succeeded in developing a single chamber
pressure vessel which contained a mixture of cement and sand. Under
the pressure of compressed air, the mixture was forced through an open-
ing and along a delivery hose. A nozzle, which was equipped with a water
spray, was placed at the end of the hose. The mixture was hydrated when
passing through this spray.

The equipment developed by Dr Akeley was known as the “Cement Gun”

and the sprayed material was named “Gunite”. In 1911 the methods were
patented and taken over by the Cement Gun Company.

1 See Sprayed Concrete Association, Introduction to Sprayed Concrete, 1999, Page 3f

15
 Figure 1-1: Early machine for dry-mix sprayed concrete, Oakley 1900

During the use of the early machines a dry mix of sand and cement was
placed into the pressurized chamber. The mix was then conducted from
the chamber to a nozzle where water was added. This method was
therefore labeled the “dry process”. At the same time as the dry process
was being developed, the “True Gun” method evolved. In this technique,
sand and cement had to be fully mixed with water before being pumped
through a completely different machine. This method, which became
known as the “wet process” due to the difference in mixing, was not fully
developed commercially until the later part of the 1970s when Norwegian
contractors developed machines able to apply wet sprayed concrete
robotically in tunneling projects.

Figure 1-2: Early sprayed concrete machines

16
 Figure 1-3: Modern sprayed concrete manipulator (MEYCO Roadrunner)

Sprayed concrete was initially used to repair reinforced concrete. Thanks

to its advantages, sprayed concrete was soon adopted for new-build
construction. Nowadays, the use of sprayed concrete for structural
repair, fire protection, tunnel and refractory linings and other structures
(e.g. river walls, domes, shell structures etc.) is common.

In the early days, sprayed concrete was not a high-quality product. To

achieve sufficient adherence of the sprayed concrete to the excavated
ground, large quantities of aggressive accelerating additives were need-
ed. The resulting environmental conditions for workers, especially in the
confined space of a tunnel, were very unhealthy because of the nature
of the additives and the large quantity of dust produced during applica-
tion. Furthermore, the quality of sprayed concrete varied a lot and its final
strengths were much lower than those of conventional cast concrete.

Today sprayed concrete is accepted and used worldwide , and alkali-free

accelerators in particular have contributed to a much safer and healthier
working environment. Sprayed concrete allows the construction of com-
plex shapes and structures without the high costs associated with form-
work. If installed properly by experienced applicators, sprayed concrete
provides designers with a cost-effective and flexible method to create
and repair concrete structures.

1.3. Terms, definitions and abbreviations

Regarding terminology, ‘Gunite’ was the original name for the sprayed
mixture of sand and cement. Other terms have been used, including

17
 ‘sprayed concrete’, ‘shot concrete’ and ‘shotcrete’. When describing
a mix with maximum aggregate size greater than 10 mm, ‘shotcrete’ is
often used. Today, it is the norm to use the term ‘shotcrete’ in the United
States and the term ‘sprayed concrete’ in Europe. The term ‘sprayed
concrete’ is used in this book for every sprayed mixture of cement and
aggregates.

The following definitions cover terms used in this book (in alphabetical
order):
< A AR – Alkali Aggregate Reaction – expansion of siliceous aggregates

with alkali of concrete; see also ASR.

< A ccelerator – admixture in powder or liquid form used to accelerate

the reaction of cement in placed sprayed concrete.

< A dditives – mineral materials, which can be added to the concrete mix

at the batching plant.

< A dmixtures for concrete – according to EN 934-2: “Material added

during the mixing process of concrete in a quantity not more than 5 %

by mass of the cement content of concrete, to modify the properties
of the mix in the fresh and / or hardened state.”
< A EA – Air entraining admixture – according to EN 934–2 “admixture

which allows a controlled quantity of small, uniformly distributed air bub-

bles to be incorporated during mixing which remain after hardening.”
< A FA – Alkali-free Set Accelerator.

< A ggregates – granular material used in concrete production.

Aggregates may be natural or recycled. Size and shape are important

factors to be considered.
< A KR potential – Alkali Kieselsäure Reaction; indicator of the risk for

AAR/ASR.
< A lkali equivalent (% Na O) – total amount (%) of sodium and potassium
2
ions, calculated as total sodium oxide. Important durability factor.
< A spect ratio, fiber – the ratio of length to diameter of a fiber. The

equivalent diameter may be considered as diameter.

< A SR – Alkali Silica Reaction – some reactive aggregates undergo a

chemical reaction with reactive portions, e.g. alkali, of concrete. ASR

leads to expansion, cracking and deterioration of concrete. See also
AAR and AKR.
< B FS – Blast Furnace Slag.

< B laine - fineness e.g. of cement; ranges from approx. 3000–5000

cm2/g cement, depending on cement type.

18
< B
 leeding – separation of water from concrete mix with poor mix
design. Negative impact on pumping and performances.
< B
 NS – beta(ß)-naphthalenesulfonate – mid-range water-reducing

admixture (MRWR).
< B
 ond – adherence of concrete to any substrate.

<  wc – by weight of cement per m3 concrete. Typically used for dos-

b
ages (% bwc) of admixtures and additives.
< C
 ations – any positively charged atom or group of atoms, e.g. Na+, K+.

< C
 ylinder filling percentage – degree of filling of the sprayed concrete

pump’s conveying cylinder.

< C
 ompressive strength – by definition, the compressive strength of

a material is the value of uniaxial compressive stress reached when

the material fails completely. The compressive strength is usually
obtained experimentally by means of a compressive test.
< C
 oncrete – material formed by mixing cement, aggregate and water,

with or without admixtures and additions, which develops its proper-

ties through hydration of the cement.
< C
 onsistency – the consistence of Sprayed Concrete Types S1 and

P2 shall be measured by the Flow Table test to EN 12350-5 after the

addition of fiber and plasticizer to the required dosages.
< C
 reep – increase in strain over time under a sustained stress (see

also relaxation). The term “specific creep” is often used. It is the creep
strain per unit stress (typically in units of 10-6 -/MPa).
< C
 uring – hardening of concrete and treatment of the concrete surface

to prevent concrete from drying out.

< C
 uring agents – film-forming chemicals preventing concrete from dry-

ing out. Curing agents are sprayed on the surface of fresh concrete.
< D
 enier – measure of fiber diameter. It is taken as the mass in grams of

9000 m of the fiber. It is often used to indicate the fineness of microfib-

ers.
< D
 ry-mix sprayed concrete – sprayed concrete in which most of the

mixing water is added at the nozzle.

< D
 uctility – the ability of a material to deform easily upon the applica-

tion of a tensile force, or the ability of a material to withstand plastic

deformation without rupture.
< D
 urability – the capability of concrete to resist weathering action,

chemical attack and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineer-

ing properties. It normally refers to the duration or life span of trouble-
free performance. Different concretes require different degrees of

19
 durability depending on the exposure environment and properties
desired.
< D
 urability factor – percentage of weight loss after 300 freeze-thaw test

cycles.
< E
 arly age compressive strength – strength developed by young

sprayed concrete (up to an age of 24 hours).

< E
 quivalent diameter, fiber – diameter of a circle with an area equal to

the cross-section area of the fiber.

< F
 alse set – rapid hardening of freshly mixed cement paste, mortar or

concrete with minimum generation of heat. It is evidenced by a sig-

nificant loss of plasticity without the generation of much heat shortly
after mixing. Plasticity can be restored by mixing without the addition
of water.
< F
 ine aggregate – fraction smaller than 4 mm (ISO sieve) or material

fraction passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4 ASTM-sieve).

< F
 lash set – rapid hardening of freshly mixed cement paste, mortar or

concrete with considerable heat generation resulting primarily from

the rapid reaction of aluminates. Plasticity cannot be regained either
by mixing or by the addition of water. It can be caused either by a lack
of gypsum in cement or by overdosing of the set accelerator.
< F
 low – indicator/measure for consistency and workability.

< F
 resh concrete – concrete that is fully mixed and still in a condition that

is capable of being compacted by the chosen method.

< F
 RSC - Fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete – concrete containing dis-

continuous discrete fibers (synthetic and steel fibers) and applied at

high velocity onto a surface.
< G
 GBFS – Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag.

< G
 GBS – Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (see also GGBFS,

BFS).
< H
 ardened concrete – concrete that is in a solid state and which has

developed certain strength.

< H
 ardening accelerating admixture – according to EN 934-2: “admix-

ture which increases the rate of development of early strength in the

concrete, with or without affecting the setting time.”
< H
 igh-range water-reducing / superplasticizing admixture – according

to EN 934-2 “admixture which, without affecting the consistence,

permits a high reduction in the water content of a given concrete mix,
or which, without affecting the water content increases the slump /
flow considerably, or produces both effects simultaneously.”
< H
 RWR – high-range water-reducing admixture.

20
< Interfacial zone – zone between two layers either of the same material
or between different materials.
< L
 eachate – any liquid that, in passing through matter, extracts solutes,

suspended solids or any other component of the material through

which it has passed, or liquid enriched through elution [51].
< L
 eaching – Extraction of soluble components of a solid in contact with

a liquid [51].
< L
 ignosulfonate – LS, LRWR water-reducing admixture.

< L
 RWR – low-range water-reducing admixture.

< L
 S – Lignosulfonate (LRWR plasticizer).

< L
 ubrication – lubrication of pumping hoses by a cement slurry or by

chemical lubricants to facilitate pumpability of concrete.

< M
 acrofiber – a fiber for use in concrete with an equivalent diameter

greater than or equal to 0.3 mm.

< M
 FS – Melamine Formaldehyde Sulfonate – HRWR superplasticizer.

< M
 icrofiber – a fiber for use in concrete with an equivalent diameter less

than 0.3 mm.

< M
 RWR – mid-range water-reducing admixture.

< M
 S – Microsilica (silica fume) – a fine-grain, very high surface area

silica. It is a highly active pozzolanic material and it has a high capac-

ity to incorporate foreign ions, particularly alkalis. It consists of fine
vitreous particles with a specific surface area of 20–35 m2/g, with
particles approximately one hundredth the size of the average cement
particle. The proportion of SiO2 varies from 65 to 97%, depending on
the quality of the product. Addition of microsilica to concrete leads
to an important improvement in the quality of the sprayed concrete,
apparent in the increased compressive strength and density.
< M
 SDS – Material Safety Data Sheet, contains all relevant information

on material properties, safety, health and environment.

< N
 ATM – New Austrian Tunneling Method.

< N
 on-alkaline sprayed concrete set accelerating admixture – according

to EN 934-5: “sprayed concrete set accelerating admixture according

to 3.2.2 with an alkali content (given as Na2O – equivalent) not exceed-
ing 1.0 % by mass of the admixture.”
< N
 S – Naphthalene Sulfonate; mid-range water-reducing admixture

(see also BNS).

< O
 pen time – the time during which concrete can be placed at site.

Placing can be carried out by hand application, pouring or spraying.

< P
 CE – Polycarboxylate Ether: water-reducing admixtures: super or

hyperplasticizer.

21
 < P
 umpability – the pumpability of concrete is its ability to move through
pipes and hoses with the help of a pump while maintaining its fresh
and hardened properties. It can be quantified as being better the
lower the necessary pressure to obtain a given flow in a specific con-
figuration and set-up (pump type/capacity, pipes/hoses, diameter/
length etc).
< P
 umping aids – chemical pumping aids or viscosity modifying admix-

tures are added to the concrete mix to improve consistency and to

avoid segregation and blockages.
< R
 ebound – material which, having passed through a spraying nozzle,

does not adhere to the surface to which sprayed concrete is being

applied.
< R
 elaxation – decrease in stress with time in a sample under constant

strain (see also creep).

< S
 etting – initial chemical reaction of cement, mortar or concrete in the

early stage. Initial and final set are indicators of the speed of hydra-
tion.
< S
 et-accelerating admixture – according to EN 934-2: “admixture

which decreases the time to commencement of transition of the mix

from the plastic to the rigid state.”
< S
 et-retarding admixture – according to EN 934-2: “admixture which

extends the time to commencement of transition of the mix from the

plastic to the rigid state.”
< S
 F – abbreviation of Silica Fume.

< S
 lump/slump retention – measure for consistency and workability or

workability retention over a required time.

< S
 hrinkage – this term is used to describe the various aspects of vol-

ume changes in concrete due to loss of moisture at different stages

for different reasons.
< S
 pacing factor – according to EN 480-11: “calculated parameter relat-

ed to the maximum distance of any point in the cement paste from the
periphery of an air void, measured through the cement paste; units
are mm. The calculation of this parameter assumes that all air voids
present are of uniform size and are evenly distributed through the
cement paste such that the model system has the same total volume
and surface area as the real system.”
< S
 prayed concrete – a mixture of cement, aggregate with a maximum

size of 8 mm or greater and water, which may contain admixtures,

projected pneumatically at high velocity from a nozzle into place to
produce a dense homogeneous mass.

22
< S
 prayed concrete admixture – according to EN 934-5: “material
added to the concrete mix before or during the spraying process, in
a quantity not exceeding 5 % by mass of cement, except for sprayed
concrete set accelerating admixture, where the dosage should not
exceed 12 %, to modify the properties of the mix in the fresh and/or
hardened state.”
< S
 prayed concrete set accelerating admixture – according to EN 934–5

“admixture to develop very early setting of the sprayed concrete dif-

fering from set accelerating admixtures as defined and specified in
EN 934-2.”
< S
 ubstrate – surface to which the sprayed concrete is applied.

< S
 urface – substrate to which concrete is applied. Can be rock, soil,

concrete or other materials.

< T
 oughness of fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete – as described in ACI

506.1R-08, toughness with respect to fiber- reinforced sprayed con-

crete generally relates to the ability of a sprayed concrete specimen to
absorb energy before and after cracking, and is normally considered
in the flexural mode of failure. Described another way, it is a measure
of the specimen’s ability to carry load after cracking.
< V
 MA – Viscosity Modifying Admixture. See also pumping aids.

< W
 ater/cement ratio (w/c) – the weight ratio of water to the weight of

cement used in a concrete mix. It has an important influence on the

quality of concrete produced (workability, strength and quality of a
defined concrete mix).
< W
 ater penetration – penetration of water into concrete. Important

durability factor.
< W
 ater reducing/plasticizing admixtures – according to EN 934-2:

“admixture which without affecting the consistence, permits a reduc-

tion in the water content of a given concrete mix, or which, without
affecting the water content increases the slump/flow or produces
both effects simultaneously.”
< W
 ater-retaining admixture – according to EN 934-2: “admixture which

reduces the loss of water by a reduction of bleeding.”

< W
 et-mix sprayed concrete – sprayed concrete in which all of the ingre-

dients, including water, are mixed before introduction into the delivery
hose. Compressed air is introduced to the material flow at the nozzle.
If a set accelerator is used it is normally added at the nozzle.
< Y
 oung sprayed concrete – sprayed concrete up to an age of 24

hours.

23
1.4. Sprayed concrete as an application process

Sprayed concrete is one of several ways to cast concrete. As with tradi-

tional methods of casting, sprayed concrete also makes special demands
on the characteristics of the concrete during casting. At the same time, all
the normal technological demands on concrete, such as w/c ratio, amount
of cement, correct consistency and curing, must be met.

Sprayed concrete also requires application by well qualified under-

ground personnel. The application equipment for both dry-mix and wet-
mix sprayed concrete have improved substantially. The state-of-the-art
equipment for sprayed concrete application is presented in Chapter 8
of this book.

Sprayed concrete application adequate for standard construction

requirements can be achieved by either wet-mix or dry-mix methods.
With the dry-mix method, the water required for hydration is added at
the spraying nozzle, while with the wet-mix method the concrete mixture
already contains the necessary water for hydration, i.e. water is added to
the other materials in the mix at the batching plant. During application,
before reaching the surface of the ground or substrate, the concrete mix
passes through the spraying nozzle at high velocity (for wet-mix spraying
at approx. 30 to 50 m/s), where additional components of the concrete
mix, e.g. accelerators, can be added. The finished concrete mix is then
sprayed under high pressure onto the surface of the ground or substrate
to form a strongly compacted concrete lining. More details of both wet-
mix and dry-mix methods are presented in Chapter 4 of this book.

Economic and technical differences may make one method or the other
more attractive for a particular application. Deciding factors may be
the capital and maintenance costs of equipment, operational features,
suitability of available aggregate and placement characteristics. In the
following Table 1-1 the main features of the wet-mix method and the dry
mix method are compared.

24
 Wet-Mix
Main Features Dry-Mix Method
Method
Equipment capital cost + -
Output 0 +
Equipment complexity + 0
Operating cost - +
Conveying distance + 0
Rebound - +
Dust - +
Use of fibers - +
Key: + advantage, 0 neutral, - disadvantage

Table 1-1: General comparison of dry-mix method and wet-mix method

Wet-mix spraying has been most commonly used as this method gives a
better working environment (high standard of health and safety), a higher
and more consistent quality, and much higher production rates, with
output rates as high as 20 – 30 m3 per hour, and low rebound (less than
10 %). With dry-mix spraying, much higher rebound levels (approx. 30 to
50 %) and lower performance should be expected.

The total cost of the sprayed concrete process is probably the most
disputed issue during the decision process. Some contractors focus
on material and equipment costs and put less emphasis on differences
in labor, while others are willing to consider all imaginable influences,
including savings on total construction time. Where sprayed concrete
volumes are in the order of more than 50,000 m3, the difference in con-
struction time can easily reach several months in a pure calculation of the
time needed to place a certain volume of sprayed concrete onto the tun-
nel wall. The wet-mix process demands higher material costs, which is
compensated by the multiplying effects of low rebound and high output.

The wet-mix method requires a rather simple supply system, using tech-
nology readily available in most countries, such as normal batching plants,
ordinary Portland cements, truck mixers etc. The wet-mix design focuses
on pumpability, low water/cement ratio and open time. The use of acceler-
ating admixtures at the nozzle enables adaptability to given spraying condi-
tions, e.g. position of application and water ingress. The wear costs of the
whole wet-mix process are by far lower than those of dry-mix processes.

25
 Cement
Aggregates
Admixtures
Water

Accelerator
Electricity
Compressed air

Batching plant Truck mixer Spraymobile with manipulator

Figure 1-4: Main logistical components of the wet-mix method

Figure 1-5: Mechanized application of wet-mix sprayed concrete on the

tunnel invert

26
1.5. Sprayed concrete as a construction process

Sprayed concrete has been established and developed worldwide as a

construction process for conventional tunneling. Advances in sprayed
concrete technology have enabled the worldwide development of the
New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM), which was proposed during a
lecture by Rabcewicz in Salzburg (Austria) in 1962, as well as the devel-
opment of related construction techniques, particularly in rock in the
Alps subject to high in-situ stresses. To conform with NATM principles,
the inherent strength of the ground around the tunnel area should be
conserved and deliberately mobilized to the maximum extent possible.
Sprayed concrete as part of the initial support system of tunnels has con-
tributed significantly to achieving the mobilization of the ground surround-
ing the tunnel section. This mobilization can be achieved by controlled
deformation of the ground. The use of this construction technique in rock,
with maximum mobilization of the strength of the surrounding ground and
continuous geotechnical monitoring, has resulted in lower loads acting on
the permanent support, and hence a more economical and practical sup-
port system can be safely achieved. However, excessive ground deforma-
tion, which leads to loss of strength or high surface settlements, must be
avoided. An updated insight into NATM is provided in [36].

Today it is clearly agreed that NATM is an approach to tunneling or a

philosophy rather than a set of excavation and support techniques.
NATM has been redefined by some institutions and some authors. New
features have been added or some of its main principles disregarded to
suit particular tunneling purposes or to clarify resulting conflicts. In some
countries, e.g. Germany, NATM has been renamed as sprayed con-
crete construction process. The Institution of Civil Engineers in the UK
has renamed NATM as Sprayed Concrete Lining (SCL) for soft ground
applications.

The use of SCL for tunnels in soft ground in urban areas is based on
construction techniques that include sequential excavation, the applica-
tion of sprayed concrete as a primary lining and geotechnical monitoring.
This type of application is relatively recent, compared to its use in rock.
Installation of primary excavation support in soft ground is required as
soon as possible after excavation, in order to maintain stability of the
excavation and in many cases, e.g. in urban areas, to limit settlement and
avoid damage to overlying structures. Excavation work must be divided

27
 into sufficiently short stages and rapid completion of primary support,
i.e. rapid closure of the sprayed concrete ring is required. The perform-
ance and safety of the primary support is monitored by instrumentation
to validate its design. The sequence of excavation and face areas may
vary depending on the results of monitoring lining behavior.

Sprayed concrete as a construction process for conventional tunneling

presents different advantages, such as:
< It provides an immediate support.

< It permits adoption of non-circular shapes.

< It allows rapid installation of structural support through the shell lining,

without the use of any formwork.

< It allows reinforcement of the sprayed concrete layer by means of

mesh or fiber reinforcement.

< It permits flexibility and speed in the construction of complex tunnels

structures.
< T he good bonding and self-supporting properties of sprayed con-

crete allow spraying in all directions.

Sprayed concrete may be applied to uneven ground surfaces and

presents great flexibility regarding layer thickness. The following Figure
1-6 shows an example of sequential excavation based on this construc-
tion process.

Pimary sprayed concrete lining Primary

sprayed concrete
lining
Crown

TOP HEADING Excavation TOP HEADING

advance

BENCH BENCH
INVERT
INVERT

Invert
Temporary backfill in invert during construction

LONGITUDINAL SECTION CROSS-SECTION

Figure 1-7: Example of sequential excavation of tunnels (schematic)

28
1.6. The current use of sprayed concrete

Due to its flexibility, rapid application and cost effectiveness, sprayed

concrete is widely used in building constructions, public works, building
pits, tunneling etc., that is, throughout the entire building industry. It is
largely used as part of the excavation support of slopes, trenches, build-
ing pits, tunnels and other underground structures in different sectors
(e.g. railways, roads, hydropower, mining etc.) and under diverse ground
conditions, as well as in the rehabilitation of old underground structures.
Further use of sprayed concrete can be found in canal lining, the con-
struction of sea walls and refractory walls, fire and corrosion protection,
plastering and stabilizing brick walls etc.

Figure 1-8: Application of sprayed concrete underneath pipe roof

umbrella to construct a tunnel lining

Today, the most relevant areas of use of sprayed concrete are tun-
neling, mining and concrete rehabilitation. In the tunneling and mining
sectors, sprayed concrete has been used both as initial excavation

29
 support (mostly seen as temporary tunnel lining) as well as for perma-
nent tunnel lining. Sprayed concrete has become indispensable in the
modern design approach for the concrete lining of tunnels, which treats
the sprayed concrete lining as a permanent structure, e.g. single shell
lining (SSL) and composite shell lining (CSL). The latter includes a spray-
applied waterproofing membrane.

30
2. TYPICAL PROPERTIES AND
PARAMETERS OF SPRAYED
CONCRETE
Sprayed concrete mixtures are of different types, including plain (unre-
inforced), silica fume, blast furnace slag, fiber-reinforced, high-strength
and high-performance, with different hardening properties.

The mixture composition should be properly designed to guarantee that

the in-situ hardened sprayed concrete will develop acceptable mechani-
cal and physical properties. It will affect the properties of hardened
sprayed concrete in the same manner as normal concrete. However,
effects relating to the application process, i.e. compaction, rebound,
and orientation of fibers, may influence the properties of the hardened
sprayed concrete.

Two of the key parameters for both wet-mix and dry-mix sprayed con-
crete are the water/cement ratio (w/c) and the combined aggregate grad-
ing curve. Most properties of sprayed concrete improve with reduction
of w/c, including its strength, permeability and durability. The addition
of accelerators, silica fume, or other pozzolans changes the physical
properties of sprayed concrete, particularly permeability and durability.
Sprayed concrete’s resistance to freezing and thawing enhances with
the use of air-entraining admixtures, while the use of fibers improves its
toughness. Proper curing is important and improves the mechanical and
physical performance of sprayed concrete.

It should be emphasized that the performance and properties of sprayed

concrete depend mainly on the conditions of its application. The selected
equipment and its particular characteristics as well as the competence
and experience of the application crew also influence the performance
and properties of the sprayed concrete.

2.1. Water/cement ratio

The water/cement ratio is a key factor for the workability, performance

and durability of concrete. The water/cement (w/c) ratio of correctly

31
 applied sprayed concrete can be expected to be below 0.5. In-situ w/c
ratios usually vary from 0.4 to 0.5. In the case of dry-mix sprayed con-
crete, the w/c ratio should be assessed by the continuous monitoring of
consistence during spraying. See also EN 14487-1 [32].

Water/Cement Ratio - Compressive Strength

80
Compressive Strength [MPa]

60

40

20

0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Water/Cement ratio

Figure 2-1: Influence of the w/c ratio on the compressive strength of

sprayed concrete

2.2. Fresh concrete properties

2.2.1. Workability

The term workability is complex and has several meanings. It includes

slump, slump retention, flow, flow retention and placeability, e.g. pumpa-
bility. High slump and flow values do not automatically exhibit sufficient
pumpability properties. Since concrete does not show a clearly defined
viscosity, which describes the desired application performances, the
measured physical parameters represent attempts to describe the
characteristics required for pumping and application. Nor are other
terms such as consistency and cohesiveness clearly defined. Concrete
experts claim to have the ability to evaluate the properties discussed
above by visual inspection.

32
2.2.1.1. Flow

The flow describes the cohesion of the concrete. This property is of

great relevance to the segregation of the fresh concrete which can
appear under vibration, the mode of handling and placing the material.

Sufficient flow, measured with a flow table, is a first indicator for workability.
In the same procedure, besides flow, bleeding and / or segregation can
be observed if the consistency is wrong. Bleeding and segregation can
be a consequence of insufficient mix design, which may cause blockages
during pumping. For wet-sprayed concrete, flow should be in the range
of 55–65 cm. High flow values are required for high output machines.
The flow classes of the fresh concrete are given in Table 2-1 based on EN
206-1:2000. The flow table test can be done according to EN 12350-5.

Class Flow diameter (mm) Remarks

F1 ≤ 340
F2 350 to 410
F3 420 to 480
F4 490 to 550
Class F5 recommended
F5 560 to 620
for sprayed concrete
F6 ≥630

Table 2-1: Flow classes based on EN 206-1

Flowability can be controlled by proper mix design, admixtures and

additives. Required flow should not be adjusted by the addition of water
as this will lead to bleeding and / or segregation as well as a reduction
in both early and final strengths. Flow adjustments should only be done
with the use of plasticizing / superplasticizing admixtures.

2.2.1.2. Slump and slump retention

Similar to flow, slump is an important property which can also be seen

as a measure to describe the consistency / cohesiveness of a concrete
mix. In order to obtain the required workability, a certain slump has to
be maintained over a certain time. Special admixtures are designed to

33
 increase both slump and slump retention respectively. Particularly due
to long transportation time, working delays and interruptions, slump
retention of 18 – 22 cm can be required for up to 24 hours.

Table 2-2 below shows the slump classes based on EN 206-1: 2000.
Slump testing of fresh concrete can be carried out according to EN
12350-2.

Class Slump (mm) Remarks

S1 10 - 40
S2 50 -90
S3 100 - 150
S4 160 - 210 S4 - S5 are recommended
S5 ≥ 220 for sprayed concrete

Table 2-2: Slump classes based on EN 206-1

Slump and slump retention can be controlled by proper mix design,

admixtures and additives. Required slump should not be adjusted by
the addition of water, which may lead to bleeding and/or segregation.

In the following table, the effect of the w/c ratio and water-reducing
admixtures on slump retention is presented.

Slump Retention

W/C = 0.4 W/C = 0.5

Water Reducing Admixture 0 min. 120 min. 0 min. 120 min.

Lignosulfonate (LS) 12 0 14 2
Beta-Naphthalene
15 2 18 4
Sulfonate (BNS)
Melaminesulfonate (MFS) 18 4 20 8
Polycarboxylate ether (PCE) 25 16 28 18

Table 2-3: Slump retention of sprayed concrete mixes at different w/c ratios

Figure 2-2 shows the influence of selected plasticizers on slump by time.

Special admixtures used for hydration control can prolong open times.

34
 300

250

200
Slump [mm]
150

100

50

0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5

Time [hours]

Without Admixture
Plasticizer
Superplasticizer

Figure 2-2: Comparison of slump retention with and without water

reducing admixtures

Although flow and slump do not describe all parameters of a desired

consistency, flowing concrete should have a slump of > 19 cm and a
flow of > 50 cm. These properties are crucial for transportation and
application.

Figure 2-3: Measurement of slump (on the left) and flow (on the right)

35
 During a flow test, energy is put into the mix in the form of a ‘dynamic
impact’, generating a behavior more similar to that which occurs in a
real-life situation during pumping and placing. Thus, making a ‘fresh
concrete pie’ provides a better opportunity to observe bleeding and
segregation compared to the slump testing method, where the tested
concrete is left to collapse under its own weight.

It should be emphasized that neither slump nor flow provides a real pic-
ture of consistency, which is essential for pumping purposes.

2.2.1.3. Pumpability

As far as workability is concerned for wet-spraying, pumpability is cru-

cial. Consistency is often used to describe viscosity, cohesiveness and
flowability properties. All of these factors are indicators for pumpability.

Key factors of a concrete mix for good pumpability are:

< A
 ggregates’ grading and shape (round > crushed).

< C
 ement and/or paste content (> 420 kg rather than < 400 kg).

< T
 ype and amount of mineral additives.

< T
 otal mixing water (normally in the range of 180 to 220 liters).

< F
 ibers (type and content), which decrease pumpability.

< A
 dmixtures (water-reducing and viscosity-modifying admixtures).

Required pump pressure depends on pumping distance, pipe diameter

and mix design. Pumping pressures, meaning actual pressure within
the concrete line itself normally range between 20 and 35 Bar in most
robotic spraying machines. Hand application with smaller diameter and
longer delivery lines usually requires higher line pressures, sometimes
as much as 50 to 70 Bar. The pump pressure is also an indicator of the
quality of the mix design. Special admixtures may improve consistency
and, as a consequence, pumpability of a mix, whereas poor mix design
can lead to segregation and blockages.
Note: Pressure gauges on sprayed concrete pumps indicate pressure
in the hydraulic system, which is not equal to concrete pressure in the
conveying lines / hoses. If the hydraulic pressure gauge shows values
of more than 200 bars, this may indicate a blockage in the delivery line.
Lubrication of hoses and lines prior to start-up by either a cement slurry
or chemical lubricants facilitates pumpability. Both are added to the hop-

36
 per shortly before the concrete is pumped. The admixture industry offers
a number of so-called pumping aids or viscosity-modifying admixtures
(see Chapter 3.5.4). Both contribute to better cohesiveness and less
segregation of poor concrete mixes. Adequate equipment and pipe
diameter are further decisive factors. Pumping distances of several hun-
dred meters can be achieved if all the relevant parameters are optimized.

2.2.2. Temperature of the sprayed concrete mix

The temperature of the sprayed concrete mix before placing shall be

between 15°C and 25°C, unless special provisions are made. Spraying
is not recommended when the ambient temperature is below 5°C. Note
that at low temperatures the setting and strength gain performance
of sprayed concrete will be negatively affected, leading to longer time
required to reach the required strengths.

2.3. Hardened concrete properties

2.3.1. Early-age compressive strength

In modern tunneling, where immediate ground support is often required,

the early-age strength of sprayed concrete is decisive and frequently
more important than its ultimate strength. The performance of tunneling
(advance speed) is strongly influenced by the rate of development of
early-age strength, since it determines in soft ground and weak rock
when excavation heading can proceed.

Requirements for the early-age strength development of sprayed con-

crete may vary, depending on the time of its use, between very early
strength (from a few minutes to approx. one hour) and early strength (from
one hour to one day). After one day the required strength development for
sprayed concrete is comparable with that of cast in-situ concrete.

Some factors that influence the early-age strength development of

sprayed concrete are:
< W ater content of the concrete-mix.

< C ement type and content.

37
 < T
 ype and dosage of accelerators added to the concrete-mix.
< L
 ayer thickness.
< T
 emperature of concrete and environment.

Improvement of early-age strength development is achieved by the

addition of accelerators. However, they may reduce the long-term
strength and durability of the sprayed concrete in comparison with a
non-accelerated sprayed concrete of the same composition. High dos-
ages/overdosing of accelerators will have a negative effect on the final
strengths, permeability, durability and toughness of sprayed concrete
(false set, no hardening). The dosage of accelerator in the mix influences
these effects proportionally. In addition, the chemical composition of
accelerators may affect these important sprayed concrete properties.

The classification of young sprayed concrete may be decided based on

the ranges of its significant early-age strength development. For classifi-
cation purposes, the average range of the typical hardening rate is used,
according to the chosen production process and requirements.

100

20
10
5
J3 C
Y 2 B
1 J2
0,5 A
J1
0,2
0,1

6 10 30 1 2 3 6 9 12 24

X Z

Key
X Minutes
Z Hours
Y Compressive strength fG in N
mm2

Figure 2-4: Early-age strength classes of young sprayed concrete

based on EN 14487-1[32]

38
 The strength development of the young sprayed concrete can be
specified according to the early-age strength classes J1, J2 or J3 as
described in EN 14487-1 [32], and shown in Figure 2-4.

At least 3 data points (compressive strength vs. time) are required to

define the early-strength class. Points falling in the area between lines
A and B represent strength class J1, while points located in the area
between lines B and C characterize strength class J2. The points falling
above line C stand for strength class J3. Other standards and/or speci-
fications may also apply.

Determination of the early-age strength development shall be done

according to the expected range of strengths. This topic is described
later in section 3.6 of this book.

2.3.2. Final compressive strength

The compressive strength of sprayed concrete is expressed and defined

according to EN 206-1. Tests for final strength are carried out at 28
days in accordance with EN 12504-1 on drilled cores, which are taken
from the sprayed concrete structure according to EN 12504-1 or from
sprayed panels according to EN-14488-1.

Typical final compressive strengths of sprayed concrete at 28 days vary

from 30 to 50 MPa. High-strength wet-mix sprayed concrete can be
produced, among other things, by the use of high-range water-reducing
admixtures/superplasticizers (see section 3.5) to reduce the w/c ratio,
and by adding silica fume.

2.3.3. Flexural strength

The post-cracking behavior of fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete can

be evaluated by flexural toughness tests. The flexural strength depends
mainly on the concrete matrix, even if fiber reinforcement is added to
the concrete. It should be estimated from the load-deflection curve
and is defined as the stress at the determined first peak load that fiber-
reinforced concrete withstands when subjected to a flexural test as
specified in EN 14488-3 [34].

39
2.3.4. Toughness

The toughness of fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete can be specified

based on the residual strength class which is obtained from a beam
test, or on the energy absorption class (from a plate test). According to
EN 14487-1 [32], these different ways of specifying the ductility of fiber-
reinforced sprayed concrete are not directly comparable.

When the concrete characteristics are used in a structural design model

the residual strengths can be established. Where the emphasis is placed
on energy which has to be absorbed during the deformation of the rock,
the energy absorption value measured on a panel can be prescribed.

2.3.4.1. Residual strength classes

In order to classify residual strengths, a strength level at a certain defor-

mation range can be specified according to the following table and
determined in accordance with EN 14488-3 [34]. The specification of
residual strength is related to the deformation of the rock mass. Higher
deformation of the rock will require higher deflection capabilities of the
sprayed concrete lining.

Strength Level
Deformation range
(minimum strength, MPa)
Deflection (mm) S1 S2 S3 S4
D1 0.5 to 1
D2 0.5 to 2 1 2 3 4
D3 0.5 to 4

Table 2-4: Definition of residual strength classes according to EN

14488-3 [34]

The different levels of deformation should provide flexibility to designers

in the choice of the deformation of sprayed concrete required under ser-
vice conditions. As an example, class D2S2 means the residual strength
of sprayed concrete shall be more than 2 MPa between 0.5 mm and 2
mm deflection. More information and details can be found in [34].

40
2.3.4.2. Energy absorption capacity

In cases where the energy absorption capacity of sprayed concrete is

specified, it can be determined from a plate specimen tested accord-
ing to EN-14488-5 [35]. The plate test has been designed to determine
the absorbed energy from the load/deformation curve. The determined
absorbed energy is a measure of toughness. Biaxial bending, which
can particularly occur in rock support, can be modeled more realisti-
cally through this test. The central point loading can simulate a rock
bolt anchorage. This test is appropriate during pre-construction test-
ing to check all parameters influencing the specified quality require-
ments of fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete. It allows a comparison of
different types of fibers and dosages, as well as a comparison between
mesh-reinforcement and fiber-reinforced concretes with the same failure
mode. This test is also used as part of the Quality Control Program dur-
ing construction. In the following table, energy absorption classes are
defined according to EN 14487-1 [32].

Energy absorption Energy absorption in Joules

class for deflection up to 25 mm
E500 500
E700 700
E1000 1000

Table 2-5: Definitions of energy absorption classes according to [32]

2.3.5. Modulus of elasticity

High-quality sprayed concrete usually possesses a modulus of elastic-

ity (Young Modulus) ranking from 17 to 40 GPa, similar to conventional
concrete. According to EFNARC [29], when the designed capacity or
required behavior of the structure is influenced by the modulus (in com-
pression, tension or bending), the in-situ modulus used for structural
design shall be verified.

41
2.3.6. Bond strength to substrate

Sprayed concrete usually presents a good bond with rock, concrete,

masonry, steel and other materials, because it is physically driven
onto the surface of the substrate. The main factors that influence the
development of bond strength are the quality of the substrate, surface
preparation prior to application and roughness of substrate, as well as
the application procedures (velocity and compaction).

According to the requirements of EFNARC [29], the minimum bond

strength of structural sprayed concrete should not be less than 0.5 MPa
to rock and 1.0 MPa to concrete. These are average values from three
samples at 28 days, and are given for guidance. The requirements must
be adapted according to the local conditions of the substrate/ground.

Observation of the failure mechanism, either within concrete (cohesion

failure) or between substrate and second layer (adhesion failure), is
important to obtain information on the quality of both layers. Adhesion
failure is an indication that the substrate was neither cleaned nor pre-
wetted before application or that it dried out due to no or poor curing, or
simply due to clay covering a joint or badly cemented sandstone.

Sprayed
concrete layer
Sprayed
Cohesion failure concrete layer
Sprayed
concrete layer Adhesion failure

Substrate Substrate

Figure 2-5: Possible failure modes of concrete in a bond strength test

The moisture condition of the substrate during application of the sprayed

concrete is important. Bond strength is reduced with an excessively dry
substrate (not pre-wetted before application) or wet substrate (due
to water ingress) at the time of application. Where multiple layers of
sprayed concrete are applied, the surface should be cleaned prior to
application of the successive sprayed concrete layer.

42
 The bond of a second layer of sprayed concrete applied on top of a first
layer depends on the surface quality of the first layer. Therefore, curing
and cleaning dust and/or curing agents from the first concrete layer
are essential. However, commercially available curing agents exhibit
hydrophobic/water-repellent properties and they may act as a separa-
tion layer between the first and the second concrete layer. Their removal
is expensive and not always successful. A possible solution is discussed
further in Chapter 3.5.5.1.

2.3.7. Shrinkage

Shrinkage is a determining parameter related to potential cracking and

bond durability, particularly if sprayed concrete is used for permanent
tunnel linings. Where sprayed concrete is used only for temporary
ground support, shrinkage is less important because the sprayed con-
crete lining is mostly under compression, and it does not have to be
considered in the lining design.

The potential of shrinkage cracking may be increased by different

parameters, including the substrate moisture prior to sprayed concrete
application (the substrate may absorb water from the concrete), venti-
lation or air flow in the tunnel (sprayed concrete layers of min. 50 mm
recommended), high cement content and the uncontrolled addition of
accelerators.

The drying shrinkage of sprayed concrete is an ongoing process when

concrete is subjected to drying conditions. The loss of water held in gel
pores causes volume changes. It depends on the mixture proportion
and generally ranges between 0.06 and 0.10 % at 3 months (as meas-
ured by ASTM C 157).

Sprayed concrete mixes usually consist of a low content of coarse

aggregates, a high content of fine aggregates, and cementitious mate-
rials, which increase the risk of shrinkage. Therefore, to avoid or limit
shrinkage, strict control of the w/c ratio is mandatory.

43
2.3.8. Density

High-quality sprayed concrete usually possesses a density of between

2230 and 2390 kg/m3, similar to conventional concrete.

2.3.9. Resistance to water penetration

For permanent sprayed concrete linings, water penetration through the

lining shall be limited. The resistance to water penetration shall be deter-
mined in accordance with EN 12390-8. The maximum value of penetra-
tion shall be 50 mm. The test is normally performed at 28 days.

Water penetration can be substantially reduced by the addition of micro-

silica and by special admixtures (see Chapter 3.5.5.1)

2.3.10. Permeability

Alternatively, the watertightness of sprayed concrete can be determined

by measuring its water permeability. Sprayed concrete is considered
watertight when the coefficient of water permeability is less than 10 -12
m/s. Permeability to water significantly affects the durability of sprayed
concrete. Low water permeability reduces the ingress of deleterious
substances in the concrete, thereby inhibiting chemical reactions such
as those involving the cement and thus preventing chemical changes.

Permeability of sprayed concrete to water depends on the composition

of the mixture (w/c ratio and additives, e.g. microsilica), as well as on
optimal compaction. Average permeability values of sprayed concrete
may range from 10-12 m/s to 10-10 m/s. Lower permeability values may
be reached by the use of alkali-free accelerators. Permeability tests at
BASF’s Global Underground Construction with alkali-free accelerated
sprayed concrete have shown permeability values in the range 10 -11 m/s
to 10-16 m/s. Sprayed concrete and concrete show similar coefficients of
permeability for given materials and w/c ratio.

44
 Permeability Low Average High
(m/sec) < 10 -12 10 -10 - 10 -12 > 10 -10

Table 2-6: Typical permeability ranges of sprayed concrete (Source:

Concrete Society, Technical Report No. 31, 1983)

The diagram below shows the impact of increasing w/c ratio on the
permeability of concrete. Low w/c ratios lead to low permeability of the
concrete. Additionally, permeability can be substantially reduced by the
addition of microsilica and by special admixtures (see Chapter 3.5.5.1).

150

120
Permeability 10 -12 m/s

90

60

30

0
0,35 0,45 0,55 0,65
W/C Ratio

Figure 2-6: Influence of water/cement ratio on permeability of concrete

2.3.11. Resistance to freezing and thawing

Where freeze-thaw resistance is required due to climatic conditions,

this property must be verified. The resistance of sprayed concrete to
freezing and thawing depends strongly on the w/c ratio, additives and
the quality of the air void system, particularly the content of entrained-air
voids and the spacing factor. These parameters can be determined in
accordance with ASTM C 457.

According to ACI 506R-05 [30], when critically saturated, wet-mix

sprayed concrete requires an entrained air-void system with air content

45
 of at least 4 % and a maximum air void spacing factor of lower than 0.30
mm, in order to resist rapid freezing-and-thawing cycles (ASTM C 666).

In the application of wet-mix sprayed concrete, approximately 30 % of

entrained air is lost during spraying. According to BASF’s experience,
wet-mix sprayed concrete should have at least 4 to 6% air content
before spraying, in order to have enough entrained air in the in-situ mate-
rial. Entrained air, however, may lead to lower compressive strength.
Hence, strict control of air content is mandatory. Air content values in the
fresh mix should range between 4 % and 6 %. Testing of the air content
of fresh concrete may be done according to EN 12350, part 7 [37].

A low w/c ratio, combined with proper air entrainment, is crucial to obtain
a desired durability factor greater than 95 %, which corresponds to less
than or equal to 5 % weight loss after 300 FT cycles (see Figure 2-7).

Influence of Entrained Air on the Durability Factor

100
Durability Factor [%]

75

50

25

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Air Entrained [%]

Figure 2-7: Influence of entrained air on the durability factor (Source: US

Department of Transportation. Freeze-Thaw Resistance of Concrete
with Marginal Air Content, Publication No. FHWA-HRT-06-117,
December 2006)

2.3.12. Absorption and volume of permeable voids

Testing the absorption value and the volume of permeable voids is use-
ful to identify poorly compacted sprayed concrete. In addition, a weak

46
 or damaged microstructure in the sprayed concrete can be identified
through the absorption test (ASTM C 642). It may be conducted on hard-
ened sprayed concrete to provide an overall indication of its quality.

High values of permeable voids or absorption usually indicate poor qual-

ity and low durability of the in-situ sprayed concrete. According to ACI
506R-05 [30] acceptable values of permeable void volume vary from 14
to 17 %, while typical boiled absorption values are 6 to 9 %. Results are
influenced by the absorptive properties of the aggregate.

2.3.13. Durability

Durability is expressed by the durability factor calculated using the

freeze-thaw resistance test. A value greater than 95 % (300 cycles) is
required for durable concrete.

In sprayed concrete construction, the correct concrete mix design and

cover to reinforcement alone are not sufficient as with traditional cast
concrete. The main reason behind this is that the material is spray
applied, and consequently the quality is significantly reliant on human
skills and spray equipment performance. As can be seen from Figure
2-8, the durability of sprayed concrete linings is established through
many possible parameters (see also Chapter 11).

47
 “Buildable” design

Future environment
and load conditions Modern, relevant
specifications

Site control
Monitoring and action
Capable and
Durable trained applicators
sprayed concrete
Ground and H2O structure
conditions acting
on structure Wet or dry-mix
method?

Curing method Hand or mechanized

application

Correct mix design

and accelerator choice

Figure 2-8: Parameters influencing the durability of sprayed concrete

linings

48
3. CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
AND REQUIREMENTS
As defined in the European Specification for Sprayed Concrete, issued
by EFNARC [29]: “Sprayed concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregate
and water projected pneumatically from a nozzle into place to produce
a dense homogeneous mass. Sprayed concrete normally incorporates
admixtures and may also include additions or fibers or a combination
of these.”

The constituent materials shall not contain injurious ingredients in such

quantities as may be detrimental to the durability of the sprayed con-
crete, or cause corrosion of the reinforcement. They shall be suitable for
the intended use.

Established general suitability for a constituent material does not indi-

cate suitability in every situation and for every sprayed concrete com-
position. Only constituents with recognized suitability for the specified
application shall be used. They shall conform to European Standards or
national standards or regulations valid in the place of use of the sprayed
concrete.

In the following chapters, general requirements are summarized. Specific

requirements for sprayed concrete materials are given in chapter 5 of
this book.

3.1. Cement

Cements shall fulfill the requirements of EN197 or alternatively comply

with the national standards or regulations valid in the place of use of the
sprayed concrete. Only cement with recognized suitability for sprayed
concrete applications shall be used.

3.1.1. Cement Production

In the following text, the cement production process is summarized as

described in [24].

49
 “Cement is typically made from limestone and clay or shale. These raw
materials are extracted from the quarry, crushed to a very fine powder
and then blended in the correct proportions.

This blended raw material is called the ‘raw feed’ or ‘kiln feed’ and is
heated in a rotary kiln where it reaches a temperature of about 1400 °C
to 1500 °C. In its simplest form, the rotary kiln is a tube up to 200 meters
long and perhaps 6 meters in diameter, with a long flame at one end.
The raw feed enters the kiln at the cool end and gradually passes down
to the hot end, then falls out of the kiln and cools down.

The material formed in the kiln is described as ‘clinker’ and is typically

composed of rounded nodules between 1mm and 25mm across.

After cooling, the clinker may be stored temporarily in a clinker store, or

it may pass directly to the cement mill.

The cement mill grinds the clinker to a fine powder. A small amount of
gypsum – a form of calcium sulfate – is normally ground up with the
clinker. The gypsum controls the setting properties of the cement when
water is added.”

The chemical composition of gypsum however is dependent on the

temperature. Above 170 °C it is calcium sulfate (CaSO4) called anhy-
drate, above 105 °C, it is described as CaSO4 ∙ ½H2O, whereas normal
gypsum contains more crystal water with a chemical formula of CaSO4
∙ 2 H2O.

50
 Figure 3-1: Cement production process according to [25]

3.1.2. Cement Types and Constituents

The 27 types in the list of common cements and their notation are
provided by EN-197-1, see [1]. They are grouped into five main cement
types as displayed in the following table. The detailed composition of
each of the 27 products in the family of common cements shall be in
accordance with EN 197-1.

51
 MAIN CONSTITUENTS %

Fly
Clinker Slag Micro-
CEMENT TYPE Pozzolan ash Others
content (GBFS) silica
(PFA)
CEM I Portland 95 - 100
CEM II Portland-composite 65 - 94 6 - 35 6 - 10 6 - 35 6 - 35 6 - 35
CEM III Blastfurnace 5 - 64 35 - 95
CEM IV Pozzolanic 45 - 89 11 - 55
CEM V Composite 20 - 64 18 - 50 18 - 50

Table 3-1: Cement types and their main constituents

As described in EN 14487-1 [32]: “The type of cement shall be speci-

fied, taking into account the influence of current temperature and heat
evaluation on required workability time, the requirement on strength
development and final strength as well as the current curing conditions.
If required, it shall be checked by means of an appropriate method.

For permanent structures, the environmental conditions to which the

sprayed concrete is exposed shall be in accordance with EN 206-1,
as well as precautions regarding resistance to alkali-silica reactions
according to EN 206-1.”

Since sprayed concrete is intended to develop fast early-strength per-

formance, a high clinker content is inevitable to achieve an immediate
reaction with set accelerators. Depending on the cement types selected
on site, it is necessary to choose the best performing accelerator. The
admixture industry offers a full range of specialty products.

3.1.3. Cement Phases

Portland cement is made by heating a mixture of limestone and clay,

or other materials of similar bulk composition and sufficient reactivity,
ultimately to a temperature of about 1450 °C. The clinker is then mixed
with calcium sulfate and finely ground to make the cement (see [2] to
[5]). The clinker normally contains four major mineral phases, shown in
Figure 3-2, see [6].

52
Figure 3-2: Representation of a cross-section of a cement grain [5]
(C3S-Ca3SiO5 , C2S-Ca2SiO4 , C3A-Ca3 Al2O6 , C2(A,F)- Ca2 AlFeO5 )

Alite
Alite is the most important mineral phase of all normal Portland cement
clinkers, of which it constitutes 50–70 %. It is tri-calcium silicate (Ca3SiO5
or C3S) modified in composition and crystal structure by ionic substi-
tutions. It reacts relatively quickly with water, and in normal Portland
cement is the most important of the constituent phases for strength
development; at ages up to 28 days, it is by far the most important.

Belite
Belite constitutes 15–30 % of normal Portland cement clinkers. It is
dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4 or C2S) modified by ionic substitutions and
normally present wholly or largely as the ß- polymorph. It reacts slowly
with water, thus contributing little to the strength during the first 28 days,
but substantially to the further increase in strength that occurs at later
ages.

Aluminate
Aluminate constitutes 5–10 % of most normal Portland cement clink-
ers. It is tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al2O6 or C3A), substantially modified
in composition and sometimes also in structure by ionic substitutions. It
reacts rapidly with water and can cause undesirably rapid setting unless
a set-controlling agent, usually gypsum, is added.

53
 Ferrite
Ferrite makes up 5–15 % of normal Portland cement clinkers. It is tet-
racalcium aluminoferrite (Ca 2AlFeO5 or C2AF), substantially modified in
composition by variation in Al/Fe ratio and ionic substitutions. The rate
at which it reacts with water appears to be somewhat variable, perhaps
due to differences in composition or other characteristics, but in gen-
eral is high initially and low or very low at later ages.

3.1.4. Cement Hydration

3.1.4.1. Chemical reactions of cement hydration

In cement chemistry, the term “hydration” denotes the totality of the

changes that occurs when anhydrous cement, or one of its constituent
phases, is mixed with water. The main chemical reactions of cement
clinker with water are described in the following based on [2]. It should
be considered that the individual steps of cement hydration generate
specific amounts of heat, which contribute to setting and hardening.

C3 A + 3C S + 32 H → C3 A ⋅ (C S ) 3 ⋅ H 32 ∆H = −1350 kJ / kg
C3 S + (3 − x + y ) H → C x SH y + (3 − x)CH ∆H = −500 kJ / kg
C2 S + (2 − x + y ) H → C x SH y + (2 − x)CH ∆H = −250 kJ / kg
C2 AF + CH + 3C S + 31H → C3 ( A, F ) ⋅ (C S ) 3 ⋅ H 32

Notation: A: Al2O3, C: CaO, S: SiO2 , F: Fe2O3 , H: H2O, S: SO3

Gypsum is added to clinker to avoid uncontrolled setting, the so-called

false or flash set.

3.1.4.2. Microstructure development: crystal growth

The main features of the development of microstructures in cement

paste are by Scrivener (see [4] and [7]). There are plenty of research find-
ings on the kinetics and modeling of cement hydration (see [2] to [12]).

54
Ettringite (see Figure 3-3), occurs as hexagonal prismatic crystalline; it is
usually the first hydration product to crystallize because of the high sul-
fate/aluminate ratio in the solution phase during the first hour of hydra-
tion. In normal Portland cements which contain 5 to 6 % gypsum, the
precipitation of ettringite contributes to stiffening (loss of consistency),
setting (solidification of the paste) and early strength development.

Figure 3-3: Hexagonal prismatic ettringite crystals formed in cement

paste, 10 min hydration [13]

The calcium silicate hydrate phase, abbreviated as C-S-H, makes up

50 to 60 % of the volume of solids in a completely hydrated Portland
cement paste and is, therefore, the most important phase determin-
ing the properties of the paste. The acceleratory period of hydration is
characterized by rapid formation/crystallization of C-S-H and calcium
hydroxide. The Ca/Si ratio of C-S-H varies between 1.5 and 2.0 and the
structural water content varies even more. The morphology of C-S-H
can be in the form of sheets (C-S-H(I)) and fibers (C-S-H(II)). Both of
these are virtually amorphous to X-rays.

Portlandite, calcium hydroxide crystals, constitutes 20 to 25 % of the

volume of solids in the hydrated paste. It tends to form large crystals
with distinctive hexagonal-prism morphology. Compared to C-S-H, the
strength contributing potential of calcium hydroxide is limited as a result
of a considerably lower surface area.

55
3.1.4.3. Contributions of hydration products
to strength development

Figure 3-4 shows the contributions of hydration products to strength

development in pure cement compound cement pastes by time. The
hydration process is a complex system consisting of many parallel or
sequential chemical reactions. Intermediates and products are difficult
to describe in chemical terms. During the last few decades, science and
industry have undertaken successful efforts to understand the hydra-
tion processes and its consequences for concrete technology.

Cement Hydration
70 10,000

60 C3S
Compressive Strength [MPa]

Compressive Strength [psi]

8,000
50

40 6,000
C 2S
30 4,000

20
C3A+CSH2 2,000
10
-
C4AF+CSH2
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time [days]

Figure 3-4: Development of compressive strength in pure cement com-

pound pastes (source: Mindess et al, 2003)

Better understanding of the contributions shown in Figure 3-4, has

assisted the admixture industry in the development of more effective
and specific admixtures, e.g. for faster strength development.

56
3.1.5. Typical characteristics of cement
related to sprayed concrete

In order to obtain satisfactory results for sprayed concrete, not only the
cement type has to be considered. In addition, there are a number of
other key factors such as clinker content, fineness (Blaine value), C3A
and gypsum contents. These factors are responsible for rapid setting
and early strength development.

In the following table examples of typical parameters required for

sprayed concrete are shown. Lower C3A and gypsum contents than
the values shown on Table 3-2 negatively influence setting and strength
development performances.

Strength Fineness Clinker % %

Cement type
class Blaine [cm2 /g] content C 3A Gypsum
CEM I > 90
42.5 - 52.5 ≥ 3500 6 - 11 ≥ 2
CEM II > 70

Table 3-2: Some key parameters of most commonly used cements for
sprayed concrete

The minimum cement content for a particular environmental condi-

tion (exposure class) shall be 300 kg/m3 and as required by EN 206 or
National Standards and regulations valid in the place of use.

It is important to understand that fineness and strength class of the

selected cement play an important role for the setting and strength
development of sprayed concrete. A finer cement of strength class 52.5
is more reactive than a coarser cement of strength class 32.5. The fol-
lowing table summarizes the specifications and typical setting times of
different cement types.

57
 CEM I 42,5 N CEM II 42,5 N
Cement Type CEM I CEM II CEM III Accelerated Accelerated
with AFA with AFA
Initial setting time
≥ 45 ≥ 45 ≥ 45 1.5 - 5 2 - 10
(minutes)
Typical initial setting
≈ 110 ≈ 125 ≈ 90 ≈5 ≈2
time (minutes)
Final setting
≤ 375 ≤ 420 ≤ 420 10 - 50 10 - 50
time (minutes)
Typical final setting
≈ 230 ≈ 245 ≈ 190 ≈ 15 ≈ 30
time (minutes)

Table 3-3: Setting times (with and without set accelerators) of cements
based on strength classes

3.1.6. Economical and environmental megatrend

As reported by the Carnegie Mellon University, Center for Building

Performance and Diagnostics (CBPD) [40]:

“Understanding and observing global megatrends provides a concrete

first hint about where to focus in the future of construction materials. The
key trends, relevant for the construction industry are ongoing urbani-
zation, growth and aging of the world population, global water crisis,
concentration of wealth and poverty and growing use and importance
of alternative energy sources.”

Sustainability in construction or development that meets the needs

of the present generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs will disrupt the industry like no
other development has ever done before. Considering these factors,
important criteria for the future assessment of sprayed concrete usage
are summarized in Table 3-4.

58
 Criteria Related aspects and requirements
Economy Cost of construction, return on investment, lifecycle, value
Ecology Resources, land use, emissions, energy
Comfort, health, safety, indoor air quality (products free
Social aspects
from pollutants or even able to absorb them)

Table 3-4: Important criteria for future assessment of sprayed concrete

usage and related aspects/requirements

As reported by the Carnegie Mellon University, Center for Building

Performance and Diagnostics (CBPD):

“Concrete will remain the most important construction material.

Compared to plastic and steel, concrete is already a rather ‘green’ con-
struction material, due to its comparably low carbon footprint [concrete:
~ 120 kg CO2 / ton vs. plastic: 798 kg CO2 / ton]. The major trends are the
drastic decrease in clinker content, the gradual shift into higher strength
classes and a stronger promotion of thermal mass of concrete to fight
lightweight construction.”

Regarding clinker and CO2 reduction, a trend has been observed towards
blended cements. As shown in Figure 3-5, blended ratio increases more
greatly than the overall total global demand for cement. This trend is
expected to continue in coming years.

59
 Global cement demand from 2005 to 2015

4.0
+ 4.7 %
3.5

3.0

2.5
Billion Tons

2.0

1.5

1.0 + 6.6 %

0.5

0.0
2005 2010 2015

Year

Global Demand
Blended

Figure 3-5: Global cement demand (billion tons) from 2005 and expec-
tation towards 2015 (source: Fredonia)

The use of blended cements in sprayed concrete continues to increase

in line with their overall use for construction. Using blended cements can
result in reduced setting and early strength development in the sprayed
concrete compared with mixes consisting of “pure” non-blended cements.

3.2. Aggregates

Aggregates for sprayed concrete shall comply with the requirements of

the national standards and regulations valid in the place of use. They
shall be appropriate for placement of sprayed concrete according to the
specifications of the work. It is the duty of the contractor to select the
most suitable grading for the process and materials available.

Aggregate sources can be natural aggregates (e.g. river sand/gravel)

and recycled aggregates from excavation material or from recycled con-
crete. Recycled aggregates may absorb some content from the mixing
water in the sprayed concrete mix.

60
Figure 3-6: Round aggregate (left), crushed aggregate (center) and the
sphericity of crushed aggregates (right)

Compared to rounded aggregates, crushed aggregates (natural or recy-

cled) display a negative effect on pumpability. Some crushed aggre-
gates, e.g. recycled concrete, may require more water due to a water-
absorbing porous structure. Water absorption can range from approx.
0.1–5 %. The natural moisture content in the aggregate for dry mixes
must be as constant as possible. It should be limited to 6 % [29].

The dry density of aggregate varies between 300 to more than 1700 kg/
m3. Aggregate is classified as:

< ultra-lightweight (rarely) < 300 kg/m3

< lightweight ≤ 1000 kg/m3; (refractory, dry-mix)
< dense ≤ 1700 kg/m3 (typically used for sprayed concrete)
< extra dense > 1700 kg/m3

Aggregate quality is critical to the fresh concrete as well as the hardened

product. It is essential that aggregate grading and other characteristics
show only small variations. Of particular importance are the amount
and characteristics of fine aggregates, i.e. the grain size distribution
and grain size analysis. However, it is not relevant to talk about choice
of aggregate, as normally the available material must be used and the
aggregate specification has to be adapted to it.

Nevertheless, for wet-mix sprayed concrete, the following aspects

should be considered:

61
 < T
 he maximum aggregate size should be limited to 8 or 10 mm,
because of limitations of pumping equipment and to avoid excessive
rebound and resulting material losses.
< A
 ggregate grading is also very important, particularly its lower part

(fine aggregate). The content of fine material in sieve size of 0.125 mm

should vary from 4 or 5 % to 8 or 9 %.
< A
 n insufficient amount of fine material leads to segregation and risk

of clogging.
< T
 oo high content of fine material in the sand increases the water

demand and can reduce pumpability.

< F
 or fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete, the surplus of fine material is

important, both for pumping and compaction. A high content of fine

aggregate will provide a viscid concrete.
< A
 lkali aggregate reaction, often called alkali silica reaction, can lead

to serious damage caused by the expansion of aggregates contain-

ing reactive silicates. The reaction is initiated by free alkali from the
cement or from alkaline set accelerators. The reactivity (AKR, Alkali
Kieselsäure Reaction) is strongly dependent on the place of use (EN
12620:2002-Annex G and [42] to [46]). Precautions according to EN
206-1 or national standards and regulations valid in the place of use
shall be applied.

The picture below shows typical damage of the microstructure of con-

crete caused by alkali silica reaction.

Figure 3 7: Typical result of alkali silica reaction, creating cracks [46]

Adding coarse aggregate to sprayed concrete is required for the follow-

ing reasons:
< T he pumpability of wet-mix sprayed concrete may be improved by

the addition of coarse aggregate (see also section 2.2.1).

< T he addition of coarse aggregate leads to better in-place density of

the sprayed concrete.

62
< C
 ompared to fine aggregate, coarse aggregate possesses a reduced

surface area which allows a lower water content in the mix.

< A
 dding coarse aggregate leads to less drying shrinkage by reducing
the content of fine aggregate.
< T
 he density / load bearing capacity of aggregates should be taken into

account. Normally dense aggregates display values of ≤ 1700 kg/m3.

< T
 he shape, roundness and sphericity of aggregates play an impor-

tant role in the pumpability of concrete. It is obvious that round mate-

rials are easier to pump than crushed ones (see EN 12620:2002 for
details of the shape for each type of aggregate). Sphericity ranges
from well rounded to very angular.

However, if sprayed concrete has more than 40 % coarse aggregate

(of sand/aggregate ratio), it causes increased rebound for both wet-mix
and dry-mix spraying. Further consequences are:
< It cannot be used for thin layers and it is more difficult to use for finishing.

< It requires large-diameter hoses.

< W  hen applied at high velocities, it forms craters on the surface of the

plastic sprayed concrete.

Aggregate distribution should lie within an accepted gradation range

according to current local standards or as specified. The grain size
distribution curve for the aggregate should fall within the shaded area
of Figure 3-8. As the gradation margins are relatively small, it may often
be convenient to combine two or more aggregate fractions, e.g. 0–2
mm, 2–4 mm and 4–8 mm, by adjusting the proportion between them
to achieve a grading that fits within the ideal curve limits. Too little fine
material will be compensated for by using more cement or microsilica.
Too much fine material is primarily compensated for by increasing the
dosage of water-reducing admixtures.

The aggregates shall be well graded, and no fraction (according to ISO

sieve shown in the following Table 3-5) shall constitute more than 30 %
of the total. Although there is a trend to use more crushed aggregates
from excavation material, the contents of crushed and non-cubical
material should not exceed 10 %. An improvement in the grain size curve
for natural sand by using crushed materials often results in an increased
water demand and poorer pumpability and compaction. Before crushed
materials are employed as part of the aggregates, comparison perform-
ance tests are recommended.

63
 ISO sieve, sieve size in mm
0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 16.0 32.0 64.0
0
10
Percentage retaining 20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.149 0.297 0.595 1.19 2.38 4.76 9.51 19.0 38.1 76.1

ASTM sieve, sieve size in mm

Figure 3-8: Recommended grading zone for combined aggregates

(indicated in gray)

The following Table 3-5 shows recommended grading limits for sprayed
concrete aggregates, with percentage by weight passing individual
sieves. Further recommended aggregate gradation zones can be found
in [29] and [30].

ISO sieve
Percent by weight passing individual sieves
size [mm]
minimum maximum
0.125 4 12
0.25 11 26
0.5 22 50
1.0 37 72
2.0 55 90
4.0 73 100
8.0 90 100
16.0 100 100

Table 3-5: Recommended grading limits for sprayed concrete aggre-

gates

64
 The percentage of 8 mm aggregate should preferably not exceed 10 %,
since it will rebound when spraying on a hard surface (when starting the
application) or penetrate previously placed concrete, producing craters
which are difficult to fill.

During screening, storing and handling of the aggregates, measures

should be taken to prevent the presence of particles in excess of 8 mm.
Coarse particles may block the nozzle and subsequent cleaning can
be very time consuming. Furthermore, this presents a safety risk for the
nozzleman as he/she will have to clear blocked lines while working in the
insufficiently supported areas.

Recommended grading limits for sprayed concrete aggregates (fraction

0 to 8 mm) are provided in the following Table 3-6.

Sand/aggregate Sand/aggregate
Aggregate
percentage percentage Remarks
size [mm]
approx. [%] approx. [%]
In some cases crushed fine
0–2 40 60 aggregates (≤ 2 mm) are
(fine aggregates) used up to 1000 kg/m3
2–4 20
40
4–8 40
(coarse aggregates)

Table 3-6: Recommended grading limits for sprayed concrete aggre-

gates fraction 0 to 8 mm

3.3. Additives

The most commonly used additives in sprayed concrete are fly ash,
ground granulated blast furnace slag and silica fume. These additions
shall comply with the relevant European standards or national standards
or regulations valid in the place of use of the sprayed concrete. Where
appropriate standards and/or regulations do not exist, the use of addi-
tives shall comply with the recommendations of the suppliers.

65
 The use of additives for permanent structures shall match the require-
ments of EN 206-1 or national standards and regulations valid in the
place of use.

Contractors are allowed to add approved cementitious materials within

the following limits shown on Table 3-7, unless otherwise directed by
the client’s representative. Cementitious materials as a cement replace-
ment shall not exceed these relative proportions.

Cementitious material Maximum addition [by weight]

Silica fume 15 % of Portland cement
30 % of Portland cement
Fly ash 15 % of Portland / fly ash cement
20% of Portland blast furnace slag cement
Ground granulated blast
30% of Portland cement
furnace slag (GGBS)

Table 3-7: Maximum level of additives (by weight) according to EFNARC

[29], Table 5.3.1.

3.3.1. Silica fume (Microsilica)

As described by Tsohos & Oppliger in [38], silica fume (SF) is a by-

product of the manufacturing of silicon or ferrosilicon alloys produced in
electric furnaces. Silica fume is distinguished as:
< undensified

< d ensified

< a queous slurry (Note: approx. 30-50 % solid content by weight)

Silica fume consists of approx. 85 % of SiO2 (quartz), humidity and

some minor fractions. It is approx. 100 times finer than cement and
contributes to the following concrete properties:
< b  etter pumpability, less segregation and bleeding

< less rebound

< improved adhesion at surface

< increased build-up

< p  revents applied concrete from sagging

< h  igher final strength and lower permeability

66
< reduction of alkali aggregate reaction (AAR)
< h
 igher durability

Due to its fineness and its chemical composition, silica fume is a poz-
zolanic (reactive) material. It does not contribute to either setting or early
strength but to the final strength of sprayed concrete. A typical dosage
in a sprayed concrete mix ranges from 20 to 40 kg/m3. Microsilica can
basically replace a certain amount of cement, but it should be used as
an additive rather than as a cement replacement.

The activity index for silica fume is the ratio (in percent) of the compres-
sive strength of standard mortar bars, prepared with 90 % cement plus
10 % silica fume by mass, to the compressive strength of standard
mortar bars made from cement only (Norwegian Standard NS 3045).
The following diagram in Figure 3-9 shows the strength development of
concrete mixes with different microsilica (MS) contents.

70

60
Compressive Strength [MPa]

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 3 6 28 64 90
Days

0% MS
5% MS
15% MS

Figure 3-9: Typical strength development of mixes containing different

portions of silica fume [38]

Normal sprayed concrete qualities, i.e. 20 to 40 MPa cube strengths,

can be produced without microsilica, whereas practical and economi-

67
 cal production of higher strength performances (50–60 MPa) can be
achieved by the addition of microsilica, even with reduced cement con-
tent (less than 400 kg/m3). It seems favorable from a technical point of
view to use 5 to 10 % bcw of microsilica.

The w/c ratio may need to be adjusted (slightly increased) by using

microsilica. However, one of the major benefits is a higher density of the
microstructure of concrete, which delivers lower permeability. This con-
tributes to durability. According to [49] “Whereas microsilica contributes
to higher performances in wet mixes, dry mixes do not show significant
strength increases.” Silica fume was introduced to sprayed concrete in
the 1970s, initially in Norway.

3.3.2. Fly ash (Pulverized Fuel Ash or PFA)

According to EN 197-1, part 1, “Fly ash (PFA) is obtained by electrostatic

or mechanical precipitation of dust-like particles from the flue gases
from furnaces fired with pulverized coal.”

According to ASTM, fly-ashes are separated into two classes:

< Class F: low-lime content (low reactivity), and

< Class C: high-lime content (highly reactive but not used for sprayed
concrete applications).

The effect of fly-ash on the properties of the concrete is considerable.

During the mixing process the fly-ash acts as blended cement or as a
replacement of the fine part of aggregates. Slow response to sprayed
concrete accelerators has to be taken into account. Fly ash typically
contributes positively to workability/pumpability, as well as to long-term
performances and durability.

3.3.3. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

(BFS, GGBS, GGBFS)

Granulated blast furnace slag is made by rapidly cooling a slag melt of

suitable composition. As described by Tsohos & Oppliger in [38], blast
furnace slag contains 95 % or more oxides (silica alumina, lime and

68
 magnesia). It is classified in grades 120 – 100 – 80, based on the slag
activity index (SAI). The chemical composition of the GBFS depends on
the production process and the origin of the raw material.

Although GBFS contributes to pumpability, it is not often used in sprayed

concrete. GBFS has a latent hydraulic potential which leads to a slow
response to sprayed concrete accelerators.

3.3.4. Limestone

A sedimentary rock, limestone’s predominant minerals are calcite and

calcium carbonate (CaCO3), making up more than 75 % of its composi-
tion. Limestone is rarely added to sprayed concrete mixes and is con-
sidered an inert (non reactive) filler.

3.3.5. Summary

In addition to mix design, aggregates, w/c and application method,

additives contribute substantially to strength, durability as well as to
economic improvements.

Rebound
reduc-
Maximal Compressive Rebound tion and
Additive amount strength Permeability reduction build-up
per m3 [% bwc] increase [%] [%] increase in
[%]

Silica fume ≤ 15 ≤ 50 lower ≤ 50 30

Fly ash ≤ 30 n.a. lower n.a. n.a.
Slag ≤ 30 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Table 3-8: Contributions of additives to sprayed concrete performance

69
3.4. Water

3.4.1. Mixing water

Water for mixing shall comply with the requirements of EN 1008 or the
national standards and regulations.

As mentioned in EN 1008 [39], “The quality of the mixing water for pro-
duction of concrete can influence the setting time, the strength devel-
opment of concrete and the protection of the reinforcement against
corrosion. When assessing the suitability of water of unknown quality for
the production of concrete, both the composition of the water and the
application of the concrete to be produced should be considered.”

Mixing water should not contain any substances that may be harmful to
concrete or steel. Harmful substances include. sulfate, chloride, alkali
(Na2O > 1500 mg/l), sugars, oil etc. Potable water should be used for
mixing purposes. According to ACI 506R-05 [30], “If potable water is not
available, the mixing water should be tested to ensure that compressive
strengths of mortar cubes made with it are at least 90 % of that of mortar
cubes made with distilled water (Section 3.4 of ACI 318). Cubes should
be made of equal flow.”

According to ACI 506R-05, for the purposes of corrosion protection

of the reinforcement in the sprayed concrete, maximum water-soluble
chloride-ion concentration in hardened sprayed concrete at ages from
28 to 42 days should be limited to the values shown in the following
Table 3-9.

70
 Maximum water-soluble chloride-ion
concentration in concrete for corrosion
Type of concrete
protection of reinforcement
[% by weight of cement]
Pre-stressed concrete 0.06
Reinforced concrete exposed to
0.15
chloride in service
Reinforced concrete that will be dry
1.0
or protected from moisture in service
Other 0.3

Table 3-9: Maximum water-soluble chloride-ion concentration in con-

crete for corrosion protection of reinforcement [30]

3.4.2. Curing water

Curing water is the amount of total water added, which is required for
the full hydration process of cement. A theoretical value of the amount
of water is in the range of a maximum w/c ratio of 0.24. This minimal
amount of water however does not provide satisfactory workability
required for placing. In order to fulfill all requirements, w/c ratios of 0.4
to 0.5 are commonly used. Evaporation of water, especially from the
surface, should be avoided as it leads to insufficient hydration, result-
ing in higher water penetration and lower durability.

3.5. Chemical Admixtures

Admixtures for sprayed concrete shall comply with the requirements of

EN 934-5 or with the national standards or regulations valid in the place
of use. Limitations for the use of admixtures set out in these standards
shall not be exceeded. For their sampling, evaluation of conformity,
marking and labeling they shall meet the terms of EN 934-6 or national
standards.

In order to obtain specific properties in fresh and hardened concrete,

concrete admixtures should always be used in the wet-mix spraying
method. Concrete admixtures are not new inventions. The Romans
used different types of admixing material in their masonry, such as goat

71
 blood and pig fat, in order to make it more moldable. The results must
have been good, as their constructions are still standing.

Concrete admixtures are older than Portland cement, but it is only dur-
ing the last 30 years that more stringent requirements for higher quality
concrete production have speeded up the development, research and
utilization of admixing materials. Engineered polymer design and new
insights from nanotechnology have brought about several innovations
in high performance concrete admixtures, such as high-range water
reducers / super-plasticizers, viscosity modifying agents and hardening
accelerators used in normal concrete applications.

The selection of the best admixture or combination of admixtures

depends on many factors: concrete production method, transporta-
tion, fresh concrete properties, application requirements and final per-
formance have to be considered. A single performance characteristic
can sometimes conflict with other needs, e.g. a high strength concrete
with low permeability could become brittle with a tendency to crack, so
the opposite of durable concrete would be the result. Therefore, careful
optimization of all factors remains essential.

Issue Influence of admixture on

Workability Open time, consistency
Quality Permeability, aesthetics
Performance Higher strength
Logistics Transport, placing
Environment Save water, energy, less waste
Durability Longer service life

Table 3-10: Influence of admixtures

Nevertheless, the results that can be achieved by the addition of very

small amounts of chemical admixtures to concrete are impressive. With
less than 0.15 % of the mass of concrete, the admixture makes the dif-
ference (see Figure 3-10).

72
 Stiff concrete, consistency class S1 (left); Fluid concrete, consistency
class S5 / S6 and SCC (right)

Figure 3-10: A small amount of admixture has a big effect

The wet-mix method (see also Chapter 4.1) is attractive as the concrete is
mixed and water is added under controlled and reproducible conditions,
for instance at a concrete plant. The w/c ratio, one of the fundamental
factors in concrete technology, can be kept under control. One often
forgets, however, that the equipment makes heavy demands on the fresh
concrete, first of all in terms of pumpability. Furthermore, the method
requires a larger amount of fast-setting admixing materials, which may
lead to loss of strength in the final product.

Admixtures are added at the batching plant either after or together with
the mixing water. The mode of action in the concrete mix varies based
on the chemistry and the interaction with the concrete components, first
of all with the cement. Since admixtures are manufactured in a chemical
plant under controlled conditions and a restrictive quality control system,
they usually show a consistent performance under similar and controlled
conditions. Varying conditions affecting the concrete components may
influence their interaction with the admixture in use.

3.5.1. Admixture types

In order to achieve optimal results and performances, be it for fresh or

hardened concrete or even for transport and application, the chemical

73
 industry has developed tools for any specific requirement during recent
decades. Not only performance characteristics but also the safety of
advanced admixtures have been improved.

Various admixtures are available for controlling the properties of sprayed

concrete. In the following Table 3-11 the currently available admixture
types, their typical dosages and influence on the properties of the
sprayed concrete as well as related performances are summarized.

Admixture Typical dosage

Influence on Performance
type [ % bwc]
Compressive strength,
Water Water reduction of
0.5–1.5 permeability, durability and
reducing 10 to 45 %
environment protection
Set Setting and strength High early strength and final
3.0–14.0
accelerators development strength depending on type
Hydration, increased
Hydration open time, improved Open time from
0.3–1.5
control logistics flexibility and 2 to 24 hours
environmental protection
Consistency Higher flexibility for logistic;
0.5–2.0 Workability and pumping
control resources savings
Air entraining 0.01– 0.05 Durability, workability Freeze-thaw resistance

Table 3-11: Admixture types and related performances

3.5.2. Plasticizers/superplasticizers

Water reducers are used to improve concrete workability without affect-

ing the water content and cohesiveness in the plastic state or to reduce
the water content without affecting concrete workability. The water
reducer can give a significant increase in flow/slump with the same w/c
ratio, or the w/c ratio can be reduced to achieve the same flow/slump
as for a mix not containing the water reducer. The reduced w/c ratio
relates to a direct increase in strength. The higher flow/slump adds to
increased pumpability.

74
 0.7
High cement content,
plenty of water
0.6
Plasticizers
0.5
W/C Ratio Superplasticizers
0.4
“Hyperplasticizers”
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1940’s 1950’s 1960’s 1970’s 1980’s 1990’s Now

Figure 3-11: Development of lower w/c ratios through admixture tech-

nology with time (same mix and slump)

As shown in Figure 3-11, during the last few decades there have been sig-
nificant developments in water-reducing admixture technologies and an
increasing awareness of the importance of strict water-binder control.

The construction industry mainly uses the term plasticizer or superplasti-

cizer for water-reducing admixtures and differentiates between:

< L
 ow-Range Water Reducers (LRWR) for plasticizers, e.g. based on
lignosulphonate, a by-product from paper manufacturing. Since
lignosulfonate plasticizers display a certain retardation effect, they
may therefore be recommended in hot climate conditions rather than
for cold weather applications and/or high early strength development
requirements. Remember: retarders work against accelerators!
< M
 id-Range Water Reducers (MRWR) for superplasticizers, e.g.

naphthalene (by-product from oil refineries) or melamine sulfonates

or blends with lignosulfonates.
< H
 igh-Range Water Reducers (HRWR) for superplasticizers based on

the latest polycarboxylate ether (PCE) technology. HRWR are prefered

for high performance sprayed concrete applications (e.g. low w/c, fast
strength development, durable concrete).

Typical water-reducing (WR) performances by WR admixtures classes

are shown in the following Figure 3-12.

75
 50
40
30
% WR

20
10
0
LRWR MRWR HRWR

WR Admixture Class

Figure 3-12: Typical water reducing performance by WR admixture

classes (same mix and slump)

Figure 3-13 presents typical WR performances by admixture technolo-

gies: LS (lignosulfonates), BNS (naphthalenesulfonate), MFS (melamine
formaldehyde sulfonate), and PCE (polycarboxylate ethers).

Water
Water reductionby
reduction by Technology
technology

5050
Water reduction %

4040
Waterreduction %

3030

2020

1010

00
LS BNS
BNS MFS
MFS PCE
PCE

WR
WRTechnology
Technology

Figure 3-13: Water reduction performances by admixture technologies

(same mix and slump)

Typical compressive strengths obtained by WR admixture technologies

at various w/c ratios are shown in Figure 3-14 below.

76
 24h Compressive Strength [MPa]
3535 T

3030 W/C 0.5

24 h Compr. Str. MPa

2525
W/C 0.4
2020
1515
1010
55
00
LS
LS BNS
BNS MFS
MFS PCE
PCE
WR Technology
WR Technology

W/C 0.5
W/C 0.4

Figure 3-14: Typical 24 hrs strength of water reducing (WR) technolo-

gies at different w/c ratios (respective same mix and slump)

The effect of superplasticizers/plasticizers in dispersing cementitious

material makes them perfect and necessary admixtures for sprayed
concrete. The flow/slump increase achieved by adding conventional
superplasticizers is time and temperature dependent. However, pumpa-
bility can only be maintained for a limited time (20–90 mins) after mixing,
and excessive dosages of admixtures can result in a total loss of cohe-
siveness and in segregation. Normal dosage is from 4–10 kg/m3 depend-
ing on the quality requirements, w/c ratio and required consistency, as
well as the cement and aggregate type.

MRWR superplasticizers can be used at high dosages without the prob-

lems of set retardation or excessive air entrainment often associated with
high rates of addition of conventional water reducers. Briefly, we can say
that melamine forms a lubricating film on the particle surfaces, naph-
thalene electrically charges the cement particles so that they repel each
other and lignosulfonate decreases the water surface tension. When
well dispersed, the cement particles do not only flow around each other
more easily but also coat the aggregates more completely. The result is
a concrete that is both stronger and more workable.

The latest generation of high performance superplasticizers based on

modified polycarboxylic ether (PCE) brought a new performance level

77
 into the market. MasterGlenium® is the reference brand for this class
of superplasticizers. It has the capability to provide a very high water
reduction and excellent workability retention, without the usual unwanted
set-retarding side effect.

MasterGlenium® superplasticizers are based on complex and flexible

molecules (see Figure 3-15), comprising functional groups of chains of
differing lengths. The mixing of water with cement initiates a chemical
reaction (i.e. hydration). Water is absorbed into, and quickly dissolves,
the surface of the cement particles. The MasterGlenium® molecules are
attracted to the surface of the cement particles during mixing and increase
the negative charge on the surface, which causes electrostatic repul-
sion to occur. This results in greatly improved dispersion of the cement
particles leading to a remarkable improvement in workability, despite the
lower water content. The MasterGlenium® molecules have very long side
chains which also build steric hindrance, further improving the ability of
the cement particles to keep a distance from each other and increasing
the dispersing effect.

Figure 3-15 presents the mechanism of electrostatic repulsion (on the

left) and the mode of action of a combination of electrostatic repulsion
with additional steric effects (on the right).

MasterGlenium® superplasticizers can be designed to provide the high-

est possible performance. The MasterGlenium® ACE range is designed
for pre-cast applications, where high early strength requirements need
to be achieved without affecting placing and finishing quality. The
MasterGlenium® SKY range is optimized for ready-mix applications,
where a long open time is required to assure workability once the concrete
is delivered on-site.

Electrostatic repulsion Steric and Electrostatic repulsion

BNS molecules PCE molecules

78
Figure 3-15: Schematic explanation of the conventional dispersing
mechanism and the more recent developments in additional steric
effects

In wet-mix applications, extended workabiltiy time and good pump-

ability is required. The correct polymer design leads to the desired
results. The MasterGlenium® molecules are optimized by functional
groups in the polymer synthesis to accommodate these needs exact-
ly. Adsorption to cementitious materials becomes controllable and
influences the concrete’s properties over time.

The benefits of MasterGlenium® are:

< H
 ighwater reduction (> 40 %).
< Low capillary porosity.

< Extended workability even at a very low w/c ratio.

< High cohesiveness, easy pumpability.

< Contribution to strength development.

MasterGlenium® PCE technology is already widely used in combination

with alkali-free accelerators, representing modern sprayed concrete
admixtures. A comparison test on 28-day-old concrete with various
high-range plasticizers reveals that Glenium® produces by far the lowest
capillary porosity compared to traditional superplasticizers (see Figure
3-16).

79
 This test been carried out with concrete using the same workability
(slump or spread table)

Without With With With

admixture LS BNS or MS MasterGlenium

Water reduction

0% 10% 15-25% 45%

achieved W/C

0.70 0.50 0.45 0.40

Figure 3-16: A comparison of water reduction performances achieved

by different plasticizer technologies

80
3.5.3. Hydration Control Admixture

The supply and utilization of sprayed concrete mixes for infrastructure

projects in congested environments creates problems for both the con-
tractor and ready-mixed concrete supplier.

Sprayed concrete mixes, wet or dry mixes, only have a useful ‘pot-
life’ of 3 hours maximum or even less at temperatures above +20°C.
Material sprayed after this time will exhibit lower strengths and increased
rebound, due to the commencement of hydration of the cement.

The rebound of sprayed concrete mixes is a large add-on cost in an

underground construction project and it is in the interests of the contrac-
tor and owner to keep these costs to a minimum. In field tests in Europe
and Asia, it has been found that hydration-controlled sprayed concrete
mixes exhibit lower rebound than plain mixes. This is probably due to the
fact that in such mixes, no pre-hydration of the cement has taken place
and, consequently, ‘fresh’ cement is being sprayed continually, regard-
less of the time elapsed between batching and spraying.

Long trucking distances from the batching plant to the site, delays in
construction schedules as well as plant and equipment breakdowns
ensure that much of the concrete actually sprayed is beyond its potlife.
In addition to this, environmental regulations may well impose restrictions
upon the working hours of batching plants in urban areas, meaning that a
contractor who requires sprayed concrete mixes to be supplied 24 hours
a day may only be able to obtain material for 12 hours each day. Problems
such as these create unnecessary additional construction costs for both
the contractor and the client.

A chemical system for controlling cement hydration MasterRoc HCA

(formerly Delvo®crete) was developed in the nineties, increasing the
working life of concrete mixes substantially. The original systems con-
sisted of a hydration control admixture – ‘Delvo Stabilizer’ – and a typical
aluminate-based set accelerator, called ‘Delvo Activator’. At this time,
alkali-free accelerators (AFAs) were not available. The hydration control
admixture Delvo is still in use, but now more and more in combination
with more advanced AFAs. It is added to the mix in the batching plant.
The MasterRoc HCA system was first used commercially in Europe in
1990 and enables the potlife of sprayed concrete mixes, both wet and

81
 dry, to be extended for periods of up to 12 hours. This eliminates many of
the problems associated with the production and application of consist-
ent, high-quality sprayed concrete mixes encountered by contractors,
concrete producers and engineers.

The technical performances of hydration-controlled concretes and

sprayed concretes treated with the MasterRoc HCA system exhibit quali-
ties equal or superior to reference concretes manufactured convention-
ally. One of the reasons for this may be a lower heat peak during the
hydration process. In addition, MasterRoc HCA may facilitate favorable
microstructure development for setting and hardening.

Extended Flow Retention of Hydration Controlled Concrete

60
50
40
Flow [cm]

30
20
10
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 480
Time [minutes]

Plain
Retarder
MasterRoc HCA

Figure 3-17: Workability retention of sprayed concrete with normal

retarder and with hydration control admixture

Whereas a normal retarding admixture expands workability in a limited

time range, MasterRoc HCA performs over several hours. In addition,
normal retarders conflict with accelerators, whereas MasterRoc HCA
displays a sort of a synergistic mechanism. Dosages higher than 0.5 %
can further delay hydration as shown in Figure 3-18 below.

82
 45

Temperature Evolution [°C]

40

35

30

25

20
0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
Time [hours]

No Chemical Admixture
0.50% MasterRoc HCA
1.00% MasterRoc HCA

Figure 3-18: Heat generation of untreated and hydration-controlled

cement paste over time (hours)

In sprayed concrete applications, hydration-controlled mixes have shown

improved compressive, tensile and flexural strengths when compared to
reference mixes. Kinney observed that the MasterRoc HCA Stabilizer
appears to slow CSH nuclei formation when added with the mix water
and slows both CSH and CH when added during or after the induction
period. It is suggested that this ability to affect nucleation and crystal
growth leads to the formation of finer CH and denser silicate hydrates,
resulting in beneficial physical paste properties.

The benefits of hydration control by means of admixtures include:

< H
 igher flexibility for long distance or in high traffic areas or during
work breakdowns at site.
< Less returned concrete (waste), transport and disposal.
< Less cleaning of trucks and disposal of wash water, which can be
reused.
< Reuse of return concrete.
< Improved acceleration performance.
< Up to 10 % less rebound due to the resulting ‘soft surface’.
< Lower cost.

83
 MasterRoc HCA is an economical and efficient tool for sprayed concrete
applications, especially for large underground projects.

3.5.4. Viscosity Modifying Admixtures (VMA)

Whenever concrete has had to be pumped, consistency has been a

perpetual problem. The industry has offered a number of so-called
pumping aids – admixtures which displayed a sort of a swelling or gel-
ling effect. The result has been better consistency and less bleeding
and segregation. The disadvantage of conventional pumping aids is
their retarding effect, which is a counterproductive property for sprayed
concrete. In sprayed concrete applications, the use of viscosity modify-
ing agents is more and more common.

In particular, the latest Smart Dynamic Concrete technology, based on

innovative MasterMatrix® products, provides superior mix robustness,
bleeding and segregation resistance and improved pumpability. The
macromolecules act in the cement paste by self-organizing between
the solid concrete ingredients. Simultaneously adsorbing on more than
one particle and bridging between them, a strong network is formed
and a matrix-like structure forms. In 3-D the structure gives a good idea
of how they arrange and control the water for best exploring the cement
hydration (see Figure 3-19).

Bridging cement Bridging fines

Figure 3-19: Schematic view of the bridging action of MasterMatrix®

molecules to increase interparticle bonding

84
 The correct use can provide the sprayed concrete with the following
properties:

< B
 etter pumpability (lubricates and prevents bleeding and segrega-
tion).
< R educed wear on pumping equipment and hoses.

< Increased cohesiveness of the fresh concrete and therefore reduced

consumption of accelerator, which has a positive effect on final com-
pressive strength.

In the light of these positive effects, we wish to emphasize that high-

performance viscosity modifying admixtures should always be added
to sprayed concrete to obtain the best possible quality. Viscosity modi-
fying admixtures are also used for self-compacting concrete (SCC)
applications.

3.5.5. Curing agents

As with normal concrete, sprayed concrete should be sufficiently cured

to fully develop its potential strength and durability, especially important
for sprayed concrete in thin sections or with a low w/c ratio (see also
section 7.5 Curing).

In order to avoid concrete lacking in sufficient water for proper hydration,

several curing methods are used. On many job sites, fresh concrete is
covered with plastic sheets; in the past the surface was treated with
water, which became very unpopular for ecological reasons. In addition
to these methods, different curing agents are offered by the industry.
Most of them form a film on the surface of the concrete, preventing the
evaporation of curing water.

Curing agents shall be in accordance with European standards or the

national standards or regulations valid in the place of use of the sprayed
concrete. They are normally formulated from wax emulsions, chlorinated
rubbers, synthetic and natural resins, and from PVA (Polyvinyl Acetate)
emulsions. Depending on the material and strength of the emulsion, the
effectiveness of the curing agents varies significantly (see [52]).

85
 The use of curing agents involves several requirements, as listed below:
< T
 hey shall be solvent-free (for use in confined spaces).

< T
 hey shall not negatively influence the bond between sprayed con-

crete layers.
< T
 hey shall be applied immediately after placing sprayed concrete.

< T
 hey shall be non-flammable.

Special care in the choice of a suitable curing agent is required, because

it may negatively affect the bond between concrete and subsequent
concrete layers or surface treatments. The residue from some products
may prevent the adhesion of further layers onto the concrete.

When treating sprayed concrete with a curing agent, great care must
be taken in cleaning the substrate properly before applying a subse-
quent layer of concrete. Cleaning can be done by passing air and water
through the sprayed concrete equipment nozzle.

The timing of the application of curing agents is critical for maximum

effectiveness when they are used to cure fresh concrete. Application to
the surface of the concrete should start as soon as the free water on the
surface has evaporated and no water sheen is visible. If application is
done too early, the membrane can be diluted; application too late leads
to absorption of the membrane into the concrete, thus the membrane
cannot be formed.

Because hydration and temperature development are most active dur-

ing the first minutes and hours after the application of the sprayed
concrete, it is essential to protect the sprayed concrete from drying out
at this critical stage. To guarantee proper curing of sprayed concrete,
curing agents must be applied within 15 to 20 minutes after spraying,
since the hydration of sprayed concrete takes place 5 to 15 minutes after
spraying (due to the use of set accelerators).

Very good outcomes have been achieved with the use of a special
curing agent for sprayed concrete (MasterKure® 112). This product
is solvent free and easy to apply and remove. It is used on many big
projects and in different countries, everywhere with very good results.
The use of specially designed curing agents for sprayed concrete
improves bonding by 30 to 40 % compared to no curing (air curing); it
reduces shrinkage and cracking and also gives a slightly higher density

86
 and compressive strength (at 28 days). These results are confirmed
by several laboratory tests and field trials. Even with easy-to-apply
products, curing of sprayed concrete remains a time-consuming job
and is often seen as a hindrance to other tunneling operations.

3.5.5.1. Concrete improvers - internal curing compounds

For many years BASF has been providing the market with an excel-
lent concrete improving admixture, which acts as an internal curing
agent: MasterRoc TCC 735. This product is added to the concrete at
the batching plant and displays similar performances to conventional
curing methods. The benefits resulting from this new technology are
impressive:
< T he time-consuming application and, in the instance of various

sprayed concrete layers, removal of curing agents are no longer

necessary.
< C uring is guaranteed from the very beginning of hydration.

< T here is no negative influence on bonding between layers.

As a consequence of this optimum curing effect, all other sprayed con-

crete characteristics are improved:
< H igher final compressive strengths.

< F reeze/thaw resistance.

< C hemical resistance (sulfate, chloride).

< W atertightness (due to reduced water penetration).

< L ess cracking and shrinkage.

< B ond strength to second sprayed concrete layer.

< N o additional work operation is required, unlike alternative methods.

The great improvement of bond strength confirms a much better sur-

face quality. In fact, the performances are competitive with any conven-
tional curing method applied to fresh concrete.

87
 Bond strength Water Absorption Compressive strength
Cracks
at 28 d [MPa] at 7 d [g/cm2] increase [%]
Uncured 1.02 IF 0.7 - Yes
External
1.5 IF 0.69 > 10 Yes
curing
MasterRoc
2.28 C 0.37 > 10 No
TCC 735
Key: IF: failure within interface (IF) between layers / C: failure within concrete

Table 3-12: Performances of uncured and cured concrete by external

curing agent and ‘internal curing’ admixture MasterRoc TCC 735

In addition to technical performance gains, the economies possible

should not be underestimated. Time and material cost savings are
remarkable. There is also a positive environmental impact by saving
water for water curing. One can conclude that this technology may con-
tribute to the further use of sprayed concrete for final permanent linings.

The following Table 3-13 shows a comparison of costs of internal cur-

ing, external curing and water curing methods from a very large-scale
sprayed concrete project (with more than 200,000 m3 of wet HPS
sprayed concrete applied in a period of 2.5 years).

Curing Method
Type of cost Water curing External curing Internal curing
Material - 14 15
Application
25.2 1 -
(man hours)
Application
280 18 -
(machine)
Removal
- 10.8 -
(man hours)
Removal
- 80 -
(machine)
Total costs
305.20 123.8 15
per m 3 (CHF)

Table 3-13: Cost comparison per m3 (in CHF) of internal curing, external
curing and water curing from a jobsite with more than 200,000 m3 of
wet HPS sprayed concrete

88
3.5.6. Air Entraining Admixtures (AEA)

Large air bubbles/voids filled with water usually display cracking/

spalling in the concrete during frost periods. Air entraining admixtures
are designed to improve the freeze-thaw resistance of concrete (see
also Chapter 2.3.11). They are able to generate a large number of homo-
geneously distributed, very small air bubbles. In contrast to large air
voids from concrete mixing, typically 1–10 mm in diameter, small air bub-
bles with an average diameter of 0.1 mm are not able to absorb water
and, therefore, expansion of freezing water will not occur.

The dosage of air entraining admixtures has to be strictly controlled.

During the spraying and compaction of concrete, losses of up to 30 %
of entrained air are usual.

Entrained air may contribute to flowability and also to water reduction

[50], but the authors do not recommend the use of air entrained admix-
tures for these purposes. In this scenario, we recommend the use of
water-reducing and consistency control admixtures.

Air content higher than 6 to 7 % starts to affect the pumpability of

sprayed concrete mixes negatively, especially when pumping over ver-
tical distances (upwards) and horizontal distances greater than that
which is the norm for robotic machines, i.e. 15–20 meters.

3.5.7. Accelerators

In concrete technology there is a distinction between the setting and

the hardening process, and especially between setting and hardening
accelerators. This chapter will discuss exclusively sprayed concrete
accelerators, which contribute to setting and early-strength perform-
ance. Typical strength development curves of concrete with a hardening
accelerator, a setting accelerator and a reference concrete are shown
in Figure 3-20.

89
 40

Compressive Strength [MPa]

30

20

10

Time

Hardering Accelerator
Set Accelerator
Reference

Figure 3-20: Typical strength development of hardening and set accel-

erators with time (schematic)

Fast-setting accelerators are the most important admixtures of sprayed

concrete. They strongly reduce the setting time of sprayed concrete,
leading to quicker setting and higher early strength. This allows subse-
quent layers of sprayed concrete to be applied sooner and at greater
thicknesses.

On large-scale projects, setting accelerators definitely help to increase pro-

ductivity and are an important prerequisite for many applications. In under-
ground construction works and pit curbing, for instance, the early strength
of the sprayed concrete is decisive and an essential requirement.

Sprayed concrete accelerators are either added as liquids at the spray-

ing nozzle (wet and dry spraying) or as powders to the dry mix (dry
spraying).

3.5.7.1. Sodium silicates

Sodium silicate, commonly called waterglass, was widely used in many

countries as it was easily available and affordable in the past. It is

90
 a water soluble chemical providing limited acceleration performance.
Nevertheless, due to its low price, it was used in large volumes most
countries of the world. Silicates cannot be applied at low temperatures
(< 5°C). Setting and strength development is relatively slow compared
to other technologies. After several years, concrete containing silicates
showed serious damage caused by severe leaching of water-soluble
portions of the concrete created by the accelerator. The consequences
were water leaks and, in many cases, blockage of drainages, followed
by costly renovations. The degradation of sprayed concrete led to a very
significant deterioration of the concrete’s properties. Strength losses of
up to 50 % were observed after some time. In addition, due to their high
alkalinity (pH 10 – 11), silicate-based accelerators carry a risk of skin
and eye burns to underground personnel. The application of sprayed
concrete using sodium silicate accelerators causes high rebound rates
and very high dust levels.

3.5.7.2. Aluminates

Sodium and potassium aluminates represent a much better performing

class compared to silicates. Fast-setting and fast-strength development
performances as well as low price were attractive properties for appli-
cators and contractors. Nevertheless, the disadvantages of aluminates
were similar to or even worse than those of silicates. As with silicate
based accelerators, significant strength losses can be observed in time.
The reason may be either leaching of water-soluble portions and/or a
deterioration of the hardened cement/concrete microstructure. When
in contact with air (CO2), leachates form calcium carbonate (limestone),
which blocks drainage systems (sinter).

Due to their high alkalinity (pH 14), the risk of skin and eye burn with
aluminates became so severe that several countries banned the alumi-
nates even as far back as the early nineties. All these findings led finally
to the development of a new class of accelerators (AFAs) in the early
nineties. Similar to the use of sodium silicate, the application of sprayed
concrete using aluminate based accelerators causes high rebound
rates and very high dust levels.

91
3.5.7.3. Alkali-free accelerators (AFA)

After various complaints about traditional accelerators, only a few com-

panies have invested in the development of alkali-free and non-caustic
accelerators. At the beginning it was not very clear what the market
really needed: less dangerous products or products containing lower
alkali (sodium, potassium/ < 1% Na2O equivalent) contents.

In the early 90s, BASF (former MBT) decided to develop new technolo-
gies fulfilling both requirements (very low alkali contents and low alkalin-
ity expressed as low pH). The first generation of AFAs did not exhibit very
impressive performances in terms of setting and early and final strength.
Today, there is a range of products that fulfills almost any requirements.
Figure 3-21 shows sodium equivalents of alkali-free accelerators com-
pared to conventional technologies.

Sodium Equivalent % Na2O by Accelerator Technology

Sodium Equivalent % Na2O by Accelerator Technology

25 25
Sodium Equivalent Na2O [%]

20 20
Sodium Equivalent, Na2 O [%]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
Silicate Aluminate Alkalifree
Silicate Aluminate
Accelerator Technology
Alkalifree

Accelerator Technology

Figure 3-21: Typical alkali contents by accelerator technologies

3.5.7.4. Physical properties and performance characteristics

Concrete containing silicates and/or aluminates is not recommended for

long-term durability, whereas alkali-free accelerators can be used not
only for rock support but even more so for tunnel linings.

92
 Initial Final
Approx. Approx. Typical
Accelerator Set 2) Set 2) Rebound
pH value Na2O dosage Dust Durability
type CEM I CEM I (wet-mix)
[-] [%] [% bwc]
52.5 52.5

poor; risk
Silicates 11 - 13 > 10 .- 30’ 8 - 15 high high
of ASR

moderate
Aluminates 13 - 14 ≤ 20 60 - 90’’ 3 - 4’ 3-6 high high / poor; risk
of ASR

Alkali-free 3 < 1 1) 60 - 90’’ 3 - 4’ 4-8 low low excellent

1)
It should be considered that cement contains a natural amount of alkali in the range of approx.
0.6% Na2O.
2)
Setting times measured with cement paste.

Table 3-14: Typical characteristics of sprayed concrete accelerators

Low rebound is not only dependent on mix design and application com-
petence, but also on accelerator technology. Fast setting and hardening
creates a relatively hard surface, whereas slower hardening at the very
early stage leads to a softer surface able to absorb some of the spraying
energy. Lower rebound is the result, which is very favorable for several
reasons.

The three accelerator types previously discussed in this chapter create

any desired performance, be it specific for ground classes, strength or
even durability requirements. We should bear in mind that both setting
and strength development depend not only on the accelerator type but
also on other factors, mentioned previously.

Setting

Setting is usually measured either in cement paste or in normal mortar.

Test procedure for measuring setting in a cement paste:

Equipment: mixing pot with rounded spatula, manual Vicat needle,

stop-watch, testing cups.

1. Determine the water demand of the cement (EN 196-3).

2. Weigh the water according to the water demand of the cement.

93
 3. Weigh MasterGlenium® T801 or similar superplasticizer (project related).
4. Weigh 300 g cement (+20°C ±1°C).
5. Mix very intensively for 2 mins until a homogeneous paste is
obtained.
6. Add 3–10 g of accelerator (project related) and mix for max 5 s.
7. Immediately after mixing: fill a test cup, place it under the manual
Vicat needle and start measuring the penetration.
8. Record initial set (needle stops 1–2 mm from the bottom of the
cement paste).
9. Record final set (needle cannot penetrate into the cement paste).

The tables below show typical setting results of CEM I or CEM II using
an alkali-free accelerator (see also Figure 3-24).

Initial set < 2 min < 4 min > 4 min

Final set < 5 min < 8 min > 8 min
Rating good acceptable not acceptable

Table 3-15: Results and interpretation of setting tests in cement paste

Test procedure for measuring setting in a mortar (according to EN 196,

EN 480):

Equipment: Hobbart mixer, manual Vicat needle, mortar prism forms.

1. Weigh water (according to w/c ratio, project related) and superplasti­

cizer (MasterGlenium® T801 or similar, dosage project related) in the
bowl, homogenize. Pour carefully 450 g of cement (+20° C ±1° C) into
the bowl and stir for 30 s on level I.
2. Add 1350 g norm sand within 30 s and mix for 30 s on level I.
3. Mix for 30 s on level II.
4. Stop for 90 s. During the first 15 s remove all mortar adhering to the
wall and place it in the middle of the bowl.
5. Mix again for 60 s on level II.
6. Check the flow of the mortar. Required flow: 19 ±1 cm. Adjust by w/c
ratio or the dosage of superplasticizer (project related).
7. Add 3–10 % bcw of accelerator (dosage project related) and mix for
max 15 s on level II.
8. Immediately after mixing: prepare the test prism.

94
9.  Fill the prism form on a vibration table for 30 s to avoid bad compac­
tion.
10. Place it under the manual Vicat needle and start measuring the pen-
etration.
11. Record initial set (needle stops 1–2 mm from the bottom of the
cement mortar).
12. Record final set (needle cannot penetrate into the cement mortar).
13. Measure the compressive strength at 6 hours and at 24 hours.

Initial set < 2 min 2 - 5 min > 5 min

Final set < 6 min 8 - 13 min > 13 min
6-hour strength > 3 MPa 1 - 3 MPa < 1 MPa
24-hour strength > 15 MPa 10 - 15 MPa < 10 MPa
Rating good acceptable not acceptable

Table 3-16: Results and interpretation of setting tests in mortar

For a fair evaluation of setting times, among other factors, cement type
plays a crucial role. Figure 3-22 below shows setting performances of
a Portland (CEM I) versus a Portland Slag cement (CEM II). The values
shown are measured averages from a number of different cements,
accelerated with various alkali-free accelerators. As the graph shows,
the results can vary within a relatively large range.

95
 50

Average setting time min. 40

30

20

10

0
Initial Setting Final Setting

CEM I
CEM II

Figure 3-22: Setting times of selected cement types (CEM I and CEM II)

In addition to the cement type, the strength class (fineness) plays a very
important role as shown in Figure 3-23 below.

96
 Typical setting of different cement types

Typical Setting of different Cement Types

400
400

Time [seconds] 300

300
Time [seconds]

200
200 initial s etting

final s etting
100
100

00
C E MCEM
I 5 2 . 5I 52.5 C E M II 42.5 CEM II 42.5

Initial setting
Final setting

Figure 3-23: Initial and final setting of cements of different strength

classes

Even if initial setting times are above 5 minutes, it is possible to spray 5 to

7 cm thick layers and the required 24-hour strength can still be achieved.
Setting is not only dependent on cement and accelerator types and their
dosage, but also on the w/c ratio, as shown in Figure 3-24.

97
 25

Initial/Final Set [min]

20
15
10
Final Set
5
Initial Set
0
0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
W/C Ratio

25 Final Set
Initial/Final Set [min]

16

12
Initial Set
8
W/C= 0.45 Dosage at Site
4

0
4 6 8 10 12
Accelerator Dosage [%]

Figure 3-24: Setting behavior by different w/c ratios and accelerator

dosages

Early and final strength development

Strength at an early stage does not differ greatly between accelerator

types. After six hours and even more so after 24 hours, the different
performances are significant but are not decisive factors for long-term
performance.

98
 Typical average Strength Development of
Set Accelerator Technologies

40
Compressive Strength [MPa]
30

20

10

0
Aluminate Silicate AFA

1h
6 hrs
24 hrs
7 days

Figure 3-25: Typical strength development of sprayed concrete with

different types of set accelerators

Although differences in accelerator technology performances at an

early stage may not appear very significant, after some time silicates
and aluminates display a serious weakness compared to alkali-free
accelerators (AFAs). Figure 3-26 below shows typical strength losses
of alkali-rich accelerators compared to AFAs. Both aluminates and sili-
cates exhibit substantial strength loss after some time.

99
 Compressive Strength [MPa]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3 24 28 d 90 d 360 d

Time [days]

Silicate
Aluminate
AFA

Figure 3-26: Long-term development of final strength by different

accelerator types

In Figure 3-27 below, recorded compressive strength developments

by selected alkali-free set accelerators are shown compared to J1, J2
and J3 standard requirements according to the Austrian Guideline for
sprayed concrete [51]. These records confirm the performance of alkali-
free accelerators in the field.

100
 Compressive Strength of Sprayed Concrete

50
MasterRoc SA Product A
20
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

MasterRoc SA Product B
15,0
MasterRoc SA Product C
10
MasterRoc SA Product D
5 5,0

2 2,0

1.0 J3
0,5
0.5
J2
0,2
0.2
J1
0,1
0.1

2 6 10 30 1 2 3 6 9 12 24
Minute Hour

Figure 3-27: Recorded compressive strength developments by selected

alkali-free set accelerators in comparison with J1, J2 and J3 standard
requirements based on the Austrian Guideline for sprayed concrete [51]

Dosing
Dosing of accelerators has to be adjusted to performance requirements.
Normally, very high dosages provide faster setting and higher early
strength, but often lower final strength. Overdosing has to be avoided,
because it carries the risk of fast setting followed by a dormant period
and, even worse, by no hardening of the concrete at all. According to the
author’s experience in the field, the same happens when the content of
gypsum in the cement is lower than 1.8 %.

Typical dosing rates for accelerators are:

- Sodium silicates 6 - 15 % bwc
- Aluminates 4 - 7 % bwc
- Alkali free 5 - 8 % bwc

In order to obtain the desired performance of accelerators, cement

type, mix design and temperature are decisive factors and have to be

101
 considered. At hot temperatures cooling may be required, whereas at
low temperatures (less than 5 °C) the hydration process is significantly
delayed. Performance development may not be sufficient.

3.5.7.5. Alkalinity and corrosiveness

In the context of sprayed concrete accelerators, the actual meaning of

the terms non-caustic and alkali-free are frequently mixed up. The rea-
son for this is the dual meaning of alkaline in the English language. The
term alkaline can be understood as:

1) A basic liquid (with a pH value in the range of 7 to 14). As an exam-

ple, calcium oxide dissolved in water produces a high concentration of
OH-ions and a pH value of about 13. This solution is strongly basic (=
alkaline), but it contains no alkali cations.

2) A solution containing alkali cations such as Na+, K+, Li+. An example

is common salt dissolved in water (sodium chloride solution). This solu-
tion contains alkali cations; its pH value, however, is approx. 7, and it is
therefore neutral.

Alkalinity and alkali content are two independent properties. For sprayed
concrete accelerators, however, the term alkali-free should have only
one meaning: the set accelerator contains less than 1% by weight of
Na2O equivalent, which represents only sodium and potassium content
as described in DIN EN 480-1 2. Lithium does not seem to have a nega-
tive effect and it is therefore ignored.

The reason to aim for this is that this will reduce the risk of alkali cations
reacting with sensitive minerals (dissolvable silica, SiO2) that are some-
times in the concrete aggregates. If such a reaction takes place, aggre-
gate grains will fracture due to expansion. This may have a detrimental
effect on the sprayed concrete matrix.

Most conventional accelerators are strongly alkali or basic (pH value

12–14). This can be expressed as caustic, basic, aggressive or, in some
cases, corrosive, however, the term alkaline should be avoided. Caustic
comes from caustic soda, which is not soda (sodium carbonate) but
sodium hydroxide. There are also examples of accelerators that are

102
 strong acids (pH value 0–2). This can be expressed as acidic, aggres-
sive or corrosive. One can also distinguish between corrosive to metal
and corrosive to human skin and eyes. The background for the impor-
tance of this property is working safety and the working environment.
High alkali contents, however, can have a negative impact on alkali-
sensitive aggregates (see Chapter 3.2).

pH Scale
0 4 7 10 14
Safe to human body

ACIDIC NEUTRAL BASIC

Aggressive to Aggressive to
concrete and steel aluminium
Alkali-free Conventional
accelerators accelerators
Modified sodium
silicate accelerators

Figure 3-28: Schematic presentation of the pH scale and the corro-

siveness to humans and to materials (adapted from Melbye 1997 and
Bracher 1995)

Strong acids as well as strong bases can be dangerous to underground

personnel because of their aggressive behavior upon contact with eyes,
skin and the respiratory organs.

3.5.8. Cement – set accelerator interactions

3.5.8.1. Hydration process by accelerators

Speed of setting and rapid early strength development are the two most
crucial requirements for sprayed concrete in tunneling and mining con-
struction; these are mainly achieved by using set accelerators. Recent
studies and investigations have focused on the chemical interaction and
mechanisms between set accelerators and cements relating to kinetics,
thermodynamics and microstructure development (see [13] to [23]).

103
 There are two main types of set accelerator, namely alkaline set accel-
erators (see [14] to [16]) and alkali-free set accelerators (see [16] to [23]).
The active agent of the alkali-free accelerator shows a high reactivity
when mixed with cement. When the alkali-free set accelerator is added
to the concrete mix, it reacts immediately with cement to form a variety
of hydration products. Ettringite, one of the first hydration products,
which consumes an increased amount of water, is responsible for the
rapid setting and fast strength development of sprayed concrete (see
[13], [16] to [23]).

3.6. Testing of early strength development

This section describes the typical laboratory tests performed before

sprayed concrete application. Various laboratory tests with cement
paste or standard mortar tests are carried out to verify the performance
of selected cement and admixture interactions.

During spraying trials, shortly after spraying, temperature development

is measured as a first indicator of the hydration process. In addition,
measuring of early strength development is carried out.

3.6.1. Laboratory scale testing of cement pastes and mortars

Due to the high cost and demanding conditions of time, space and
effort necessary for full-scale trials to test sprayed concrete, the setting
properties of cements in combination with appropriate admixtures (e.g.
accelerators, plasticizers and retarders) are typically first tested in the
laboratory in the form of cement paste or as components of a standard
mortar.

The main goal of such laboratory tests is the identification of the cor-
rect proportion of admixtures to be used in combination with a specific
cement to obtain the desired properties of setting and compressive
strength development, typically with the additional constraint of cost
optimization. Such desired properties are usually defined by an appro-
priate standardized specification, depending on the specific application
intended for the sprayed concrete.

104
3.6.1.1. Standard materials preparation for laboratory scale testing

3.6.1.1.1. Mortar

The standard preparation of mortar is done according to Norms EN

196-1, EN196-3, EN 413-2, EN 480-1, EN 480-2, prEN 934-5 and prEN
1008.

3.6.1.2. Physical tests

3.6.1.2.1. The prism for physical testing

In order to conduct the physical tests, a standard cement of mortar

prism shape (according to EN 196-1) is used to obtain a well-defined
piece of material to be tested as specified in the paragraphs below.
Such a prism shape is illustrated in Figure 3-29, and has the dimensions
of 160.0 ± 0.1 x 40.0 ± 0.2 x 40 ± 0.2 mm. The mortar prism sample
obtained is shown in the following figure.

Figure 3-29: Mold used to produce standard mortar prisms for physical
testing

105
 Figure 3-30: Mortar prism sample obtained from the mold

The dosage of accelerator (as the percentage by weight of cementitious

content required to provide the initial and final setting times of a cement
paste) shall be determined in accordance with EN 196-3 and the cor-
responding procedure. Alternative test procedures to suit the proposed
accelerators and cement types may be proposed for approval by the
engineer.

3.6.1.2.2. Initial and final setting time

The setting of a cement paste or mortar, in contrast to its hardening,

has been defined as “a sudden loss of plasticity of the original paste
and its conversion to a solid material with a barely measurable strength.
The term hardening means the development of hardness and strength
that follows the setting of the paste.” [41]

While this is a qualitative definition, there are standard physical tests

defined by EN 196-3 to assess the state of setting of a given cementi-
tious material using the initial and the final setting times, which are
determined using the Vicat needle.

106
Initial and final setting times are measured using a Vicat needle consist-
ing of a cylinder weighing 300 ± 1g and a needle point with a diameter
of 1.13 ± 0.05 mm. The initial setting time is defined as the time at which
a paste or mortar deposited in the mold begins to oppose resistance to
penetration by the Vicat needle. In practice, the Vicat needle is allowed
to fall by gravity after being placed as near as possible to the upper part
of the material; only when the needle does not touch the bottom of the
mold due to the resistance of the material has the setting started. Due
to the poor homogeneity of the materials under investigation, especially
when using fast setting admixtures, the test is repeated four times, and
initial setting is said to have taken place only when at least three out of
four trials are positive.

Final setting, on the other hand, is defined as having taken place when
the Vicat needle, in contact with the upper side of the material, is not
breaking its structure but only leaves the print of the pressure of the
point of the needle. It is clear that while this is a qualitative definition
of the setting of cement or mortar, indicating the beginning of a phase
transition (and therefore the moment when cement will not drip from
a vertical or even a perpendicular surface), the quantitative definitions
of initial and final setting times depend fully on the instrument used (its
weight and the diameter of the needle).

Figure 3-31: Initial setting (on the left) and final setting (on the right),
measured with the Vicat needle

107
3.6.1.2.3. Compressive strength

By norm (EN 196-1), the state of hardening of a given cementitious mate-

rial is assessed by the measurement of the resistance to compressive
strength. This is measured by applying pressure onto the prisms (EN
196-1) after 6h, 1 day, 7 days, and 28 days. Between measurements
the prisms are kept at a constant temperature of 20 ± 2°C and constant
humidity of at least 90 %.

Figure 3-32: Measurement of the compressive strength of a norm prism

3.6.1.2.4. Measurement of the continuous development of

resistance to penetration

Initial and final setting times, along with compressive strengths at 6h, 1
day, 7 days and 28 days allow the identification of characteristic points
of cement paste or mortar hydration and therefore of their phase transi-
tion. Indeed such values can give information on the quality of cement or
mortar, and its interactions with accelerators. Nonetheless it is possible
and desirable to monitor the state of phase transition of cement in a con-
tinuous manner using automatic computer-interfaced penetrometers
(see Figure 3-33).

Such instruments are not yet commercially available, but constitute the
result of an effort by BASF to improve the quality and speed of materials
testing. The resulting curve expresses the development of resistance

108
to penetration, in Newtons (y-axis), against time (x-axis). The force is
depicted as the average value from the four needles. The two curves
refer to two different set accelerators (see Figure 3-34). These curves
can be correlated to the development of strength of the material. Such
measurements can be performed at different penetration speeds for
a maximum of 36 hours, and are especially suitable for mortar testing
where accelerating admixtures are present.

Figure 3-33: Four-needle penetrometer with controlling station

109
 GP Cement W/C 0.45

3000 Set accelerator B (7%)

2500
Averange Force [Newton]

2000

1500

1000
Set accelerator A (7%)
500

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [min]

Figure 3-34: Resulting curves of force opposed to needle penetration

(Newton) against time

3.6.1.2.5. Isothermal Calorimetry

A useful measurement of the chemical reactivity of cements can be

obtained by means of isothermal calorimetry, a technique that measures
heat flow during cement hydration. Gram-scale amounts of the cement
samples are mixed in suitable ampoules and the reaction enthalpy is then
measured in constant temperature conditions. Computerized differential
calorimetric post-processing then provides curves of ΔH/ΔT, expressing
the amount of heat of reaction released in time (see Figure 3-35).

110
 Portland cement + MasterRoc SA X180/L, w/c = 0.5

Rate of heat evolution [mW/G CEM]

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time [days]

without set accelerator

with 7% SA X180-L

Figure 3-35: Rate of heat evolution for given Portland cement with and
without set accelerator (on the left)

High throughput systems such as those illustrated in Figure 3-36 allow

the quality control of cements as well as screening the behavior of
cements where admixtures are present. Each station allows eight
measurements.

Figure 3-36: The laboratory equipment for testing isothermal calorimetry

111
3.6.2. Full-scale testing of sprayed concrete
in controlled conditions

While mortar tests with varying levels of sophistication, as well as analy-

sis of isothermal calorimetry, are fundamental pre-screening tools for
cementitious materials and admixtures, full-scale tests of sprayed con-
crete deliver results with the highest degree of consistency for tunneling
and mining job sites.

Full-scale performance testing of sprayed concrete can be done either

in a laboratory (full-scale controlled conditions sprayed concrete labora-
tory) or at a job site (field testing). Full-scale laboratory tests require the
availability of a concrete pumping and accelerator dosing system (such
as MEYCO® Suprema) and a spraying manipulator (such as MEYCO®
Oruga) for a concrete output comparable to that of a job site. The dimen-
sions of such a laboratory should be sufficient to accommodate this
apparatus, and allow testing of concrete at controlled temperature con-
ditions. Furthermore, a set of consistent measuring tools to determine
the strength development of the sprayed concrete is also necessary.

3.6.2.1. The sprayed concrete laboratory

Full-scale spraying of concrete can be performed in a laboratory pro-

vided that sufficient space is available to accommodate a model section
of a gallery and professional machines for mixing and spraying concrete.
Figure 3-37 illustrates such a laboratory and tunnel model section.

112
 Figure 3-37: Spraying tests laboratory with model section of tunnel and
concrete spraying and mixing machines

A spraying manipulator can access the laboratory testing area, while

concrete is pumped by a neighboring pumping and accelerator dosing
system. A concrete mixer truck carrying between 1 and 4 m3 of fresh
concrete delivers the concrete to the sprayed concrete pump. In a typi-
cal experiment, test panels of dimensions 50 x 50 x 10 cm are filled with
sprayed concrete and thereafter moved to an adjacent laboratory (20 ±
2°C, relative humidity not less than 65 %) where they are tested using
penetrometers, thus assessing the setting and hardening times. Core
samples obtained from the test panels provide samples of constant
characteristics.

3.6.2.2. Measuring setting and hardening

of sprayed concrete

In order to measure setting and hardening times, standard molds are

filled with sprayed concrete, as described above. Immediately after the
filling operation the experiment time is set to zero. In fact, the accelera-
tor is added at the nozzle of the spraying manipulator unit, and sprayed
concrete begins to undergo setting immediately. The test panels are
rapidly transported to an adjacent thermostatized laboratory to assess
the setting and hardening characteristics of the sprayed concrete.

113
 Such assessment is performed using different tools, according to the
stage of setting/hardening reached by the material. Current tests are
based on needle penetration or nail extraction. In the first range from 0 to
1 MPa equivalent a MEYCO penetrometer may be used, which consists
of a cylinder containing a piston and calibrated spring, and ending with
a needle (see Figure 3-38). The compression of the spring after insertion
of the ring can be measured, indicating the resistance to penetration.
See also Chapter 8 for more information. More sophisticated devices
can be used which are based on a similar principle, but which transfer
the values of resistance to penetration electronically to a computer.

Hilti guns are then used to insert needles, the resistance of which to
extraction will provide a value for the hardening reached by the sprayed
concrete (see Figure 3-39). The MPa equivalent resistance values are
inserted in a table against the time, and provide curves that represent
the setting and hardening characteristics of sprayed concrete.

Figure 3-38: Use of MEYCO penetrometer (on the left) and more
sophisticated equipment (on the right) to assess setting and hardening
of sprayed concrete (measurement of very early strength up to 1 MPa)

114
 Figure 3-39: Use of Hilti guns to assess setting and hardening of
sprayed concrete (measurement of early strengths greater than 2 MPa)

3.7. Reinforcement of sprayed concrete

Unreinforced sprayed concrete, like unreinforced concrete, is a brittle

material that experiences cracking and displacement when subjected
to tensile stresses or strains. Most of the cracks in concrete are due to
the inherent tensile weakness of the material.

Sprayed concrete linings are generally reinforced to absorb tensile

stresses, which arise from bending moments in the lining, and to avoid
cracking, as well as to provide safety for underground personnel during
the works. Reinforcement of sprayed concrete linings may be achieved
by means of welded wire fabric (mesh), reinforcing bars (including lattice
girders or steel sets) and/or fibers.

For permanent sprayed concrete linings, reinforcement is also installed

to avoid the development of cracks in the concrete due to shrinkage,
as concrete shrinks and is restrained at the same time, as well as to
mitigate temperature stresses.

3.7.1. Steel reinforcement

Steel reinforcement increases the flexural strength of concrete and

controls cracks. It is required in installations where structural loads are

115
 acting on the concrete lining. As a structural material in sprayed con-
crete, reinforcement is designed using the same criteria that apply to
conventional concrete. It is generally in the form of mesh and it is recom-
mended for thick layers (≥ 50 mm). Usually, a reinforcing mesh of 50 to
150 mm with a wire diameter of no more than 10 mm is widely accepted.
Reinforcing bars are seldom used in sprayed concrete sections with a
thickness of less than 40 mm.

Mesh reinforcement limits the development and depth of cracks. If

properly anchored, mesh reinforcement prevents or retards future peel-
ing of the sprayed concrete layer (debonding), which may result from a
poor or non-uniform bond, deterioration of the substrate or overload,
among other influences. Proper placement against a structurally sound
substrate and an appropriate design avoid debonding of the sprayed
concrete at the interface with the substrate.

Small reinforcing bars combined with mesh are used in zones where
mesh alone would not be structurally sufficient for the application, e.g.
in curved and irregular surfaces, where uniform spacing and cover are
critical. The number of layers of mesh required for thicker sections can
be reduced by a suitably designed combination of bars and mesh.

The use of lattice girders (arches) allows the control of the excavation
profile. They also provide support for spiling (if required), ensure correct
positioning and properly secure the mesh reinforcement before the
sprayed concrete is applied, additionally providing an initial safeguard
against rock falling out of the crown. Lattice girders are available in
high yield steel, in preformed configurations of three or four main bars.
Separation of the lattice girder in pieces is necessary to suit the differ-
ent stages of excavation and support. The pieces are bolted together
or lapped to form the whole arch after complete excavation. Design
requirements will determine whether installation of a continuous lattice
arch covering the whole excavation section is required.

The soundest sprayed concrete is generally obtained when the design

and position of reinforcement allow the least interference with concrete
placement. Hence, small bar sizes are recommended. In any case,
the spacing, arrangement and sizing of reinforcement should be done
properly, in order to facilitate the placement of concrete and minimize
the development of sand pockets and voids. The minimum cover over

116
 reinforcement should be according to the job specification or applicable
building codes, taking into account environmental influences.

Preformed rolled steel joist or beam sections are sometimes used

instead of lattice girders. In this instance, additional care on the part of
the sprayed concrete nozzleman is required to ensure proper compac-
tion of the sprayed concrete all around these sections and to avoid the
‘shadow’ effect.

3.7.2. Fiber reinforcement

Fiber-Reinforced Sprayed Concrete (FRSC) is conventional sprayed

concrete containing discontinuous discrete fibers. It has been used
successfully for ground support for more than 20 years. Typical appli-
cations for FRSC are for mine and tunnel linings, rock slope stabiliza-
tion, surface coatings on rock and soil, fire protection coatings or other
structures that may be subject to high deformations or where crack
control is needed.

The use of steel or synthetic fibers in sprayed concrete has increased

during the last 20 years. It has been accepted by engineers, owners and
contractors around the world. These types of fibers have been devel-
oped hand in hand with improved concrete technology and application
techniques.

Fibers in the concrete mix at normal addition rates can improve flexural
and shear toughness, and resistance to impact. Stainless steel fib-
ers increase thermal shock resistance and resistance to temperature
cycling damage and crack development in sprayed concrete. The sus-
ceptibility of sprayed concrete to plastic shrinkage cracking can be
reduced by the addition of synthetic fibers.

3.7.2.1. Types and classification of fibers

Fibers made of steel, glass, synthetic polymers and natural materials

can be used in sprayed concrete. However, glass fibers should not be
used as a permanent material for sprayed concrete linings, since glass
will deteriorate/degrade in the alkaline environment of concrete. As a

117
 consequence, performance will be lost over time. Carbon fibers are not
used mainly due to their high cost. As the most commonly used types
of fibers are steel and synthetic polymer fibers, only these types are
considered here.

Steel fiber reinforced sprayed concrete was first applied in North

America at the beginning of 1971 in experimental work. It has been
used throughout the world since 1973. Micropolypropylene fibers were
first placed in Europe in 1968. In the mid-1990s, macrosynthetic fibers
were developed for sprayed concrete applications and they have been
used in mining and slope stabilization projects.1

Figure 3-40: Different fiber types. On the left, steel fibers are shown. On
the center and right, synthetic fibers are shown.

According to ACI 506.1R-08 [31] fibers for use in sprayed concrete are
usually divided into two groups according to their diameter. Fibers with
equivalent diameters greater than 0.3 mm are classified as macrofibers,
while fibers with diameters of less than or equal to 0.3 mm are known as
microfibers. The fineness of microfibers is described by the unit denier.
Typical synthetic fibers used in sprayed concrete have a denier of 6,
which corresponds to an equivalent diameter of 32 μm (0.0032 mm).

1 See Sprayed Concrete ACI Committee 506, Guide to Fiber-Reinforced Shotcrete ACI
506.1R-08, 2008, Page 2f

118
 Macrofibers can be characterized by their aspect ratio (the ratio of
length to diameter of a fiber). Typical aspect ratios of macrofibers for
sprayed concrete vary from 40 to 65 for common fiber lengths (19 to 50
mm). Most of the macrofibers used in sprayed concrete are either steel
or synthetic fibers. Steel fibers are generally between 19 to 35 mm in
length and have an equivalent diameter between 0.4 and 0.8 mm. The
length of synthetic macrofibers can vary from between 40 to 50 mm and
their equivalent diameters are similar to those of steel fibers.

Microfibers for use in sprayed concrete are usually polyolefin-based

or nylon-based. The length of synthetic microfibers ranges from 6 to
50 mm. Microfibers which are used to resist explosive spalling in fires
should be polypropylene-based, with equivalent diameters of less than
33 μm and a length under 12 mm.

Classification of Fibers
EN 14889

Steel Fibers Polymer Fibers

Group I: cold-drawn wire Micro Fibers

Group II: cut sheet Macro Fibers
Group III: melt extracted Diameter ≤ 0.3 mm
Diameter > 0.3 mm,
Group IV: shaved cold drawn wire Class Ia: Mono-filamented
Class II
Group V: milled from blocks Class Ib: Fibrillated

Figure 3-41: Classification of fibers for structural or non-structural use in

concrete, mortar and grout, based on EN 14889

The European Standard EN 14889 specifies requirements for steel and

polymer fibers for structural and non-structural use in concrete (includ-
ing sprayed concrete), mortar and grout. Fibers are used for structural
purposes where the addition of fibers is designed to contribute to the

119
 load-bearing capacity of a concrete structure. According to EN 14889,
fibers are classified as shown in Figure 3-41.

According to EN 14889 steel fibers shall be classified into one of the

above-mentioned groups, in accordance with the basic material used
for the production of the fibers. Polymer fibers used in sprayed concrete
are classified by two main classes, generally divided by their diameter.
Polymer microfibers (class Ia and Ib) are fibers with a diameter of less
than or equal to 0.3 mm. Polymer macrofibers (class II) have a diameter
greater than 0.3 mm.

3.7.2.2. Steel fibers

Steel fibers are currently the most commonly used fibers in sprayed con-
crete. They present clear advantages over mesh as reinforcing agents,
mainly because they are small and evenly distributed through the entire
concrete layer. Steel fiber reinforced concrete is thus a viscous material
offering improved distribution of cracks and tension.

The main reason for using steel fibers in sprayed concrete is to increase
the ductility of the material. Whereas high flexural strength can be pro-
duced without fibers, ductility is a function of the type and amount of
steel fibers. Long fibers (> 25 mm) and relatively high dosages (40–75
kg/m3) are preferable.

As a secondary effect, steel fibers improve the final flexural strength

of sprayed concrete. Tests on large-scale specimens show that, after
hardening, the flexural strength of plain sprayed concrete was reduced
by half because of shrinkage and micro-cracking whereas steel fiber
reinforced sprayed concrete maintained its flexural strength.

120
Figure 3-42: Example of steel fibers (length 30 mm) as used for rein-
forcement of sprayed concrete linings

Additional benefits obtained by using steel fibers in sprayed concrete

are:
< Increased resistance against impact.

< Increased abrasion and erosion resistance.

< Increased watertightness and frost resistance due to the prevention

of crack propagation.
< Increased bonding capacity compared to plain or mesh reinforced

sprayed concrete.

Steel fibers should never be used in dry-mix spraying because of the

high fiber rebound (> 50 %) involved.

There are several types and qualities of steel fibers available on the mar-
ket, but only a few types meet the requirements set for fiber-reinforced
sprayed concrete. Critical and important parameters relating to steel
fibers are:
< Geometry of the fiber.

< Length of the fiber.

< Length/thickness ratio (L / D).

< Quality of the steel.

121
 In practice, a thin and long fiber with high steel quality (the same or
higher than ordinary reinforcement) is required. The length of steel fib-
ers shall not exceed 2/3 of the internal diameter of the pipes or hoses
used unless a test has demonstrated that longer fibers can be sprayed
without blockage. Typical steel fibers that can meet the requirements
for steel fiber reinforced sprayed concrete are Dramix 30/50 and 40/50
as well as Novotex 0730 (0.7 x 30 mm).

Technical advantages of steel fibers

Rock support includes the constant risk of unexpected loads and defor-
mation. The best possible safety margin is achieved by the highest pos-
sible fracture energy (ductility) of the sprayed concrete layer.

Figure 3-43 shows two curves schematically representing the deforma-

tion under variation of the load P of an unreinforced sprayed concrete
layer and a sprayed concrete layer reinforced according to modern steel
fiber technology. The area below the curve is the fracture energy.

Steel fiber reinforced

P
Load P

Unreinforced

Deformation

Figure 3-43: Load deformation curves for schematic comparison of

unreinforced and fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete

Whereas the addition of ordinary steel fibers doubles the fracture ener-
gy of unreinforced sprayed concrete, modern steel fiber technology
improves it by 50 to 200 times. In practical terms, this means that with
modern steel fiber technology a sprayed concrete layer may crack and
deform and still have a lot of bearing capacity left, so that under normal

122
circumstances there is ample time available to notice cracks/deforma-
tions and to take appropriate construction measures.

The fracture energy of steel fibers is also higher than that of wire mesh.
This has been proven by a large scale test run at the beginning of the
1980s by the independent Norwegian Technical Research Association
(NTNF), see Figure 3-44 .

300

250

Mesh failure
200

* Flexural fraction
Load P [kN]

* Bond break

150

100
*

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 mm
Deformation [mm]

Steel fibers
wire mesh

Figure 3-44: Comparison of the fracture energy of steel fibers and wire mesh

P
Granite stone block Granite stone block

10 cm 10 cm

Figure 3-45: Test set-up

The test simulates a block falling on a 10 cm reinforced sprayed con-

crete layer with 1 % steel fibers (dotted line) and on a 10 cm sprayed

123
 concrete layer with centric applied wire mesh (continuous line). Both
types of reinforced sprayed concrete layers were applied on three gran-
ite stone blocks (see Figure 3-45). After 28 days the middle block was
exposed to various loads (P). The resulting deformation was measured.
The test shows that the fracture energy of the steel fiber reinforced
sprayed concrete is much higher than that of traditional wire mesh rein-
forced sprayed concrete.

Theoretically, wire mesh reinforced sprayed concrete may produce

similar results, if the layer thickness is above 15 cm and the steel quality
is good. However, the wire mesh typically used is produced from cold
drawn wire. This mesh will break quickly under a very small deforma-
tion and is therefore dangerous, since deformation has to constantly be
considered in rock support.

Reinforcing sprayed concrete with mesh also leads to quality problems.

The shadow effect during sprayed concrete application may produce
voids behind the bars. This is often a serious problem, because it will
eventually cause reinforcement corrosion, due to water ingress and
concrete spalling.

The danger arising from the uncertainty about the wire mesh qual-
ity actually used and the problem of the shadow effect can be easily
avoided by using steel fiber reinforcement, which lends itself very well
to wet-mix sprayed concrete, and at a lower cost, too. In rock support,
where one always has to allow for deformation, this feature is a very
strong asset of the wet-mix method.

Economical advantages of steel fibers

By replacing welded wire mesh with steel fibers, the time-consuming

and dangerous operation of mesh installation is avoided. As a result,
steel fiber can compete with traditional mesh reinforcement. Steel fibers
save money and time through:
< S avings on direct costs of steel fibers: 50 to 60 % of the direct cost

of mesh reinforcement (labor plus material).

< S avings on indirect costs: application of sprayed concrete in two lay-

ers made necessary by the use of wire mesh can be avoided, and no
delay is caused to other tunneling operations.

124
 < S
 avings on sprayed concrete used: with steel fibers the required
thickness of sprayed concrete can be applied over the whole sur-
face, independent of the irregularity of the substrate. The increased
rebound caused by wire mesh and the effect of shadows behind the
mesh are avoided.

Remarks on the mix design of

steel-fiber reinforced sprayed concrete

Steel fibers require the knowledge and skill of practical mix design:
< F iber-reinforced sprayed concrete requires the use of microsilica and

admixtures in order to cancel out the negative effects of the fibers on

pumping and spraying.
< It is important that the bonding (adherence) between steel and con-

crete matrix is optimal, and this can be improved by the addition of

microsilica and with a maximum aggregate grain size of 8 mm.
< A higher content of binder (cementitious and pozzolanic material) is

required to a minimum of 400 kg/m3

< T he flow (flow table test) has to be increased to a minimum of 550

mm. This means that fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete requires a

higher dosage of superplasticizers in order to maintain a low w/c
ratio, workability and open time, as well as to prevent bleeding and
segregation.
< F or anchoring (gluing) purposes, the fibers should be at least twice

as large as the largest aggregate granule.

< T he length of fibers should not exceed approx. 2 /3 of the pump-

ing hose diameter. A trial is recommended prior to execution. For

manipulators with 65 mm hoses, it is possible to spray steel fibers
with a maximum length of 40 mm.
< S teel fibers can be added before, after or during batching of the con-

crete materials. If balling occurs, it is usually eliminated by altering the

batching sequence.

Benefit of steel fibers for durability

The main benefit of steel fibers for durability over mesh reinforced
concrete is that, in severe environments, steel fibers will not support
the common galvanic corrosion cells which often lead to considerable

125
 damage to conventionally reinforced tunnel linings. The risk of concrete
spalling due to corrosion is eliminated as the increase in volume caused
by the corroded fiber is insufficient. Additionally, fibers (which are dis-
crete) are protected by the alkalinity of cement. There is, therefore, no
mechanism for the propagation of corrosion activity, as reviewed by
numerous case histories and research studies of structures exposed to
highly saline and freeze-thaw environments. It is therefore unnecessary
to opt for stainless steel fibers to achieve durability.

Plain steel fibers exposed at the concrete surface will tend to leave rust
spots. Therefore, for cosmetic and safety reasons, it is recommended
that permanent steel fiber reinforced sprayed concrete linings are pro-
tected by a thin finishing mortar layer containing the new Enduro /
MasterFiber ® SP 540 polymer fibers for thermal cracking control.

3.7.2.3. Polymer fibers

Normal short polymer fibers are resistant and durable in the concrete
environment. For applications where only reinforcement against shrink-
age, and in particular plastic shrinkage, is asked for, as in sprayed
concrete repair, polymer fibers are well suited. They are very efficient at
distributing micro-cracks during the plastic phase of hardening and they
also help to reduce rebound in wet-mix spraying. In addition, polymer
fibers have a positive influence in fire scenarios as they reduce concrete
spalling.

Recently, a new type of polymer fiber has been developed. These struc-
tural polymer fibers (SP fibers) are more similar to steel fibers in terms
of shape and length. They are produced from high quality materials and
typically delivered in lengths of 30 to 50 mm. Many test results and appli-
cations in Australia, Canada, South Africa, Norway and other European
countries have shown that this type of fiber can reach adequate tough-
ness if dosed in the range of 5 to 10 kg/m3. Tests with this dosage
range show that SP fibers can reach approximately 900 to 1,200 Joules
according to the EFNARC panel test (600 mm square and 100 mm thick
panel). Here, energy absorbed in Joules up to a deflection of 25 mm is
the standard performance criteria used. This result is more or less equal
to the result achieved with 30 to 40 kg/m3 of high quality steel fibers.

126
These new SP fibers are already widely used in the mining industry
around the world and are now increasingly utilized in sprayed con-
crete linings in tunneling. BASF promotes its fibers under the names of
MasterFiber SP 530 / SP 540 / SP 550 (fiber lengths 30 mm, 40 mm, and
50 mm, respectively) and MasterFiber SP 640 / SP 650 / SP 665 (fiber
lengths 40 mm, 50 mm, and 65 mm, respectively).

Figure 3-46: Example of structural polymer fibers as used for reinforce-

ment of sprayed concrete linings

The results from a comparison EFNARC panel test made with Novotex
0730 steel fibers (dosage 65 kg/m3) and MasterFiber SP 550 fibers
(dosage 9 kg/m3) are shown in the following Table 3-17. Identical mix
design, w/c ratio, spraying equipment, nozzleman and accelerator type
were used for all three mixes (Mix 1 using setting accelerator MasterRoc
SA 160, Mixes 2 and 3 using setting accelerator MasterRoc SA 170). All
panels were stored under identical curing conditions.

127
 Energy
Mean absorption
Peak load
Mixes Panel no. thickness at
(N)
(mm) deflection
of 25 mm (J)
Mix 1: 1 99 65 927 1 068
MasterFiber SP 550
2 98 70 229 1 095
(9 kg / m3)
Mean
MasterRoc SA 160 . 68 078 1 082
value
Mix 2: 1 99 66 333 1 149
MasterFiber SP 550
2 100 78 282 1 315
(9 kg / m3)
Mean
MasterRoc SA 170 . 72 308 1 232
value
Mix 3: 1 102 94 560 1 459
Novotex 0730 steel fibres
2 101 92 341 1 522
(65 kg / m3)
Mean
MasterRoc SA 170 . 93 451 1 491
value

Table 3-17: Results from a comparison panel test (EFNARC) made with
Novotex 0730 steel fibers (dosage 65 kg/m3) and MasterFiber SP 550
fibers (dosage 9 kg/m3)

The test results above show that, at a maximum deflection of 25 mm,

steel fiber reinforced concrete can only absorb higher energy than con-
crete at a very high dosage of steel fibers (65 kg/m3) with a standard
dosage of SP fibers (9 kg/m3).

The Round Determinate Panel (RDP) test was introduced in 2001. Here,
the calculated energy absorption at a deflection of 40 mm is reported as
the standard assessment. As reported in [54], RDP and EFNARC panel
test results are usually compared at a set deflection (40 mm and 25 mm
respectively). While two fibers may have equal performance at these
deflections, they may differ significantly at lower or higher deflections.
Usually SP fibers work well at higher deflections, while steel fibers work
better at lower deflections (see Figure 3-47).

128
 Approximately
equal
1400 15kg/m3 cost/m3
structural
synthetic fiber
1200
60kg/m3 high
performance
1000 steel fiber

800

600

400

200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Low deflection Medium deflection High deflection

Central deflection (mm)

Figure 3-47: Performance as a function of deflection [54]

According to the results of the round panel test shown above, at

medium deflections (20 - 40 mm) SP fibers give the same toughness
as steel fibers at economic dosages. At higher deflections (greater
than 40 mm), steel fibers cease to carry load, while SP fibers continue
to absorb load. Thus, SP fiber is the most appropriate solution in
situations where there are excessive ground movements, e.g. seismic
conditions, rock bursts, high overburden [54].

Further advantages of new SP fibers over steel fibers in sprayed con-

crete include:
< If corrosion is a concern in cracked sections, the use of SP fibers

might be the best option if creep is manageable.

< R educed fiber-rebound rates.

< E asier logistics and handling.

< L ower wear and tear on spraying parts (wear plate, pump cylinders,

inside of pump, hoses and nozzle).

< M ore economical than steel fibers at medium deflections (20 - 40 mm).

The most common argument against the use of SP fibers in civil tun-
nel linings is concern about the magnitude of creep-related deflections

129
 likely to occur in the long term under gravity loading. The creep behavior
of SP fibers and of steel fibers (steel fibers are also subject to creeping!)
has been studied by Dr Stefan Bernhard in a long-term investigation
program. The test is described in his paper [47], where he concludes
that:

“SP fibres are designed and have been shown to provide similar resist-
ance to load deformation as steel fibres. Creep only becomes an issue
if and when the sprayed concrete cracks. If a crack develops in steel
fibre reinforced concrete, it creates the opportunity for corrosion and
loss of performance in ductility. If the load continues, the load energy
will continue to be absorbed, but there is a risk of sudden rupture. If a
crack develops in SP fibre reinforced concrete there is no corrosion risk.
If the load continues, the fibres will stretch rather than suddenly fail, and
in doing so will continue to absorb the load energy. The cracked sprayed
concrete can be observed and action taken to remedy the cause of the
problem before this capability is exhausted”.

In the following Table 3-18 the results from a comparison test made
with Enduro SP fibers in three different dosages (5, 7, and 9 kg/m3) is
presented. Identical mix design, accelerator (MasterRoc® SA 162) and
spraying equipment (manipulator) were used for all three mixes. The
toughness test was performed according to the EFNARC panel test.

Energy absorption Compressive strength

Energy Content
Dosage Compressive
Measured absorption of fibers
of fibers Measured strength
energy class* measured
(kg/m 3) (MPa) class (NS-
(Joules) (EFNARC (kg/m 3)
EN206-1)
Plate Test)
5 745 E700 5.4 54.4 B 55
7 1 072 E1000 9.6 48.5 B 50
9 1 112 E1000 12.6 58.3 B 60
* = Norwegian Concrete Association, Sprayed Concrete Publication, no. 7

Table 3-18: Results from a comparison test made with Enduro SP fibers
in three different dosages. Toughness test performed according to the
EFNARC panel test.

130
 A combination of normal/short (fibrin) polymer fibers with the new SP
fibers is probably the ideal reinforcement for sprayed concrete in terms
of mechanical performance (reduction of plastic shrinkage, improved
bond, reduced spalling during a fire, improved ductility/load bear-
ing capacity) and economical advantages (less cost per m3 applied,
improved durability).

3.7.2.4. Design aspects

Fiber reinforcement shall be specified preferably by the performance

requirements of FRSC or alternatively by the type and amount of fibers
in the concrete mix. The performance of FRSC can be characterized
by means of different test methods according to European, Japanese
and American Standards, and more recently by a method developed
in Australia. Performance is checked through these tests by measuring
the ability of FRSC to carry loads in flexure beyond the flexural capacity
of the concrete itself, i.e. ductility / toughness.

Design guidelines for steel-fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) that made

use of a stress-strain relation were first developed by the German
Concrete Society ‘Deutsche Beton- und Bautechnik-Verein E.V.’ (lat-
est publication ‘DBV-Merkblatt Stahlfaserbeton’, October 2001), and
later on by RILEM (‘Final recommendation of RILEM TC 162-TDF:
Test and design methods for steel fibre reinforced concrete’). The
project designer should specify the performance requirements for
fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete. The toughness of concrete is speci-
fied by the residual strength or by the energy absorption capacity of
the FRSC, which can be estimated by the load deflection curve from
a beam or plate test.

In many cases, fibers are specified to reduce the amount and spacing
of bar reinforcement or to avoid its use completely. The latter requires
specification of construction joints in the design, since the overlapping
of fibers is not possible at construction joints (e.g. between crown,
bench and invert), and conventional reinforcement, mostly by means
of welded wire meshes, has to be installed additionally.2

Regarding the mixture proportions of fiber-reinforced sprayed con-

crete, different types of fiber usually require different addition rates,

2 See EFNARC European Specification for sprayed concrete, Guidelines for specifiers and
contractors, 1999, Page 9

131
 since fibers differ in material, length and shape. These should be rec-
ommended by the suppliers of fibers and then confirmed by trial tests.
The quantity of fibers rebounding, and hence the final amount of fibers
in the sprayed concrete, is affected by changes in the quality of the
fresh concrete. For the same post-crack performance, fiber dosages
in the wet-mix process are sometimes lower than in the dry-mix proc-
ess, because the rebound of macrofibers in wet-mix sprayed concrete
is typically less than for dry-mix sprayed concrete.

The normal materials used in sprayed concrete are used in FRSC.

Cementitious materials such as silica fume, slag, and fly ash are fre-
quently added to the concrete mix. For overhead and vertical place-
ment with microfibers, these additional materials can help the con-
struction of thicker layers without sloughing and reduce fiber rebound.
For FRSC with more than 0.3% by volume of fibers, water-reducing
admixtures are usually added to the mix to maintain the required ratios
of water to cementitious materials.

The addition of fibers may affect the pumpability of sprayed concrete.

Therefore, mix design and admixture selection have to be adjusted
accordingly. Fibers shall be stored according to the supplier’s recom-
mendations.

132
4. SPRAYED CONCRETE
METHODS
The dry-mix method was the established method for constructing
sprayed concrete linings until the mid 1990s, when the wet-mix method
began to be used more widely. Due to the benefits of the wet-mix method,
many contractors who were involved in underground or ground-support
projects with large volumes of sprayed concrete made the change from
dry-mix to wet-mix spraying.

Present estimates of sprayed concrete usage worldwide show that

about 90 % of sprayed concrete is being applied by means of the wet-
mix method, with an increasing tendency. In some countries, the wet-mix
method has been dominant for over 25 years, e.g. Scandinavian coun-
tries, Italy, and Switzerland, with almost 100 % usage of wet-mix sprayed
concrete. These countries have exported this technology worldwide.

Particularly in Scandinavia, early development in the wet-mix method

between 1971 and 1980 turned the sprayed concrete market upside
down. During this period, the Norwegian sprayed concrete market
changed from 100 % dry-mix spraying to 100 % wet-mix spraying. A
similar change happened in Sweden, Finland and Japan. After that, a
dramatic change from mesh reinforcement to steel-fiber reinforcement
occurred. During the same period, a similar change from manual spray-
ing techniques to robotic application with a manipulator arm took place in
the Scandinavian countries. Silica fume and steel fibers have been added
to wet-mix sprayed concrete in rapidly increasing volumes since about
1978, particularly in Norway. All these changes have influenced other
countries such as Australia, Korea, Brazil, Italy, Switzerland, France, the
UK, Spain, Greece and some other European countries, where the wet-
mix method has become the dominant sprayed concrete technique.

Austria and Germany were traditionally very strong dry-mix areas. The
dry-mix technology was widely used and significantly developed in these
countries. New systems within the dry-mix method were developed,
using extremely fast-setting cement types (without gypsum). However,
these countries have also changed to the wet-mix method. Many large-
scale projects have been completed successfully with this method.
The first large-scale projects using wet-mix sprayed concrete were

133
 Königshainer Berge, Ditschhardt Tunnel, TLM (Irlahüll, Schellenberg,
Euerwang), a part of the Highspeed Railway Link Nuremberg–Ingolstadt
(650,000 m3), Sieberg Tunnel and Blisadona Tunnel, both in Austria. In
these countries, the shift from dry-mix to wet-mix spraying took longer
than in Switzerland, where it happened in less than two years.

In Australia, the mining industry led the civil construction industry in

moving from dry-mix to wet-mix application, and also partly to the use
of steel-fiber reinforcement. This development has led to a substan-
tial increase of the market share for wet-mix to almost 100 % in both
mining and civil construction works in Australia (e.g. Paseminco mine,
Melbourne City Link, Parramatta Rail Link).

Due to the increasing move from dry-mix to wet-mix sprayed concrete, it

is reasonable to assume that future developments within this industry will
concentrate on the wet-mix method, particularly on high-performance
admixtures and more mechanized spraying technologies, as well as on
the appropriate design and specification of sprayed concrete for perma-
nent tunnel linings.

The following sections briefly describe the wet-mix and the dry-mix
methods.

4.1. The wet-mix method

In the early days, wet spraying had a bad reputation: because of poor
equipment and little knowledge of the method., concrete of very poor
quality was produced. In order to allow the mix to pass through the
equipment, very high water contents were used, with w/c ratios of up
to 1.0.

Thanks to continuous development in the concrete industry, today it

is possible to produce wet-mix sprayed concrete with compressive
strengths of more than 60 MPa at 28 days. Wet spraying has also been
used for the construction of new buildings (instead of traditional casting)
and to repair oil platforms in the North Sea. This is proof of the quality of
the method, as it is well known that very stringent demands are made
on methods and materials used in off-shore construction.

134
4.1.1. Description

The wet-mix method is a technique in which cement, aggregate and

water are batched and mixed together prior to being fed into a purpose-
made machine and hydraulically conveyed through a pipeline to a noz-
zle where the mixture is pneumatically and continuously projected into
place (see Figure 4-1). The mixture normally incorporates admixtures,
e.g. to adjust the consistency, and may also include additives or fibers
or a combination of these.

Wet spray method (typical set up)

m
5

)
m
1,
-2
(1
Liquid Wet
accelerator mix

Concrete,
dense stream

Liquid accelerator
Dosing pump
Compressed air

Figure 4-1: Typical set-up of the wet-mix method

After transportation of the ready mix to the construction site, it is emp-

tied into a pump and forwarded through the hose by pressure (dense
stream transport). Early on, mainly mono (worm) pumps were used.
Today, piston pumps prevail in the sprayed concrete pump market, and
will probably continue to do so in the future.

At the nozzle, located at the end of the hose, air is added to the con-
crete mix flow at a rate of 7 to 12 m3/minute and at a pressure of 7 bar,
depending on whether the spraying is performed manually or by a
robotic manipulator. The air is added to increase the speed of the con-
crete mix flow so that good compaction and adherence to the substrate
or surface are achieved. The velocity of a wet-mix concrete stream out of

135
 a standard MEYCO nozzle, measured with an output of 12 m3/h, varies
from 30 to 50 m/s. In addition to the air, liquid setting accelerators are
added at the nozzle to provide fast setting of the sprayed concrete (early
strength development) and high-build characteristics.

A mistake often made with the wet spraying method is that not enough
air is added to the concrete mix. Air is frequently added at a rate of less
than 7 m3/minute, which gives bad results for compressive strength,
adherence and rebound. For manipulator spraying, addition of air at
rates of up to 12 m3/ minute is necessary.

4.1.2. Economical aspects

Spraying capacity has increased substantially from the early dry-mix

machines and spraying manipulators to the latest models of mecha-
nized spraying manipulators. The practical average capacity (long term)
per wet spraying machine is normally 4 to 5 times higher than that of the
dry-mix method. During an eight-hour shift of mechanized spraying, an
average application of 60 to 100 m3 may be achieved.

With an optimal spraying angle, a rebound rate of significantly less than

10 % is achievable. This major reduction in rebound of sprayed concrete
using the wet-mix method is also an important economical factor.

4.1.3. Working environment

Spraying under severe rock conditions was one of the aspects that
brought about the development of the wet-mix method. The safety risk
was often unacceptable without a spraying manipulator and the use of
steel-fiber reinforcement. This topic is covered in Chapter 10.3.

4.1.4. Quality

Wet-mix sprayed concrete is usually supplied by site batching facilities

or ready mix. Dry, pre-blended material in bags may be used for small
works of low volumes, e.g. repairs, where site access may not allow
large wet-mix concrete deliveries.

136
 Since the concrete is prepared in the same way as for normal concrete,
it is possible to check and control the w/c ratio and thus the quality at any
time. Hence, it is easier to produce sprayed concrete of uniform quality
throughout the spraying process.

The quality range in wet-mix spraying is fairly stable with a low spread of
results. With dry-mix spraying this is more problematic. By using water-
reducing admixtures (low w/c ratio) and microsilica, peak compressive
strengths of wet sprayed concrete can be as high as 100 MPa.

4.1.5. Advantages and disadvantages

The following advantages and disadvantages can be highlighted by the

use of the wet-mix method, compared to the dry-mix method (see also
Chapter 1.4, Table 1-1).

Advantages of the wet-mix process are:

< F ar less rebound, resulting in less waste. Rebound losses in the

range of 5 to 10 % are usual with use of correct equipment and

trained personal (also applicable if fibers are added to the sprayed
concrete).
< L ess dust is created during application, leading to a better working

environment.
< It allows the use of steel fibers/structural synthetic fibers and advanced

new admixtures.
< T hicker layers because of effective use of the admixing materials.

< P ractical average long term capacity per spray machine is normally 4

to 5 times higher than that of the dry-mix method.

< Q uality variance is minimized by virtue of the material being pre-

mixed, significantly reducing the influence of the nozzleman.

< B etter assurance that the mixing water is thoroughly mixed with other

ingredients of the mixture.

< T he accurate control of water dosage enables control of the w/c ratio

(constant, defined w/c ratio) and subsequent durability benefits (per-

manent sprayed concrete structures).
< W ater/cement ratios below 0.45 can be easily achieved by the addi-

tion of water-reducing plasticizers.

137
 < H
 ydration control admixtures can extend the working life of wet mix
by up to 12 hours, which gives great flexibility to the system, and
prevents need for cleaning out the system after each application.
< Improved bonding and higher compressive strength (with very lit-
tle variation in results). The final strength requirements for wet-mix
sprayed concrete can be specified in the same way as for conven-
tional concrete.
< M uch larger production and consequently improved overall economy

(decisive factor at most construction sites).

Disadvantages of the wet-mix process are:

< L imited conveying distance. Under optimal conditions, maximum

horizontal conveying distance may reach 300 m, according to experi-

ence as well as the granulometry, the cement content and the plastic-
ity of the concrete.
< H igher demands on mix design, increased demands on aggregate

quality.
< L imited open time/workability (only limited interruption). This can be

positively influenced by the use of hydration control admixtures.

< C leaning costs; these can be reduced by the use of hydration control

admixtures.
< If not site batching, dependence on local batching plants to dose

specific types and volumes and provide higher level of quality control
during batching.
< H igher initial investment for machine.

< B atching plant (or mixer for small volumes) required.

4.2. The dry-mix method

Due to many years of experience with the dry-mix method, there is now
a great deal of know-how available. It is extremely important that the
materials, equipment and application techniques used are selected to
give the best possible results with regards to quality and economy.

Even though dry spraying is the older of the two spraying technologies, it
has been possible to continually extend the field of application because
of ongoing developments in machine and material technology. In the
future it is expected that the dry spraying process will continue to play an
important role. Main applications will be for projects with relatively small

138
 volumes and/or very flexible requirements, such as concrete repair,
which is considered the strongest market for the dry-mix process.
Additionally, long conveying distances suit the dry-mix process and,
consequently, this method remains in use in many mines worldwide.

4.2.1. Description

In the dry mix method, cement and aggregate are batched at a site-
based plant or pre-batched and oven dried into silos or bags, mixed and
fed into a purpose-built machine in which the mixture is pressurized,
metered into a stream of compressed air and transported through
hoses or pipes to a nozzle for application. At the nozzle, mixing water
for hydration is added to the mixture (at the discretion of the nozzleman)
prior to projecting it continuously into place (see Figure 4-2).

To begin with, the operator of the delivery equipment introduces com-

pressed air only into the delivery hose, slowly adding mixture material
at the discretion of the nozzleman. The air and material flow should be
controlled by the operator so as to provide a steady, uninterrupted flow
of material from the nozzle. The volume of water added to the nozzle
should be controlled by the nozzleman so that the material is properly
wetted. Stopping the operation includes shutting off the material feed
and, when the air delivery hose blows clear, shutting off the water and
then the air.

139
 Dry spray method (typical set up)

(1 5 m
)
m
1,
-2
Dry
mix

Compressed
Air Concrete,
thin stream

Water

Dosing pump
Liquid accelerator

Liquid accelerator

Figure 4-2: Typical set-up of the dry-mix method

Admixtures (e.g. accelerators), additives or a combination of these can

also be added to the mixture. Setting accelerators can be used in pow-
der or in liquid form. Powder accelerators are added while feeding the
spraying machine, while liquid accelerators are measured into the mixing
water and thus added to the dry material at the nozzle (see Figure 4-2).

Apart from accelerators, the only other admixtures used in the dry
spraying method are dust binders. These powder admixtures – as
the name implies – reduce dust formation. In practice, however, these
agents have only achieved limited acceptance.

The concrete mix is jetted from the nozzle at high velocity onto the
substrate surface. The velocity of a concrete mix stream, which comes
out of a standard MEYCO nozzle, varies from 70 to 100 m/s (see also
Chapter 8 of this book).

Basically, three different types of dry-mix methods have been used [55]:

I. Dry method with powder or liquid accelerators (method DA): tradi-

tional method previously used with caustic accelerators.

140
II. Dry method with quick cement and moist aggregates (method DM):
this method requires in-situ mixing.
III. Dry method with quick cement and oven-dried aggregates (method
DD): dry-mix is delivered to the site in silos.

The DA dry system with ordinary Portland cements (OPC) is usually

handled in a similar manner as the wet system. That means the mix is
delivered from a batching plant, taken to the face by mixer or truck and
then processed through dry-mix machines. Since moist aggregates
are used, the open time is generally limited to about 1.5 hours. The
MasterRoc HCA system has also been used for this method frequently
to extend the open time.

The DM method requires the special cements with a reaction time of

between 1–3 minutes. The mixing of moist aggregates and cements
must therefore be done close to the face and immediately dispatched. In
situ batching units have therefore been developed. The material supply
into the batching unit is performed with wheel-loaders for the aggre-
gates and silo trucks for the cement from a silo outside the portal.

One advantage of the DM method is the availability of sprayed concrete

at any time. Disadvantages are those inherent in the dry method, such
as higher dust levels and rebound, reported loss of aggregate affecting
mix accuracy, maintaining constant moisture content of aggregates
and sensitivity of the mix control computer to blast shock waves. The
capacity with typical dry machines reaches 5–7 m3 per hour, therefore,
two machines are normally installed in bigger tunnels.

The DD method uses readily mixed sprayed concrete delivered to site in

silos. These mixes have a very short reaction time with water (less than
one minute). The process is rather simple, usually requiring two mobile
pressure vessels with a conveying device. The water is added at the
nozzle. The capacity through one nozzle is similar to the DM method, so
again two nozzles are normally used in large tunnel cross-sections.

The advantage of the DD method is the simplicity of manipulation of

the sprayed concrete at the site. The disadvantages are the cost and
environmental aspects of drying aggregates en masse, problems of
mix uniformity, high wear of hoses, high dust levels when filling silos and
spraying and high rebound. Recently, successful trials have been car-

141
 ried out to reduce dust and rebound, however, of course with additional
cost. Many contractors have eliminated this method after their first major
application, while others remain heavily committed. The advantages are
most evident for short tunnels (with lengths limited to 400 m).

4.2.2. Problems related to the dry-mix method

The dry-mix method is a simple system, with few mechanical and mix
design issues that can go wrong. This fact has often been the reason for
the selection of the dry-mix process in the past. However, the method
does have some disadvantages. These are summarized as follows:

< T
 he relatively high costs due to wear and tear on the rotor machines
(especially on rubber gaskets and friction discs). By correct set-up of
the machines and by changing parts in time (and with skilled grind-
ing), these costs can be kept within reasonable limits.
< T he environmental and safety impact of the high concentrations of

dust generated by the system must be taken into account. This can
be considerably reduced by ensuring a favorable natural moisture
content (or adequate pre-wetting) and by using dust binders. Water
pressure boosting pumps can also help with this issue. These pumps
intensify the water pressure during mixing at the nozzle. Combined
with the use of improved water rings, it is possible to ensure good
and steady wetting of the dry material at the nozzle. Depending on
the system, the hydraulic pressure rises to about 80 bar. Such appli-
ances are expensive and relatively susceptible to breakdown. In our
experience, systems with a pressure of 10 to 15 bar are usually fully
adequate.
< In addition to the formation of dust at the nozzle, attention to the
impact of the dust from the feeding system on the machine is
required. In this respect, traditional double-chamber machines are
advantageous. Rotor machines can, however, be dust-proofed to a
large extent, or even completely, by various means, such as fitting a
rotor dust collector or by continuously lubricating the rubber gaskets
(intermittent lubrication).
< T he relatively high degree of rebound. Depending on the application

surface (vertical or overhead), 20 to 40 % of concrete is lost. The

average loss is 30 %, compared to between 5 and 10 % with the
wet spraying process. Rebound can be considerably reduced by

142
 using new kinds of additives and admixtures. Microsilica or hydration
control systems like MasterRoc HCA have a positive effect. Average
losses can thus be reduced but still remain much higher than with the
wet spraying process.
< T
 he low output capacity of the equipment (max. 10 m3 per hour) is

frequently referred to as a further drawback. Nowadays, however,

machines are available which enable application outputs of greater
than 10 m3 per hour. This is, of course, no longer possible by manual
application, but by the use of a spraying manipulator. However, due
to the increase in wear costs, outputs in excess of 8 m3 per hour
become critical from an economical point of view. A typical output of
between 4 and 6 m3 per hour should be considered.
< Regarding quality control terms, the sprayed concrete material prop-


erties produced by the dry-mix process have a great degree of

variance due to inadequate mixing between the nozzle and the sub-
strate, unknown and variable water-cement ratios, and possibly pre-
hydration of the delivered mix to the pump.
< A
 ddition of fibers is tricky. Steel fibers should never be used in dry-

mix spraying because of the resulting high fiber rebound (> 50 %).

Taking the above mentioned into account, it is understandable that

sprayed concrete produced by the dry-mix method is considered ‘tem-
porary support’ in the tunneling industry.

4.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages

Considering the use of the dry-mix method, the following advantages

and disadvantages can be highlighted, compared to the wet-mix meth-
od (see also section 1.4, Table 1-1).

Advantages of the dry-mix method:

< Conveying distance up to 1000 m is possible.

< Lower water-cement ratios are possible.

< Cleaning work is simple.

< Low initial investment for machine.

< Simple equipment to work with.

< Compact equipment.

< Lightweight equipment.

143
 Disadvantages of the dry-mix method:
< Spraying capacity limited to max. 10 m3/h (practical).

< Rebound rate (= waste material): 20–40 %

< High dust creation (poor working environment).

< Demands a higher volume of compressed air (+100 % versus wet mix

method).
< High operating cost per cubic meter sprayed.

< Fluctuation in water-cement ratio leads to variations in quality of

placed concrete.
< Use of steel fibers not favorable due to high rebound (> 50 %).

144
5. MIX DESIGN

5.1. Requirements for the sprayed concrete mix

As mentioned in EN 14487-1 [32], mix proportions shall be chosen to

satisfy all the performance criteria for fresh and hardened concrete,
including consistence (if wet-mix), density, strength, durability, and pro-
tection of embedded steel against corrosion. The mix design shall con-
sider the applicable process technique and the amount of rebound and
dust during spraying works.

The mix requirements and properties must be related to defined expo-

sure classes. They shall be based on the expected service or design life
of the sprayed concrete structure and defined in compliance with EN
206-1 or current national standards.

The mix values shall refer to the concrete after it has been sprayed on
the surface, and must consider the influence of adding water and accel-
erator admixtures during the spraying process, as well as the effect of
rebound during application.

Requirements for individual components of the sprayed concrete mix

and the basic mix, as well as for fresh and hardened sprayed concrete,
are provided in EN 14487-1.

5.2. Requirements for durability

Factors influencing the anticipated design life of sprayed concrete struc-

tures and their durability include:
< Concrete application and curing.

< Adequate concrete cover over reinforcement (not valid for fibers).

< The applicable environmental/exposure conditions.

< Projected maintenance without major repair work.

As mentioned in EFNARC [29], the following factors shall be considered

for the production of durable sprayed concrete that protects the embed-
ded reinforcing steel against corrosion and adequately withstands the

145
 environmental and working conditions to which it is exposed during its
anticipated service life:

(1) C
 hoice of proper constituents, without harmful components, or those

which may interact unfavorably.

(2) D
 esign of a concrete composition that satisfies all specified perform-

ance criteria.

5.2.1. Chloride content

The chloride content of the in situ sprayed concrete, expressed as the

percentage of chloride ions by mass of cement, shall not exceed the
value for the selected class given in EN 206 or current national stand-
ards in the place of use of the sprayed concrete. The chloride content
class to be met will depend on the nature of the project.

5.2.2. Alkali content

Where aggregates contain varieties of silica vulnerable to attack by

alkalis (Na+ and K+ originating from cement or other sources) and the
sprayed concrete is exposed to humid conditions (as is usual in tunnels),
measures should be taken to prevent a deleterious alkali-silica reaction,
using suitable established procedures.

The alkali content of cement and admixtures shall comply with the
requirements of current national standards in the place of use of the
sprayed concrete.

5.2.3. Environmental conditions

According to EFNARC, sprayed concrete shall be specified to meet the

appropriate environmental exposure classes given in EN 206 or current
national standards and related prescriptive requirements in the place of
use of the sprayed concrete, with the following exceptions:

(1) T
 he maximum w/c ratio shall be limited to 0.55.

146
 (2) The minimum cement content shall be 300 kg/m3.

(3) Frost resistance shall be determined by means of freeze-thaw tests

(not by minimum air content).

(4) The required minimum cover of reinforcement is related to bar and

mesh reinforcement only. It does not apply to steel fibers.

5.3. Specification for sprayed concrete

According to EN 14487-1 [32], the choice of specification depends on the

characteristics of the project, the degree of risk and the required design
life, which are determined by the designer and the owner (inspection
categories). Sprayed concrete shall be specified either as a designed
concrete, referring to the given classification and requirements, or as
prescribed concrete. It is common practice to use the designed con-
crete approach for sprayed concrete.

Prescribing the concrete mix shall be done according to the results of

initial tests or information obtained from long-term experiences with
comparable sprayed concrete.

Regarding ground strengthening, prescribed concrete may be used

for constructions with a minor degree of risk of design and structural
instability as well as low durability requirements and a short design life
(inspection category 1), e.g. stabilization for small or temporary slopes
or pits. Designed concrete may be used for constructions with normal
or special design complexity regarding the risk of structural instability or
functional safety as well as constructions with moderate to high dura-
bility requirements and moderate to long design lives (inspection cat-
egories 2 and 3), such as permanent stabilization of slopes, temporary
sprayed concrete for tunnels and caverns in poor to very poor ground
and tunnels for traffic.

In all cases, basic data for sprayed concrete shall be indicated and addi-
tional data shall be presented when required.

147
5.3.1. Data for specifying designed mixes

According to EN 14487-1, the basic data are:

< C onsistency (for wet-mix).

< C ompressive strength class.

< E xposure class.

< C hloride class.

< Inspection category.

< N ominal maximum aggregate size.

< R esidual strength and/or energy absorption capacity (only for fiber-

reinforced sprayed concrete).

Sprayed concrete specifications may also include additional require-

ments, such as:
< C
 ement content.

< S
 pecial requirements for cement properties (e.g. sulfate-resistant

cement).
< Maximum w/c ratio related to exposure classes.

< Early-age strength development.

< Resistance to water penetration.

< Bond to substrate.

< Freeze/thaw resistance (with or without de-icing salts).

< Modulus of elasticity.

< F
 irst-peak flexural strength and ultimate flexural strength (for fiber-

reinforced sprayed concrete).

5.3.2. Data for specifying prescribed mixes

For prescribed sprayed concrete mixes, the basic data shall be specified
according to EN 14487-1:
< C ement type and class.

< Cement content.

< Consistency (for wet-mix).

< W/C ratio.

< Type of aggregate and limitations for grading.

< Type and quantity of admixtures.

< Type and quantity of additives.

< Sources of all concrete constituents.

< Inspection category.

148
 < F
 iber
characteristics and fiber content (for fiber-reinforced sprayed
concrete).

Other important requirements may also be included, such as:

< A
 dditional requirements for aggregate.

< S
 pecial requirements regarding the temperature of the basic mix

(refer to section 2.2.2).

5.4. Guidance for mix proportioning

Most of the principles of normal concrete technology can be applied

to sprayed concrete, principally the wet-mix method. However, before
proportioning mixtures, the differences should be understood. Because
of rebound, in-situ sprayed concrete contains a higher cement content
than the proportion mix. Also, a certain percentage of coarse aggregate
is lost during application due to rebound, resulting in a finer aggregate
gradation in place. These effects increase the potential for shrinkage
problems and the development of surface cracking, which should be
considered for permanent sprayed concrete linings in particular.

Running laboratory trials for mixtures is not practical for the dry-mix
method. Repeating as-shot conditions for the wet-mix method is also a
problem. Hence, field trials and pre-construction testing should be used
for qualifying mixture proportions. Guidance for mixture proportioning is
provided by national standards or recommendations.

Variations in the in-situ strength of sprayed concrete are mainly caused

by the nature of the sprayed concrete process, the type of delivery
equipment and the quality of workmanship. This is particularly true
for the dry-mix method, where the development of sprayed concrete
strength is strongly influenced by the nozzleman, since the operator is
not only responsible for using the correct placement technique but also
regulates and controls the water content of the mix, which can lead to
strength fluctuations (see also ACI 506R-05 [30]).

A wide range of sprayed concrete equipment is available. A mixture

proportioning criterion that has been used in a specific project can not

149
 be applied in all cases, because minor variations in one component of
the mix can have a large impact on the mix performance.

5.4.1. Wet-mix

Proportioning of wet-mix sprayed concrete can be done according to

national standards with correction of the aggregate content. Generally,
the maximum coarse-aggregate content should be consistent with
placing restrictions. It is not recommended to incorporate more than
40 % coarse aggregate (of the sand/aggregate ratio) in the sprayed
concrete mix.

A typical wet-mix design usually consists of:

< 3 90 to 450 kg of cement, cement plus fly ash or other pozzolan per

cubic meter of concrete.

< 30 to 40 % coarse aggregate (of sand/aggregate ratio).

< 6 0 to 70 % sands (of sand/aggregate ratio) with a combined sand

fineness modulus of 2.5 to 2.9.

< Water-reducing admixtures.

< W /c ratio ideally between 0.4 and 0.45, but below 0.5.

< A flow of 450 to 650 mm.

Sprayed concrete mixtures should have sufficient flow/workability to

allow spraying to be done with minimum pulsation. With today’s admix-
tures, alkali-free accelerators (AFAs) and sprayed concrete equipment,
what was deemed to be desirable in the past (stiff low slump and high
pulsation) is no longer valid. Thus, quality is not compromised, in fact
quite the opposite, with the correct use of these technologies.

The influence of concrete flow on sprayed concrete application is shown

in Table 5-1. Here low flow is related to a stiffer concrete, while high flow
is associated with a rather fluid concrete.

150
 Low Flow High Flow
Higher pulsation due to: Lower pulsation due to:
• lower cylinder filling percentage • higher cylinder filling percentage
• less flowability of the sprayed concrete • higher flowability of the sprayed con-
mix crete mix
Quality aspects:
Quality aspects:
• higher uniformity, less layering of
• more layering
sprayed concrete on the wall
• poor and uneven distribution of acceler-
• better distribution of accelerator in the
ator in the concrete due to high viscosity
concrete due to low viscosity concrete
concrete and increased pulsation
and lower pulsation
Environment, health and safety (EHS): Environment, health and safety (EHS):
• increased dust creation during spraying • less dust creation during spraying due to
due to pulsation lower pulsation
• increased risk of blockages due to • reduced risk of blockages due to better
higher pumping pressures flowability of the sprayed concrete mix
Economy: Economy:
• higher rebound • lower rebound
• higher equipment wear and tear • lower equipment wear and tear
Productivity: Productivity:
• lower output due to lower cylinder • higher output due to higher cylinder
filling percentage and higher pumping filling percentage and lower pumping
pressures pressures
• more blockages due to higher pulsation • less blockages due to lower pulsation
and higher pumping pressures and lower pumping pressures
• more cleaning of equipment required • less cleaning of equipment required due
due to stiffening concrete to reduced concrete build-up

Table 5-1: Influence of concrete flow on application of sprayed concrete

and related economic aspects

For the purposes of durability and pumpability, the w/c ratio of nor-
mal wet-mix sprayed concrete should be lower than 0.5. Where the
wet-mix sprayed concrete will be subjected to freezing and thawing
in saturated conditions, air-entraining admixtures should be added to
the mix. Before pumping, a total air content of 6 % in the mix is usually
desirable (for more details see Chapter 3.5.6). Further guidance on the
proportioning of wet-mix sprayed concrete is also provided in the previ-
ous Chapters 2 and 3.

5.4.2. Dry-mix

As reported in ACI 506R-05, a recognized rational method of proportion-

ing dry-mix sprayed concrete for strength is not available. Contractors
may use proven mixtures, if the same consistent sources of materi-

151
 als are used and adequate proportioning data from previous experi-
ence are provided. This approach is sufficient for many small projects
where preconstruction testing would be too expensive. Preconstruction
tests are required if data from previous experience are not available,
the design criteria is affected by properties other than strength, or if
design requirements are different from one part of the work to another.
Preconstruction testing is also recommended to determine the mix
proportions if gradation or quality of the aggregate and the amount and
spacing of reinforcement may influence the mix design.

Different sizes of aggregates should be blended as necessary to pro-

duce a combined grading within the required limits. The distribution
of aggregate particle sizes in situ will be noticeably finer than when
batched because coarse aggregate particles have proportionally larger
rebound losses. These losses can change the cement-to-aggregate
ratio by approx. 30 %. Due to that, an initial cement-to-aggregate ratio
of 1:3 can result in a 1:2 mixture after application.

Field trials are necessary to define the final cement content of the mix
(see ACI 506.4R for details of the methodology).

Cement content

For the manufacturing of dry mix, the proportion of binder is usually

between 250 and 450 kg per 1,000 liters of aggregate or 320 to 460 kg
per m3 of concrete. In order to judge the actual cement content of the
sprayed concrete applied, the effect of rebound must be considered.
In comparison with the initial mix, rebound mainly leads to a loss of the
largest-sized aggregate and thus to an increase in the cement content.
In a typical standard mix with 350 kg of cement per m3, a rebound rate
of 20 % finally results in approximately 400 kg of cement per m3 of in-situ
sprayed concrete.

Water/cement ratio

The water/cement ratio is certainly a decisive factor for the quality of

sprayed concrete. The total amount of water used with dry mixes is
made up of the mixing water added at the nozzle and the moisture

152
 already in the aggregate. Unlike the wet-spraying method, in the dry-
spraying method there is no clear-cut set value for the water/cement
ratio, because the amount of mixing water is controlled and regulated
by the nozzleman. This is frequently considered to be a great disadvan-
tage. In practice, however, the water/cement factor is fairly constant, as
there is a limited scope for varying the mixing water quantity: if too little
water is added, the result is an immediate excess of dust; if too much
water is added, the sprayed concrete does not adhere to the surface
but runs down it instead.

Where work is carried out properly, the w/c ratio varies only slightly and
remains below 0.5. In a best-case scenario (aggregates requiring low
water quantity, sufficient cement content), it is even possible to manu-
facture sprayed concrete with a w/c ratio lower than 0.4.

Natural moisture content

Another important aspect of dry mix is its natural moisture content.

Where the mix is too dry, spraying causes too much dust. If the natural
moisture content is too high, this may lead to problems: the sprayed
concrete throughput drops drastically; machines and conveying lines
become encrusted and get blocked. Ideally, the natural moisture con-
tent should lie between 3 and 6 %.

In addition to on-site mixes, the use of dry materials delivered to site in

bags or silos is possible. Of course, these contain no natural moisture.
To reduce dust formation, it is advisable to wet the dry material before
feeding it into the spraying machine. Specially equipped feeding devices
or special pre-wetting nozzles can be used for this purpose.

Admixtures

Apart from accelerators, the only other admixtures used in the dry
spraying method are dust binders. These powder admixtures – as
the name implies – reduce dust formation. In practice, however, these
agents have only achieved limited acceptance.

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 As it is well known from construction technology, accelerating the rate of
cement hydration inevitably results in a reduction in 28-day strengths. In
order to obtain a consistently high quality of sprayed concrete, it is thus
essential to ensure that the lowest possible quantity of accelerator is
added as consistently as possible. The accelerator proportion must be
determined in each case in relation to the amount of cement used.

Accelerators can be used in powder or liquid form. Powder accelera-

tors (such as alkali-free MasterRoc® SA 540 and 545) are added while
feeding the spraying machine. Accurate dosing is obtained with feeding
devices combined with powder dosing appliances. The best results are
achieved with feed screws equipped with a spindle batcher. Conveyor
belt feeders are not recommended. A convenient solution to the pro-
portioning problem of powder accelerators is, of course, to use suitably
modified bagged materials. However, these are often out of the question
for financial reasons, especially on large projects.

Unfortunately, with the method of adding powder by hand, it is evidently

impossible to guarantee exact proportioning. The usual result is a mas-
sive over-dose, very unevenly spread. Various studies have demon-
strated a reduction in final strength of 35 % or more compared to base
concrete, i.e. without accelerator. Manual dosing can therefore only
be accepted in exceptional cases or for sprayed concrete applications
where quality requirements are low.

The best way of ensuring the precise dosage of accelerator during appli-
cation is to use liquid products (such as MasterRoc® AFAs). These are
measured into the mixing water and thus added to the dry material at the
nozzle. To obtain a steady dosage, however, it is essential to use a suit-
able dosing system even with liquid accelerators. Where it is necessary
to pre-mix the water and accelerator, machines are only suitable up to
a point. Since the water/accelerator ratio is fixed, the dosage is altered
in relation to the weight of the cement every time the water addition is
adjusted by the nozzleman. However, it is both necessary and important
to adjust the water quantity, for instance in order to respond to variations
in the natural moisture of the aggregate or in the behavior of the water
flow on the surface.

A consistent cement/accelerator ratio can be ensured by using piston

pumps, which measure a constant amount of the admixture defined in

154
 proportion to the capacity of the spraying machine quite independently
of the water flow setting (e.g. MEYCO® Dosa TDC).

Liquid accelerators have further advantages compared to powder: the

problem of caustic components in the spray dust is avoided. Dosing
at the nozzle prevents flash set. Thanks to the even mix of the spray-
ing material, liquid accelerators can be measured more economically,
which also leads to better final strengths. Experience shows that, com-
pared to base concrete, the loss of final strength can be reduced to less
than 25 %.

Additives

Unlike chemical admixtures, the action of additives is generally physi-

cal. Well-known examples are mineral fillers such as fly-ash and slag.
However, microsilica (or silica fume) displays certain pozzolanic activity
(chemical reaction) and it has gained more and more significance (see
Chapter 3.3.1).

Besides the important improvement in the quality of the sprayed con-

crete, in the dry-mix method microsilica has another interesting effect.
Added in the proper way, the use of microsilica can also bring about
a reduction in rebound of up to 50 %. With normal (undensified or
densified) microsilica added in the mixer, the rebound reduction is only
minimal.

Fibers

The use of steel fibers/structural polymer fibers is still relatively rare in

dry-mix compared to wet-mix sprayed concrete. The main reason is the
higher rebound (> 50 %) involved. Here, the cost/performance factor
becomes critical.

Example of Preliminary Dry-Mix Design

Preliminary proportioning can be done by establishing the wet density

of the mixture (from the aggregate supplier’s data or aggregate-relative

155
 density tests) and proceeding as described in the following example
from ACI 506R-05:
< Cement: Type I

< Preliminary design: assume in-place wet density 2,320 kg/m3

< Select cement content as 385 kg/m3

< Estimate w/c ratio as 0.35

< Therefore: water required is 135 kg/m3

< A ggregate content (coarse aggregate + sand) = 2,320 - 385 - 135 =

1,800 kg/m3

The calculated amount of water should be adjusted according to the

surface moisture in the aggregate. Dosages of admixtures have not
been included.

5.5. Assessment of conformity

Conformity of the sprayed concrete with the specifications shall be

controlled with a combination of actions and decisions to be taken
according to conformity rules adopted in advance. The assessment of
conformity shall be done by means of pre-construction control as well
as testing during execution in accordance with the applicable inspec-
tion category. Production control includes process control and control
of sprayed concrete.

Conformity or non-conformity is verified against the conformity crite-

ria and is valid for both pre-construction and production tests. Non-
conformity shall lead to corrective action, while conformity leads to
acceptance.

If the results of the conformity tests do not comply with the require-
ments, additional testing on cores taken from the sprayed concrete
lining, or a combination of tests on cores and non-destructive tests on
the structure, shall be required.

Details of inspection categories, preconstruction testing, production

control, and conformity criteria may be found in EN 14487-1 [32].

156
6. BATCHING, MIXING AND
TRANSPORTATION

Adequate batching and mixing are fundamental steps in the production

of quality sprayed concrete.

6.1. Batching

Sprayed concrete materials, i.e. cement, aggregates, fibers, admixtures

and additives, can be batched by weight or volume. If powder admix-
tures or additives are used, sprayed concrete materials shall be batched
by weight. For projects with difficult access, small volumes of sprayed
concrete or low rates of application, volume batching of aggregates
and cement batching by bag may be more convenient. Pre-blended
dry cement and aggregate are also used for dry-mix. The crew should
pre-moisten the batch prior to concrete delivery unless a long nozzle is
used.

Weight batching can be carried out at a central concrete plant or near

the job site. Equipment for volumetric batching is available for high
production work, such as that associated with mobile mixer units.
Weight-calibrated containers may also be used to manually proportion
mixtures.

In dry-mix sprayed concrete, the moisture content of the fine and coarse
aggregate should be chosen to allow a uniform rate of the aggregate-
cement mixture without slugging or hose plugging. The most favorable
moisture content generally varies from 3 to 6 % or more if silica fume is
used. The sand should be dried or wetted as required. Large fluctua-
tions in moisture content should be avoided.

6.1.1. Admixtures

Admixtures are introduced into the sprayed concrete mix according

to its nature (powder or liquid form), its intended use and the spraying
method (dry-mix or wet-mix method). In the wet-mix method, pow-

157
 dered or liquid admixtures can be added at the batching stage. Liquid
accelerators can be added at the nozzle in the air supply by means of
a proportioning device. In this method, quick-set accelerators are only
introduced at the nozzle (see also Chapter 4.1.1). In the dry-mix method,
powdered admixtures are added during the batching or mixing stage,
while liquid admixtures are introduced at the nozzle with the mixing
water (see also Chapter 4.2.1).

6.1.2. Fibers

Fibers shall be uniformly distributed throughout the in-situ sprayed

concrete mixture. They are usually introduced by batching at the mix-
ing stage. For the manual feeding of fibers, pre-construction trials are
recommended to develop procedures that will minimize the balling or
clumping of the fibers and ensure their regular distribution throughout
the mix (see also Chapter 3.7.2).

6.1.3. Prepackaged dry-mix material

The requirements of the project will dictate the effectiveness of prepack-

aged materials for dry-mixes. In the following circumstances, prepack-
aged dry-mix ingredients are advantageous:
< Access for bulk material is limited.

< Limited workspace.

< The volume of material required is too small.

< Difficult access to the site.

< S
 pecialized ingredients have been specified (more easily controlled

in a bagging facility).

Most prepackaged materials need pre-dampening according to the

manufacturer’s recommendations before application.

6.2. Mixing of sprayed concrete

The requirements for mixing equipment and the mixing of sprayed con-
crete fall under the same standards as for normal concrete making.

158
 As per EN 206, the measurement of cement, aggregates, water and
silica fume must be within a ± 3 % and ± 5 % accuracy for admixtures
dosed at < 5 % of cement mass. Required accuracy for fiber dosing is
± 5 %. Calibration of scales and flow meters must take place at regular
intervals or before use if any parts of the installations have been disturbed
outside of normal usage.

The production of sprayed concrete mixes does not present too many
challenges for experienced concrete suppliers.

Many types of mixing plants are used for the mixing of sprayed con-
crete, varying from large established ready-mix stations to containerized
mobile plants. The majority of mixing stations use weigh batching sys-
tems, normally with a shaft type or pan type mixer. Volumetric batching
systems with screw type mixers are also used, though in smaller scale
operations. From a quality control and consistency point of view, good
efficient weigh batching systems are the preferred method.

The mixing equipment must be good enough to create a homogenous

mix of the materials and to enable full effect of the admixtures added.
When mixing fiber-reinforced sprayed concrete mixes, the mixing time
must be extended to ensure no balling of fibers and an even distribution
of fibers throughout the whole of the mix.

Aggregate storage and handling at the mixing plants must be such that
the risk of cross contamination or inclusion of larger aggregates from
normal concrete production into the sprayed concrete mixes is reduced
to a minimum. Large oversized aggregates can cause blockages in the
spraying equipment.

Many concrete mixing plants have the ability to heat the mixing water
and in some cases also the sand and aggregates when mixing concrete
during the winter months.

6.3. Transportation of sprayed concrete mixes

The transportation of concrete from the concrete mixing plant to the

spraying machine should be done such that it does not reduce the
quality of the concrete. A reduction in quality can occur in the form of

159
 segregation, excessive water evaporation, inclusion of unwanted water
or freezing. To avoid this, trans-mixers or agitators mounted on trucks or
purpose built heavy-duty carriers are used for transportation.

If using other means to transport the concrete such as kibbles, skips or

containers, the concrete should always be re-agitated prior to spraying.

Compared to normal concrete, sprayed concrete mixes contain high

amounts of cement and fine sand, and therefore tend to create more
build-up on the equipment. It is important to keep the agitator and mixer
drums clean and free from such build-up.

160
7. PLACEMENT OF SPRAYED
CONCRETE
Placement of sprayed concrete should produce a homogeneous, dense
sprayed concrete texture and a closed, even surface. It is very important
to use appropriate placement techniques to ensure quality sprayed
concrete.

In the following sections, some relevant aspects of sprayed concrete

placement are summarized. Guidance for sprayed concrete placement
is also provided by EN 14487-2 [33], Austrian Guidelines for Sprayed
Concrete [51] and other guidelines or national standards for sprayed
concrete.

7.1. Preliminary procedures

Before the start of any sprayed concrete placement, materials and

equipment must both be ready to guarantee an efficient operation that
will run appropriately. Materials for the sprayed concrete mix should
meet the project’s requirements. Previously successfully used materials
in the same combinations in a particular mixture should be sufficient
proof of its fitness for purpose.

The mix delivered to the pump should be checked for batch time, work-
ability (wet-mix) and temperature (preferably higher than +15 °C). The
minimum surface temperature should be higher than +5 °C before any
spraying can start. All delivery lines from the pump to the nozzle should
be securely fixed and fully lubricated with grout. If delays occur, the
workability of the mix should be checked on a regular basis to determine
if it is still fresh and pumpable. Under no circumstances should water
be added to the mixer, or old mixes that have undergone hydration be
used. The use of hydration control admixtures, such as MasterRoc HCA
Stabiliser, is therefore recommended at all times.

With accelerated sprayed concrete mixes, it is essential not to apply

sprayed concrete until it exhibits the correct setting performance. This is
typically carried out by spraying directly onto the lower section of the tun-
nel face until the correct setting performance is observed. Furthermore,

161
 the correct air pressure and volume for the specific spraying operation
should be evaluated by the nozzleman and adjusted accordingly.

Prior to the application of sprayed concrete, the crew and the nozzle-
man should be aware of the required properties of the sprayed con-
crete lining. This may include the required thickness and profile, and
knowledge of any safety-critical elements of the lining that need careful
attention during spraying and require good compaction of the sprayed
concrete to ensure lining stability e.g. complex construction joints for
sidewall drift construction.

As described previously in Chapter 4, the wet-mix and dry-mix methods

use different types of delivery equipment with different operating char-
acteristics, which can have an effect on the choice of spraying method,
application and quality of the sprayed concrete.

Equipment for proportioning, mixing and spraying should be clean to

ensure good quality sprayed concrete. Regular inspection of equipment
is required. It is in the applicator’s interest to keep equipment in excel-
lent operating condition through maintenance to minimize slowdowns,
breakdowns and blockages, and maximize production.

Personal protective equipment, ventilation and lighting suitable for

sprayed concrete applications are to be available at all times.

Immediately after excavation and before the application of sprayed

concrete, the exposed ground should be geologically mapped or pho-
tographed in accordance with the procedures of the project.

7.1.1. Surface preparation

The quality of sprayed concrete placement depends on the care taken

in the preparation and maintenance of the surface before and during
application. Proper attention must be given to the condition and integrity
of the receiving surface. For effective adhesion of the sprayed concrete
to the substrate, the surface to receive the sprayed concrete should be
damp and cleared of loose material by hydro or mechanical scaling and
the use of compressed air and water from the nozzle. Surface cleaning
should always start at the upper section and successively move down-

162
 wards. Sprayed concrete overspray from the previous advance that is
loosely adhered to mesh and steel arches should also be removed.

Groundwater ingress will often have detrimental effects on the quality

and strength of the sprayed concrete. Typically, unskilled teams will
attempt to spray over active water ingress using sprayed concrete with
very high accelerator dosages. It is recommended, however, that all
water ingress is controlled by pre-injection or dewatering, or by man-
aged systems such as drainage pipes installed to capture and divert the
water away to facilitate the spraying operation. These measures should
be in effect for at least 28 days after spraying.

Surface preparation may occur days or weeks prior to application. In this

case, the substrate should be re-cleaned by means of washing it with
water just before spraying the concrete. The surface of the substrate
should be in a saturated surface-dry condition just before spraying the
concrete. If the substrate is extremely porous, it should, if possible, be
pre-wetted for some time before spraying the concrete, to reduce the
absorption of mixing water from the concrete mix to a minimum.

Required surface preparation depends on the conditions and nature of

the surface against which the sprayed concrete is to be placed and the
desired end product.

Earth surfaces

Earth surfaces of slopes to be protected must be properly prepared and

compacted. The earth surface should be trimmed to line and grade to
provide adequate support and to help in obtaining the designed thick-
ness of sprayed concrete. Placement should not be done onto a frozen
or spongy earth surface.

To avoid excessive absorption of mixing water from the sprayed con-

crete, pre-wetting of the earth surface can be done by spraying water
before the application of sprayed concrete. The amount of pre-damp-
ening will depend on the absorption qualities of the earth. However,
puddling, ponding or leaving freestanding water should be avoided.

163
 Wash-out of freshly sprayed concrete due to water seepage should be
prevented. Seepage control should be achieved by using conduits to
channel the water before sprayed concrete is applied.

Rock surfaces

Prior to cleaning, the substrate should be mechanically scaled and manu-

ally checked. All poor and loose materials (debris, chips, mud, dirt or other
foreign matter) should be removed to ensure a strong bond between the
rock surface and the sprayed concrete layer. However, in underground
applications (e.g. tunnels), where early support is mostly required, com-
plete removal of these materials may be dangerous or inadvisable.

The surface should be cleaned with a mixture of compressed air and

water as far as the local conditions permit. This will improve the bond
strength of the sprayed concrete to the substrate, reduce the risk of hav-
ing ‘drop outs’ and help reduce dust creation. Surface cleaning should
always start at the upper section and successively move downwards.
Sprayed concrete overspray from the previous advance that is loosely
adhered to mesh and steel arches should also be removed.

Concrete surfaces

All spalled, severely cracked, deteriorated, loose and unsound con-

crete must be completely removed from the existing concrete surface
by chipping, scarifying, sandblasting, water blasting, or other suitable
mechanical methods. Any contaminated concrete should be avoided.

Adequate pre-wetting of the concrete substrate should be done before

the application of sprayed concrete. The concrete substrate should be
in a saturated surface-dry condition just before application to ensure
maximum adhesion.

Masonry surfaces (tunnel rehabilitation)

Preparation of existing masonry surfaces (e.g. tunnel rehabilitation) is

similar to that of concrete surfaces. However, avoiding the absorption

164
 of water from the substrate into the underlying masonry is decisive. If
this is not done, severe cracking of the sprayed concrete can occur. To
prevent this problem, the masonry surface should be dampened before
applying the concrete.

7.1.2. Reinforcement

Reinforcement steel may be mesh, reinforcement bars or fibers. For the

purposes of strengthening the surrounding ground, lattice girders and
steel ribs may be incorporated within the sprayed concrete (see also
Chapter 3.7).

Steel mesh reinforcement should be cut to adequate size and carefully

bent to closely follow the contours of the areas to receive the sprayed
concrete. The mesh should be securely tied with heavy tie wire to preset
anchors or reinforcing bars. Large knots of tie wire must be avoided to
limit the formation of sand pockets and voids in the sprayed concrete. At
the intersection of mesh sheets, the meshes should be lapped at least
1.5 spaces in both directions and fixed firmly.

If more than one layer of mesh is required, the first layer should be
covered with sprayed concrete before the second layer is placed. The
anchor or tie should extend to the second layer. The sheet of mesh
should be placed in the center of the sprayed concrete layer, unless
otherwise specified.

Bar reinforcement obstructs the sprayed concrete material stream.

Therefore, bar reinforcement should be designed and positioned to
cause the least interference with the placement of sprayed concrete.
The nozzleman’s skill becomes more and more important to guarantee
the adequate encasement of reinforcement as bar size increases or
spacing decreases. In any case, reinforcement should be sized, spaced
and arranged to facilitate the placement of sprayed concrete and reduce
the potential for the development of sand pockets and voids.

The minimum cover over reinforcement bars should comply with job
specifications or applicable building codes. Where possible, bar spaces
should be chosen to allow spraying the concrete at a slight angle from
either side of the bar. Intersecting reinforcing bars should be firmly tied

165
 to one another and to their anchors and adequately supported to limit
vibration to a minimum during concrete placement, which can cause
the sagging of plastic sprayed concrete, create voids and reduce in-situ
strengths. Large knots of tie wire must be avoided to minimize the for-
mation of sand pockets and voids in the sprayed concrete.

Installed steel components such as steel ribs, lattice girders, laggings,

pipes etc. lead to small cavities in the lining. Hence, proper arrangement
of these elements and control of the nozzle can reduce this negative
effect.

7.1.3. Joints

As mentioned in [56]:
“If a tunnel cannot be safety constructed using full-face excavation,
the face is subdivided into smaller headings…Subdivision of the face
introduces joints into the lining. For structural integrity there must be
continuity of the steel reinforcement across these joints. Traditionally
this was achieved using complex arrangements of overlapping bars…
It is difficult to build these joints without damaging the lap bars in the
process and without trapping rebound when spraying. As a result the
quality of the joints was sometimes poor – both in terms of structural
capacity and watertightness.”

Before continuing with a sprayed concrete application at a joint, it should

be carefully cleaned and pre-wetted. All loose material and especially
rebound should be removed. Tapering should be avoided. For proper
force transmission at joints approximate right angles should be used.
Special attention has to be paid to proper lapping of the reinforcement,
normally mesh on starter bars. When placing the sprayed concrete,
trapping rebound in the joints has to be avoided by all available means.
Properly executed joint details are especially important in soft ground
tunneling.

Where a tunnel lining is built of many sprayed concrete layers, joints

should be staggered. Incomplete sprayed concrete applications at shift
ends should be avoided. If this happens, the next shift has to continue the
spray application as soon as possible to avoid cold joints in the lining.

166
7.1.4. Protection of adjacent surfaces

Adjacent structures, equipment and ground surfaces can be contami-

nated by the rebound, overspray and dust which result from sprayed
concrete, especially on windy days. Therefore, the related effects should
be evaluated and necessary arrangements should be made to protect
adjacent structures.

7.2. Application of sprayed concrete

The quality of sprayed concrete application is strongly influenced by:

< D
 elivery and pump equipment operators.

< T
 he nozzleman.

< C
 ontrol of mixing water.

< N
 ozzle velocity and nozzle technique.

In each case, proper operation is determined by the expertise and

experience of the responsible crew members. In the following sections,
these and other relevant aspects of sprayed concrete application are
summarized.

7.2.1. Delivery and pump equipment

In the wet-mix method, slugging does not happen unless the as-delivered
material is inadequately mixed, or if accelerators are added at the nozzle.
A buildup of material can be caused by the reaction of cement dust/resi-
due with small amounts of accelerator, causing slugging. Therefore, the
pump operator should control the pump to uniformly deliver the wet-mix
at the required rate. In addition, he should monitor the concrete being
delivered to the pump hopper for appropriate consistency.

In the dry-mix method, appropriate operation of the delivery equipment

is crucial to ensure a smooth, steady flow of material through the hose
and nozzle. Thus, a suitable balance of air and material flows must be
maintained to prevent slugging, plug-ups or excessive rebound. Under
wetting or over wetting the mixture may result from pulsating and an
intermittent flow of sprayed concrete. This requires the nozzleman to
quickly adjust the water, manipulate the nozzle and direct it away from

167
 the work (signal for air, or stop). Unsuitable sprayed concrete which
results from slugging should be removed by the crew.

7.2.2. Access and visibility

The nozzleman should have clear access and visibility from a safe, sta-
ble place. Thus, utilities and other obstructions should be moved before
placing sprayed concrete. Appropriate lighting should be provided. If
platforms are used, these should meet all applicable safety standards.

7.2.3. Control of mixing water

In the dry-mix method, the nozzleman should add enough water at the
nozzle so that the surface of the sprayed concrete presents a slight
gloss. If too much water is added, the sprayed concrete can sag,
slough or drop out, depending on the position of the work. A dry, dark,
sandy surface with no gloss results if too little water is added. In this
situation, rebound and the probability of sand pockets increase, finish-
ing becomes difficult, and weak and laminated sprayed concrete is
produced. To ensure effective water control, the water pressure at the
nozzle should be considerably greater than the air pressure.

In the wet-mix method, the nozzleman does not have to control the water
content. The flow and/or the slump of the mix should be controlled to
comply with the recommended or specified ranges (see Chapter 2.2.1).

7.2.4. Impact velocity

The impact velocity of the sprayed concrete is a relevant factor in

determining the final properties of the sprayed concrete and to properly
encase the installed reinforcement.

For most applications where standard nozzle distances (typically 1 to

2 m) are used, the impact velocity is slightly lower than the material
velocity at the nozzle. At greater nozzle distances, the impact velocity
is strongly reduced, which requires an increase in nozzle velocity to
suit the application’s requirements. With remote-controlled manipulator

168
 arms, greater distances are sometimes allowed. The velocity of a wet-
mix concrete stream out of a standard MEYCO nozzle (measured with a
maximal output of 12 m3/h) varies from 30 to 50 m/s.

With dry mixes, material velocity at the nozzle is determined by the vol-
ume and pressure of available air, hose diameter and length, size of noz-
zle tip, type of material and the application rate used. The concrete mix
is jetted from the nozzle at high velocity onto the substrate surface. The
velocity of a concrete mix stream that comes out of a standard MEYCO
nozzle varies from 70 to 100 m/s.

7.2.5. Nozzle technique and manipulation

In the case of manual application, adequate operation of the nozzle is

physically demanding. Considerable attention to detail is required dur-
ing nozzle operation for both wet-mix and dry-mix methods. Since the
capabilities of wet-mix and dry-mix procedures and equipment differ,
each method requires different expertise from the nozzleman to some
degree.

7.2.6. Thickness and work position

Depending on the position of the work, sprayed concrete may be applied

in layers or a single thickness. Overhead spraying is usually done in
layers just thick enough to avoid dropouts. Vertical surfaces may be
applied in layers or as a single thickness, whereas inverted horizontal
surfaces are usually sprayed in one single pass. In any case, the applied
layer of sprayed concrete should not sag or drop out. Undetected and
unremoved sags or sloughs in the sprayed concrete can hide internal
cracks and hollows which lead to water penetration, freezing-and-thaw-
ing action and a reduction or loss of bond between applied layers.

7.2.7. Execution

One of the skills of the nozzleman is to recognize the need for applying
sprayed concrete in a manner that minimizes the risk of loosened blocks
falling into the tunnel work area, but also to prevent the concrete from

169
 sagging or even falling out of the crown sections. To meet this goal, the
nozzleman should firstly fill all overbreaks and zones of substrate weak-
ness, such as fissures, faults and gravel zones. The sooner this action
is taken after excavation, the safer the workplace.

Spraying should then commence from the lower sections, moving

methodically upwards to the crown. It may be prudent to increase the
accelerator dosage marginally to achieve a slightly faster set, and apply
numerous thinner layers rather than attempting to spray the entire thick-
ness in one pass of the nozzle. In the crown sections of the tunnel, an
initial thin layer of approximately 50 mm should be sprayed to prevent
the completed sprayed lining from debonding. Subsequent layers may
be built up to 150 mm in thickness. Whenever possible, sections should
be sprayed to their full design thickness in one layer. In this manner, the
possibility of cold joints and laminations can be reduced.

The stream of sprayed concrete emerging from the nozzle should be

steady and uninterrupted. Otherwise, the nozzleman should direct the
stream away from the work until it becomes constant. The application
distance (nozzle from the surface) should be such as to provide the best
results for the project’s requirements. It is usually between 1 and 2 m.

It is recommended that the nozzle is held perpendicular to the receiv-

ing surface but never oriented at more than 45 degrees to the surface.
When the nozzleman holds the nozzle at too great an angle from the
perpendicular to the receiving surface, the sprayed concrete rolls or
folds over, and the resulting uneven surfaces can catch greater amounts
of rebound and overspray. This so-called ‘rolling’ process should be
avoided, because it wastes material and may lead to the construction of
porous and non-uniform sprayed concrete linings.

In order to achieve a uniform distribution of sprayed concrete and limit

slugging to a minimum, the nozzleman should arrange the nozzle per-
pendicular to the surface and rotate it continuously in a series of small
oval or circular movements.

It is not recommended to wave the nozzle quickly back and forth

because, in doing so, the angle of impact changes, leading to increased
material loss and overspray, as well as to rougher surfaces. The nozzle
should be moved around in a controlled manner.

170
7.2.7.1. Mechanized wet-mix spraying

Many of the factors that cause high rebound values, poor compaction,
loss of structural performance and hence increased project costs are
attributed to the performance of the nozzleman, in particular when
working with handheld nozzle systems using the dry-mix process.

The advent of modern admixtures applied to wet-mix sprayed concrete

has reduced these problems significantly by enabling the placed con-
crete to be initially plastic in nature. For some minutes after application,
this enables subsequent layers of sprayed concrete to be absorbed and
compacted more readily than very fast or flash setting materials. This
approach reduces rebound significantly and allows steel encapsulation
to be achieved more readily. However, this is not necessarily always the
case when applying sprayed concrete in tunnels where there is a need
for very high early strength gain.

Problems relating to nozzle angle, nozzle distance and achieving the

correct compaction with the required air volume and pressure have
been facilitated by the use of spraying manipulators, particularly in
large diameter tunnels. As shown in Figure 7-1, the MEYCO spraying
manipulator is controlled by a remote-control joystick operated by the
nozzleman, which allows spraying at the correct distance and angle
at all times. This, coupled with the required air volume and pressure,
ensures low rebound and well-compacted sprayed concrete. Good
surface finishes can be achieved by selecting the automatic oscillating
movement of the nozzle mode.

171
 Figure 7-1: MEYCO spraying manipulator – correct angle and distance
for reduction in rebound and enhanced quality

New advances in spraying manipulators make the task of setting the

optimal nozzle angle and distance even easier using the automatic
mode with the MEYCO Potenza Logica, as described in Chapter 8.
Modern wet-spraying equipment is capable of applying up to 30 m3 per
hour. MEYCO robotic equipment has been used where more than 200
m3 have been applied per shift.

7.2.7.2. Raising competence levels

Nozzlemans should have previous experience in the application of per-

manent sprayed concrete, and have knowledge of the sprayed concrete
process to be adopted on the specific project. It is recommended that
an operator be able to demonstrate his experience either as a holder of
a certificate from previous work, or through demonstrating his compe-
tence in a non-works location.

Prevailing regulations place added requirements on the people doing

the spraying work to have technical knowledge of concrete, particularly
of sprayed concrete. Current requirements have led to better training
of the underground personnel involved. The result of this is improved
quality of work. The number of special contractors who are working
with sprayed concrete has increased over the last few years, which has
raised the quality of application globally.

172
 Sprayed concrete structures are heavily reliant on human competence
during construction, and therefore the design should reflect this by
considering the ‘buildability’ of these structures using sprayed con-
crete. Designing ‘buildability’ ensures that safety and durability-critical
elements are either designed out or simplified for ease of construction
on the jobsite. Furthermore, design teams should be aware of the limita-
tions of construction processes, and be familiar with the likely material
performance.

Modern sprayed concrete specifications now address the issues of

achieving a quality controlled modern mix design, providing guidance on
promoting durability and effective execution of the spraying processes.
As an example, the European Specification for Sprayed Concrete (1996)
produced by EFNARC has provided comprehensive systems to attain
permanent sprayed concrete. This specification has been the basis for
new project-specific specifications worldwide, and was the basis of the
new European Norm Sprayed Concrete Specification. Furthermore,
the EFNARC Sprayed Concrete Specification tackles issues such as
nozzleman training and accreditation, and also sets out systems for
contractors and specifiers to consider the structures they are building
and to adapt the sprayed concrete system and mix design accordingly.
Several organizations such as ITA, ACI, CETU, EFNARC etc. provide
nozzleman certification schemes.

7.2.8. Encasing reinforcement

During application, the material stream is interrupted by reinforcing bars.

Hence, the area behind the reinforcing bar is not compacted by the
following stream of sprayed concrete. A sprayed concrete mix placed
with good impact and sufficient plasticity will flow around the reinforcing
bars and entirely cover the reinforcement. Sprayed concrete application
with high impact velocity will also force stiffer material around the rein-
forcement. Moving closer to the work can increase the impact velocity.
However, sufficient plasticity is more important than high impact velocity
when encasing reinforcement.

If larger reinforcement is installed, the angle of the material stream

should be adapted properly, in order to guarantee that the area behind
the reinforcement is compacted.

173
 Application onto reinforced vertical surfaces (e.g. tunnel bench) should
begin at the bottom and fill corners. If possible, the first layer should
completely encase the reinforcement. Following layers should be thin
enough to avoid sloughing and sagging. The tolerable thickness of fol-
lowing layers depends primarily on the plasticity of the sprayed concrete
and the texture of the substrate surface.

7.2.9. Multiple layers

If a succeeding layer of sprayed concrete is to be applied onto a pre-

vious one, the previous layer should be allowed to harden slightly or
stiffen. After that, all loose excess material, glaze, laitance and rebound
should be removed. Sandblasting or waterblasting should remove any
undesirable surface deposits. Air-water blast can be used to clean
the surface for both wet-mix and dry-mix applications. Visible defects,
such as hollows or sags, should be cut out. The surface to be sprayed
should be in a saturated surface-dry condition. Curing compounds or
other bond-breaking materials should not be applied to the surface. It is
recommended to leave the surface open, rough and highly textured to
improve the bond of the successive sprayed concrete layer.

For thick structural members, each subsequent layer should be given

sufficient time to set before the next layer is applied. In large diameter
tunnels, this allows the spraying process to be continuous due to the
relatively high surface areas and subsequent volume of concrete applied.
It is good practice to apply thick sections in a series of layers, but the
number should be kept to a minimum where possible. All surfaces to
receive a new layer should be damp and free from loose materials.

7.2.10. Rebound and overspray

One of the principal causes of poor quality sprayed concrete and

increased lining costs is the amount of rebound produced during spray-
ing. This is particularly evident in the dry-mix sprayed concrete process,
where the nozzleman has control over the water-cement ratio and is
responsible for the effective mixing of the concrete mix between the
nozzle and the substrate. This section highlights some measures to be

174
considered to reduce rebound and improve quality.

Figure 7-2 attempts to illustrate some of the major factors that can affect
the degree of rebound produced by both wet and dry-mix sprayed
concrete during the spraying process. In the case of dry-mix, the val-
ues given are conservative. It has been assumed that the mix design,
particularly the aggregate grading and water-cement ratio, is optimized.
The amount of rebound is broken down into four major factors:
< N ozzle angle to substrate.

< A ccelerator dosage.

< N ozzle distance to substrate.

< A rea of application in tunnel.

As indicated in Figure 7-2, the most significant influence on rebound is

the angle of the nozzle to the substrate. The nozzle should always be
held at right angles (90°) to the substrate to optimize the compaction
and orientation of steel fibers, except when full encapsulation of lattice
girders and steel reinforcement is required. With handheld spraying, a
perpendicular spraying angle is not always favored by the nozzleman,
as any rebounded material tends to come directly back. Even spraying
angles of less than 70° will cause excessive rebound values and poor
compaction of the concrete. This inevitably leads to low strength and
poor durability concrete. With more recent developments in wet-mix
manipulator spraying, this problem has been mostly removed.

175
 Application Techniques - Important Factors

100 Poor
Rebound & Quality

Sprayed concrete quality

Optimum
Rebound [%]

50
Average

Good
10
Excellent

0° 90 0° Nozzle angle to substrate

10% 1% 10 % Accelerator Dose
0.2 m 1 to 2 m +3m Nozzle distance to substrate
Crown Sidewalls Invert Sidewalls Crown Area of application in tunnel
EFNARC Nozzleman Scheme, Examiners Course Notes

Figure 7-2: Effect on rebound and sprayed concrete quality of principal

spraying parameters (source: EFNARC)

Figure 7-3: Nozzle angle has a dramatic effect on rebound. The dis-
tance of nozzle to substrate influences rebound and compaction.

The distance between the nozzle and the substrate should be between
1 and 2 m, as indicated in Figure 7-3. If the nozzle is closer than this,
the projected concrete will tend to tear off the freshly placed material. If

176
the nozzle distance is reduced, the output should be lowered and the
nozzle moved faster. Furthermore, if the nozzle distance is extended to
3 m, for example, then the energy to compact the concrete is severely
reduced, again resulting in excessive rebound, poor compaction and
low strengths. Handheld applications will tend to lower the air output to
maintain the correct nozzle-to-substrate distance, this in turn also has
detrimental effects on the quality of the sprayed concrete.

Accelerator dosage as shown in Figure 7-2 can also affect the degree
of rebound. Too little accelerator will not provide adequate setting and
strength development, so that freshly applied concrete may be ‘shot off’
by the next pass of the nozzle, as it remains too soft. By definition, this
is not strictly rebound, but should be avoided at all times.

Conversely, if the accelerator dosage is too high, for example above 10

%, fast setting will create a hard surface that will cause larger aggre-
gates to rebound, prevent complete compaction, and thereby produce
a sprayed concrete lining with reduced strength and durability. Fast
setting in combination with pulsation of the concrete during application
may lead to undesirable layering, reducing load bearing capacity as well
as affecting other quality aspects of the sprayed-concrete lining, such
as long-term durability. For applications in the crown sections of tun-
nels, a balance between accelerator dosage for effective build rates and
rebound needs to be established without compromising the required
properties of the hardened concrete lining. The new MasterRoc SA
range of alkali-free accelerators provides a relatively low but wide dos-
age range to allow fast build rates coupled with good long-term con-
crete performance.

Further factors that can influence the degree of rebound and hence the
quality of sprayed concrete are summarized as follows.

Mesh reinforcement: Mesh should be securely fixed to the substrate

prior to spraying. Vibrating mesh can increase rebound values consider-
ably and cause shadows that reduce the structural capacity and long-
term durability of the lining. Where possible, elect to use fiber-reinforced
mixes for improved productivity, low rebound, enhanced structural
properties and reduced overall project costs. A sprayed concrete lining
composed of steel reinforcement cages or bars should be systemati-
cally built up layer by layer, and under no circumstances should sprayed

177
 concrete be applied through complete reinforcement cages.

Air volume, pressure and delivery: Air volume and pressure should
be those set by the manufacturer of the sprayed concrete equipment.
Air supply lines should be the size defined for the system, and nozzles
need to be checked for wear as this detrimentally affects the output
velocity of the sprayed concrete. The air-accelerator injection turbo
needs to be designed to optimize thorough mixing with the dense con-
crete stream at the nozzle.

Nature of substrate: In hard rock tunnels, the amount of rebound can

be significantly higher than in soft ground tunnels. This is due to the
contact surface being both hard and at various incidental angles to the
spray direction due to the blocky nature of the rock. In such cases, an
initial sprayed concrete layer is advisable to act as a ‘cushion’ to receive
the structural sprayed concrete lining.

7.2.11. Suspension of work

Sprayed concrete application should be stopped under the following

severe weather conditions:
< H igh winds (proper application procedures not possible).

< F reezing temperatures (protection of the work is not possible).

< H eavy rain causing washouts or sloughing of the fresh sprayed con-

crete.

7.3. Finishing

Depending on the intended role of the tunnel structure, several surface

finishes can be provided, varying from a sprayed concrete finish to a
float-finished surface.

Sprayed concrete does not have enough water to provide the required
particle lubrication for effective finishing. However, a high-quality sur-
face can be provided by means of careful finishing by skilled, experi-
enced craftsmen. The finishing of wet-mix and dry-mix requires similar
procedures, but it is somewhat easier with wet-mix due to its higher
water content.

178
The sprayed finish is the natural finish left by the nozzle after the sprayed
concrete is brought to approximate line and grade. The resulting tex-
tured, uneven surface is suitable for many applications. If a better align-
ment, appearance or smoothness is specified, the sprayed concrete is
placed a little beyond the guide strips or forms. When screeded with a
rod or trowel, it stiffens properly without cracking of the surface. Excess
material on the surface should be trimmed, sliced or scraped to true line
and grade. If any additional layers of sprayed concrete are to be applied
over the surface, it should be prepared adequately by removing surface
laitance, e.g. by means of waterblasting, sandblasting or other accept-
able methods. Guidance strips should then be removed. All impressions
they leave should be removed by means of floating.

Should a finer finish be desired, a flash coat may be used. This is a thin
surface coating up to 6 mm thick which is applied to the surface of the
sprayed concrete (left about 6 mm below the desired thickness), either
immediately after screeding or later on. Then finishing is carried out as
described previously.

Alternatively, the finishing of thick walls may be achieved with a finish

coat, which can provide greater uniformity of texture and appearance.
After the basic sprayed concrete application is brought to within 5 to 25
mm of the final grade, a thin surface coat (5 to 25 mm) may be applied
immediately after screeding or at a later stage. For later application of
the finishing coat, the base sprayed concrete should be left properly
scarified or broomed. The receiving surface should be washed with an
air-water blast just before the application of the finish coat.

Wood float, rubber float, brush or steel trowel may be used to finish the
flash or finish coat. Where a plaster coat is required later on, the finished
sprayed concrete should be left open-textured after trimming, slicing or
screeding, in order to guarantee a proper bond. Smooth zones should
be properly scarified or broomed.

In order to enable adequate surface finishing, reducing the accelera-

tor dosage of the sprayed concrete for the last few centimeters of the
sprayed concrete layer is recommended. The result is a softer surface
which allows mechanical treatment.

179
7.3.1. Screed and float finish

Sprayed concrete linings can be surface finished by screeding and

hand floating to produce a surface finish similar in quality to that of a
cast in-situ lining. This process is performed on a sprayed mortar layer
applied to the final structural sprayed concrete layer, and is typically 25
mm thick. Polymer monofilament may be included in the mix design to
control surface crazing produced by thermal and surface drying effects,
as with MasterEmaco® S88C sprayable mortar. The screeding process
is relatively simple to perform using 25 mm diameter screed rails bent to
the finished profile of the tunnel and, if required, further improvement to
the surface finish can be attained by hand float work.

Regarding highway tunnels, the required surface reflectance for the tunnel
sidewalls up to a height of 4 m from the road surface demands a smooth
finish, high reflectance and an average light color. Above this zone, the
crown sections of the tunnel are dark colored and of low reflectance.

This reflectance and color coding provides the following benefits:

< A
 voids the claustrophobic effect of a reflective tube, and allows a
more visual rectangular appearance, giving width to the tunnel.
< A reduction in power consumption for ventilation and luminaires.

< O bscures services and hardware in the crown of the tunnel.

< P rovides a limit for the cleaning machine and hides a soiled appear-

ance where the surface is not cleaned.

< A ids the distribution of light onto the road surface.

To achieve these surface finishes, it is recommended that the 4 m wall

sections are initially screeded to the correct profile and finished by
hand float work. To provide the high reflectance and light color require-
ment, the application of a pigmented cementitious fairing coat such as
MasterTop® 333, or an epoxy coating such as MasterTop® 1211, to the
color required is proposed. For the crown sections, the surface can be
left screeded and a similar painted treatment as described above can
be applied with a black pigment.

7.3.2. Cladding systems

The alternative to the above approach to providing the required surface

180
 finish is to install sidewall cladding. Cladding systems composed of
vitreous enamel on steel plate are generally acknowledged to be the
most suitable for tunnel environments. Vitreous enamel (VE) cladding
is durable, impact resistant, easy to clean, chemically inert and fire
proof. The particular benefit of VE is that it is not a coating but is fused
to the steel plate, forming a robust integrated surface with a permanent
colorfast finish. Such cladding systems can provide a method to screen
and protect communication and electrical services, and allow a lower
surface finish to be specified for the sprayed concrete tunnel linings.

7.4. Tolerances

Tolerance requirements for sprayed concrete structures should con-

sider the use and function of the structure. In the case of underground
support and slope stabilization, they may vary by as much as 100 mm.
If required, sprayed concrete can be finished to tight tolerances.

7.5. Curing

As mentioned in [52], “Curing is the process of controlling the rate and

extent of moisture loss from concrete during cement hydration. It may
be either after it has been placed in position (or during the manufacture
of concrete products), thereby providing time for the hydration of the
cement to occur. Since the hydration of cement does take time – days,
and even weeks rather than hours – curing must be undertaken for
a reasonable period of time if the concrete is to achieve its potential
strength and durability. Curing may also encompass the control of tem-
perature since this affects the rate at which cement hydrates.

The curing period may depend on the properties required of the con-
crete, the purpose for which it is to be used, and the ambient condi-
tions, i.e. the temperature and relative humidity of the surrounding
atmosphere.

Curing is designed primarily to keep the concrete moist, by preventing

the loss of moisture from the concrete during the period in which it is
gaining strength. Curing may be applied in a number of ways and the
most appropriate means of curing may be dictated by the site or the

181
 construction method.”

One would think that tunnels have ideal curing conditions with high
humidity (due to normal water leakage), no wind and no sun exposure.
However, this is not the case. In fact, tunnels and other underground
construction projects have some of the worst conditions for curing due
to ventilation that continuously blows dry air (cold or hot) into the tunnel.
It can be compared to concrete exposed to a windy area.

Curing is one of the basic and most important jobs in sprayed concrete
for underground support due to the large cement content of the mix and
the requirement for fast hydration and high early strength development,
which lead to rapid heat generation, causing relatively high shrinkage
and increasing the cracking potential of the applied concrete. Other rea-
sons for proper curing are the danger of rapid drying out due to heavy
ventilation in the tunnel and the application of sprayed concrete in thin
layers. Therefore, sprayed concrete should always be cured properly by
means of an efficient method, especially in tunnels.

With the use of sprayed concrete as a permanent final lining, long-term

quality and performance requirements have built up significantly. These
requirements are good bonding, high final density and compressive
strength to ensure freeze/thaw and chemical resistances, watertight-
ness and a high degree of safety.

Figure 7-4 shows continuous strength development even after five

years, if concrete is properly prevented from drying out. When air cured,
the final performance is significantly lower.

182
 Long Term Strength Development

80

Compressive Strength [MPa]

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2.5 5
Time [years]

7% SA 160 cured under water

7% SA 160 air cured
9% SA 160 cured under water
9% SA 160 air cured

Figure 7-4: Long-term strength of air and water-cured sprayed concrete

(source SINTEF (N) 1996 – 2001)

7.5.1. Curing methods

Curing sprayed concrete generally falls into the following categories:

< M
 ethods that minimize moisture loss from the concrete, e.g. by cov-

ering it with a relatively impermeable membrane.

< M
 ethods that prevent moisture loss by continuously wetting the

exposed surface of the concrete (water curing).

Curing sprayed concrete with the impermeable membrane method can

be achieved by means of plastic sheeting, membrane-forming curing
compounds/agents and internal curing compounds. Plastic sheets (or
other similar material) are mostly used to protect the exposed sprayed
concrete surfaces of slopes. They offer an effective barrier against water
loss from concrete, provided they are properly installed and fixed in
place and are protected from damage. Otherwise, their effectiveness is
very much reduced. The movement of forced draughts under the plastic
sheets must be prevented.

Membrane-forming curing compounds are usually in liquid form. They

183
 are normally sprayed directly onto concrete surfaces, drying to form a
relatively impermeable membrane, which retards moisture loss from
the concrete. This solution is efficient and effective and may be applied
to freshly placed concrete. More details are provided in Chapter 3.5.5
Curing agents.

Water curing is done by supplying water to the concrete surface to keep

it continuously moist. Keeping the sprayed concrete wet continuously
for 7 days while maintaining a temperature over 5 °C provides the best
curing. At the point when the curing water and sprayed concrete come
into contact, the temperature of the curing water should not be more
than 10 °C cooler than the surface of the sprayed concrete. A ‘thermal
shock’, which may cause or contribute to cracking of the concrete, must
be avoided. Alternate wetting and drying of the concrete shall also be
avoided, because this leads to volume changes, as well as to surface
cracking and crazing.

In addition to the above-mentioned methods, special internal curing

compounds have been added to the concrete during batching as an
admixture. This admixture produces an internal barrier within the con-
crete which secures safer hydration and better resistances than can be
gained by the application of conventional curing agents. Among many
benefits, it improves long-term strength and reduces drying shrinkage
(see previous Chapter 3.5.5.1).

It should be emphasized that surface wetting (water curing) is often

prohibited or, for environmental reasons, not feasible and that curing by
means of plastic sheets is applicable only in special cases. The appli-
cation of curing agents is costly and has certain negative aspects with
regard to the bonding of concrete layers. The method of choice remains
the use of internal curing compounds as the most economic, ecological
and evidentially efficient concrete curing method.

7.6. Hot-weather application

With wet-mix sprayed concrete, similar undesirable effects to those

encountered with normal pumped concrete are expected, including the
following problems:
< Increased water demand due to high temperatures. In many cases,

184
 low air humidity will cause higher than normal evaporation of water
from the fresh concrete.
< Increased rate of flow loss.
< G enerally increased rate of set.

< D ifficulty in regulating entrained air content.

Procedures to deal with these problems are necessary to ensure an

adequate sprayed concrete application. In order to minimize or over-
come some of these problems associated with spraying in hot condi-
tions, ice and/or nitrogen can be added to the mixing water during
concrete mixing at the batching plant.

Once the sprayed concrete is at the jobsite, placing, finishing and cur-
ing procedures are the same as those for concrete. Where screeding
and finishing is required, they should be done as soon as the condition
of the sprayed concrete permits. Curing should start immediately after
finishing is completed. During all phases of the installation procedure,
the temperature of the sprayed concrete should ideally be maintained
between 10 °C and 40 °C.

7.7. Cold-weather application

Sprayed concrete should not be placed on frozen surfaces. Standard

precautions used to protect concrete from freezing should also be used
for protecting sprayed concrete.

Sprayed concrete has a higher heat of hydration than conventional cast

in-situ concrete, due to its greater cement content, which increases its
resistance to freezing. However, because it is usually applied in thin lay-
ers with large surface areas, rapid loss of heat occurs, which partially
counterbalances the benefits from hydration heat.

Placement of sprayed concrete should be allowed if the temperature is

at least 5 °C and rising. However, at low temperatures strengths develop
slowly until higher temperatures are restored, and the rate of hydra-
tion reduces, which may inhibit setting and the development of early
strength. After the placement of sprayed concrete, it should be properly
cured and protected from freezing until it reaches sufficient strength.
Water curing in a freezing environment should not be carried out. The

185
 temperature during curing should be maintained above 5 °C.

If sprayed concrete has to be placed in cold-weather conditions, ade-

quate procedures for surface preparation, placement, curing and pro-
tection should be developed. In order to overcome some other prob-
lems associated with sprayed concrete application in cold weather
conditions, additional measures have to be taken. These can include
heating of mixing water (to max. 60°C), aggregates and accelerators.

186
8. SPRAYED CONCRETE
EQUIPMENT
The need for numerous technical solutions, as well as high risks and time
pressure are typical of the underground environment. Consequently, the
contractor needs a competent and reliable partner. However, quality
products alone are not enough. Only with a balanced utilization of reli-
able equipment, high performance products and competent service
can the required quality and efficiency be achieved.

In April 2013 MEYCO Equipment was taken over by Atlas Copco Rock
Drills AB. Both companies, BASF and Atlas Copco, wished to cooper-
ate regarding the further development of sprayed concrete equipment
and thus signed a cooperation agreement to cover the basic conditions
of future joint development projects.

Parallel to developments in material technology, there has been constant

innovative development in the equipment sector to produce machines
suited to the new products that are adaptable to the ever-changing
conditions in the construction business. The result is a wide range of
systems that cover all sprayed concrete works: from huge tunneling jobs
with large quantities of concrete to be sprayed to small volume repair
works. Common to all developments in equipment is the tendency
toward integrated and automated systems which ensure higher produc-
tion output and consistent and controllable quality, as well as safer and
more operator-friendly working conditions.

There are two basic spraying methods – the wet-mix and the dry-mix
method (see Chapter 4). Since these two methods have distinct charac-
teristics, so do the required spraying machines.

187
 Criteria Wet-Mix Method Dry-Mix Method
Working and operating worse (high dust
good
conditions formation)
Production capacity high low
Quality of applied sprayed
high lower
concrete
Worldwide application ratio of
90% 10%
sprayed concrete in tunnels
Tendency of sprayed concrete
increasing decreasing
application
Rebound lower (< 10%) higher (approx. 20-40%)
Equipment cost higher lower
Abrasion of wear parts low high
by means of spraying by means of spraying
Application
manipulator and manual manipulator and manual
Method of flow dense-flow method thin-flow method
Air consumption lower higher
Output theoretical 3 - 30m³/h 1 – 20 m³/h
Output practical 3 - 24m³/h 1 – 10 m³/h
Sprayed concrete at wall after
< 23m³/h < 8 m³/h
rebound

Table 8-1: Major criteria and corresponding response of wet-mix and

dry-mix methods

8.1. Wet-mix spraying machines

Many different types of pumps were tested and used in the past, such
as rotor machines, hose pumps (squeeze pumps), rotor/stator pumps,
piston pumps with ball valves, etc. The thin stream, low density method
with rotor machines was often used in the past, but nowadays can only
be seen on rare occasions. Today, wet spraying machine technology
is based on the proven double piston principle with S-tube design,
whether electric or diesel powered.

188
Figure 8-1: Double piston pump with S-shaped swing tube

Typically, wet spraying machines:

< A
 re always used in combination with a dosing system for liquid

accelerators.
< Have minimal wear cost per cubic meter.

< H
 ave a compressed air volume approx. 50 % lower by the same

spraying capacity compared to the dry-mix application method.

< G
 uarantee quality of sprayed concrete through the integrated

accelerator dosing system and a constant water/cement ratio.

< A
 llow a long pumping distance.

< P
 rovide practical spraying capacities ranging from 3–24 m3/h (with

skilled applicator only!).

< R
 equire a higher initial investment than dry-mix machines.

< P
 rovide a considerably higher dosage accuracy of liquid accelerator.

MEYCO Altera

This wet-mix spraying machine is a typical example used for hand

application. It has been specifically designed as a cost-effective unit for
spraying in areas where compactness and ease of handling are critical.
This unit has an output of approximately 6 m3 per hour (theoretical) and
contains a peristaltic pump for accelerator dosing. The total weight of
the skid-mounted version is 1,150 kg whilst railcar and trailer mountings
are also available.

189
 Figure 8-2: MEYCO Altera double piston pump

Machines that can offer a wide possible range of application tasks

are appreciated by the contractor. They allow the limitation of capital
investment as it is only necessary to purchase one machine instead of
several.

MEYCO Suprema

This machine has a theoretical output of up to 30 m3/h. To ensure

even spraying, the latest equipment developments aim to realize low-
pulsation conveyance of the wet-mix from the pump to the nozzle. This
is put into practice with the MEYCO Suprema: the electronically con-
trolled push-over system integrated into the output adjustment brings
the pulsation of the material flow to a minimum which is hardly notice-
able at the nozzle. An integrated programmable logic controller (PLC)
supervises, coordinates and controls all functions of the machine. The
PLC system allows the checking and control of operational information
(dosing quantity, concrete output, etc.), which can also be downloaded

190
and analyzed separately using the MEYCO Data system. The MEYCO
Dosa TDC system guarantees exact regulation of dosing in relation to
the spraying volume.

Key technical features:

< B
 asic design that allows easy adaptation to different requirements,

making it a versatile machine for the owner. Please refer to Figures

8-5, 8-6, 8-7.
< E
 lectronically controlled push-over system is linked with the mate-

rial output adjustment, with the result that the pulsation over the
full range of the material flow is reduced to a minimum and is hardly
noticeable at the nozzle.
< T
 he PLC system supervises, coordinates and controls all functions

of the machine. It also allows the checking and control of data, which
can also be printed out, e.g. dosing quantity of accelerator, output
capacity etc. Errors within the hydraulic or electrical systems will
be indicated on the display and the causes of malfunctions can be
determined through the help program of the PLC.
< T
 he MEYCO Dosa TDC dosing system for liquid accelerator is an

integrated proportioning unit with an infinitely variable mono pump

(screw pump), and flanged-on electric motor (frequency controlled)
which is connected to the drive of the feed (concrete/hydraulic) pis-
tons through the PLC system. This guarantees forcible regulation of
the dosing amount relative to the spraying volume.
< T
 he combination of concrete pump with integrated dosing system

prevents under- or over- dosing of accelerator in the concrete mix.

With a MEYCO Suprema, a practical conveying capacity of 30 m3/h and

a horizontal distance of 300 m can be reached.

191
 Sprayed concrete delivery at pump outlet Sprayed concrete delivery to nozzle

1 2 1 2

Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2

Conventional system
without push-over
Accelerator

1 2 1 2

Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2

Conventional system 3 3
without push-over
Accelerator

1 2 1 2

Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2

MEYCO Suprema 3 3

Accelerator

1 Cylinder stroke 2 Change-over 3 Push-over

Figure 8-3: Comparison of push-over systems

192
 USB-Stick
PLC Computer
Display
customer

Display of actual values

Input keyboard

Potentiometer
concrete flow Spraying nozzle
SPS
PLC
Amplifier card
Required value of additive
prop. value

Input

+/- 0...25%
Actual value
Flowmeter
of additive

Frequency converter
M Dosing pump
integr. PI-controller

Accelerator

Figure 8-4: Working principle of the MEYCO Dosa TDC (Total Dosing
Control) system

193
 Figure 8-5: MEYCO Suprema, built as trailer version

Key safety features:

The sophisticated MEYCO Suprema control system ensures that the

most important and/or dangerous working steps are properly executed
or prevents them when necessary. This is to safeguard the operator and
the machine, as well as the environment. Some examples are:
< E mergency shut-off when hopper grill is being opened while the

machine is in operation.
< W hen a blockage in the conveying line is being detected, the machine

first goes into reverse mode (to release pressure) before going into
idle mode.
< E lectric control system built to the latest safety standards according

to CE (European industry) standards.

< U nder-dosing of accelerator turns off the machine and reports the

cause on the display.

< O verheating of hydraulic oil turns off the machine and reports the

cause on the display.

194
Figure 8-6: MEYCO Suprema, built as standalone version

Figure 8-7: MEYCO Suprema, built as split version, which often is

required when integrated into a TBM (tunnel boring machine)

A successful spraying operation has a lot to do with carrying out the

necessary maintenance and cleaning work as well as following certain

195
 basic rules. To grasp this easily, the reader may use the following practi-
cal general checklist for wet-spraying.

General checklist for wet-spraying operations

< B
 efore spraying, ensure that the accelerator amount is visible on the
display (kg/min).
< T
 he water box must always be filled with water (anti-freeze) – never

start without cooling /lubrication water.

< A
 lways lubricate the delivery pipes and hoses before spraying. Put

approx. 15 liters of MasterRoc® LUB 1 in the elbow just after the

pump outlet or in the hopper.
< C
 heck nozzle and injector holes, air and accelerator lines for any

blockages.
< K
 eep the hopper full to the grill so that air cannot be sucked in.

< T
 he vibrator should be used to pass the material through the screen,

never continuously vibrate the hopper.

< A
 t spraying intervals always switch off the vibrator to prevent segre-

gation.
< W
 hen the spraying operation is stopped or completed, the nozzle

should be pointed downwards to prevent accelerator from flowing

back into the concrete hose, thereby risking creation of a blockage.
Air and water can be flushed through the nozzle a couple of times to
keep this clean.
< T
 he S-tube change-over cylinders must be greased daily.

< T
 he hopper grill must be kept clean.

8.2. Dry-mix spraying machines

In the past, there were many different machine principles, or so-called

‘spraying guns’ or simply ‘guns’, used for the pneumatic conveyance of
the dry-mix material. Examples of these are the single or double chamber
system, which is based on the pressure vessel system or pocket-wheel
system machines and, of course, rotor machines.

Machines that work on the rotor principle are the type most generally
used nowadays.

196
 Typical dry spraying machines:

< A
 re robust and have a simple design.
< A
 llow user friendly operation.
< H
 ave quite high wear cost per cubic meter.

< R
 equire sufficient air supply.

< G
 enerate approx. 20–40 % rebound material (waste material).

< D
 o have an increased counter pressure in the machine and dust

creation with increased conveying distance.

< H
 ave an increased risk of material segregation due to pneumatic

conveyance of the dry material at a long conveying distance.

< A
 llow a Start and Stop of the machine at all times.

< A
 llow cleaning of the system without water.

< A
 re available powered by electric or compressed air motor.

Operating principle of MEYCO Piccola and GM

(see Figure 8-8)

The dry mix is filled into the feed hopper (1). As the rotor revolves, the
mix alternately falls by its own weight through a feed slot into one of the
rotor chambers (2) below. While one of the chambers is being filled,
compressed air (p) is blown from above into the other (full) chamber. The
mix is discharged into the outlet opening (3) and blown at a pressure of
3 to 6 bar through the conveying pipeline to the spraying nozzle, where
the mixing water is added. The top and bottom of the rotor are sealed
with rubber discs.

Capacity is defined by the size of the rotor used multiplied by the speed
of the rotor (rpm).

Other technologies and designs such as pneumatic gun technology,

using pressurized single or double chamber design, or the pocket-
wheel system, were used by different manufacturers in the past, but
today these are in limited use only.

197
 1

2 2
3 1: Feeding hopper
2: Rotor
3: Outlet
p: Pressurized air

Figure 8-8: Operating principle of rotor machine for dry spraying

Figure 8-9: Different types of rotors

198
Figure 8-10: MEYCO Piccola/MEYCO GM: typical rotor dry-mix spray-
ing machines

The essential advantages of these machines are simple operation, stur-

diness and adaptability to the specific conditions of the site. Depending
on the diameter of the outlet and the conveying tube as well as the type
of rotor, practical outputs range from approx. 0.5 m3/h to 10 m3/h.

If the spraying output is raised by increasing the chamber volume

and the revolving speed, the conveying tube has to be redimensioned
accordingly. For spraying, the maximum diameter is 65 mm, whereas for
conveyance only, e.g. for placement behind formwork etc., diameters of
up to 80 mm can be used. With larger tube diameters, the compressed
air consumption will also increase considerably.

There are more parameters determining the size of the conveying tube:
the granulometry of the dry-mix, the grain shape of the aggregates,
compressed air supply, the conveying distance and height.

The following rule of thumb for determining the correct hose and nozzle
diameter is recommended: the maximum grain size in the concrete mix
shall never be bigger than 1/3 of the inside diameter of the conveying
line.

199
 Figure 8-11: Various nozzles for dry-mix spraying

Developments in dry-mix spraying equipment are moving towards

improved dust-proofing, low filling height of the rotor chambers to
ensure an even flow of the mix, and improved wear resistance.

There are also advances in nozzle technology. The MEYCO membrane

nozzle, for example, is used for high quality applications where oven-dry
material is sprayed, requiring an absolutely correct water distribution.
Under extreme conditions, dust and rebound may also be reduced
using this type of nozzle.

Good quality sprayed concrete can be achieved with the use of dry-
mix spraying equipment. However, if the installed lining reinforcement
(including lattice girders and lapping of reinforcement) is to be sprayed,
quality-related problems arise due to the high level of rebound. This is
the opposite situation to most repair applications, because of the high
early strength development requirements in tunnel support which yield
to higher rebound.

200
8.3. Mobile spraying equipment

Some of the reasons behind the change from the dry to the wet-spraying
process are the limitation of output, quality of the applied material and
safety considerations.

The main limitation factor is the maximum output of the dry-spraying

machines (approx. 10 m3/h) and the weight of the nozzle and hoses,
which have to be held by the nozzleman when spraying manually. Having
the nozzleman working in the freshly excavated and therefore unsecured
opening plus the dust generated at the nozzle while spraying with the
dry method are further problems. Another important factor is the various
parameters that could be altered by the nozzleman, such as the stand-
off distance of the nozzle to the wall during spraying, an incorrect w/c
ratio to reduce dust and an incorrect spraying angle due to fatigue of the
operator.

The first spraying manipulator designs were based on crane booms but
it was recognized that the forces impacting the boom during spraying are
different to those for which a crane boom is normally designed. As for the
chassis, it was obvious to use the equipment which was already avail-
able on site, such as trucks and other utility vehicles. The disadvantage
of this kind of carrier was the height of the platform to mount the sprayed
concrete pump, the space to mount all accessories and a suitable power
takeoff to drive the equipment from the truck engine.

Today, there is a range of specialized equipment available on the market

that has been specially designed for the application of sprayed con-
crete. These mobile spraying units normally include a spraying boom,
sprayed concrete pump, dosing system for accelerators and compres-
sor. Different carriers have been offered to the market, such as articu-
lated chassis, carriers on caterpillars, trucks or, most commonly, 4x4
chassis with crab steering.

8.3.1. Carriers

To bring the spraying equipment to the application area, a suitable car-

rier is required. Key elements for carriers are:

201
 < T
 urning radius: minimal turning radius of the equipment, including any

overlapping installations, to be able to maneuver in narrow openings

such as spiral ramps in mines or tight cross cuts.
< T
 ramming speed: minimal speed required to not hold up the sequen-

tial process of tunneling and driving on steep slopes.

< B
 raking power: braking system capable of driving intermittently on

steep slopes with full load (accelerator, water, etc.).

< T
 raction and ramp angle: driving on poor ground and access to pits

and ramps.

8.3.2. Remote-controlled manipulators

With the change from the dry to the wet-spraying process, the industry
realized that not only does the sprayed concrete pump play an impor-
tant role in the whole process, but also in the mechanization of the actual
application of the material.

As a consequence, contractors and equipment manufacturers started

to design and build equipment to mechanize the application of sprayed
concrete. Today, a broad range of remote-controlled manipulators is
available on the market, starting at the lower end with very basic booms
and progressing to specially designed spraying manipulators and, at the
top end, fully computer-controlled spraying robots.

General requirements for remote-controlled manipulators are:

< S
 afety elements such as self-locking gear drives and shock valves to

prevent unexpected movements in the event of hydraulic failures.

< P
 rotection of all telescopic parts of the manipulator to prevent ingress

of rebound and water.

< H
 ighly wear-resistant materials such as gliding plates or brushes to

reduce maintenance time.

< E
 asily accessible lubrication nipples or central lubrication to reduce

wear on joints.
< M
 inimal dimensions of boom for tramming.

< S
 traightforward kinematics with minimal joints for effortless operation.

< C
 hoose manipulator with correct working range for tunnel profile to

avoid spraying at the limit of the boom, which has negative effects on
the spraying angle thus quality.
< G
 ood lighting as visibility is generally quite limited during spraying;

202
< L
 ight but sturdy remote control including main functions with high
quality cable or radio link.

Chassis Product Benefit

Tracked MEYCO Oruga Independent
hydrostatic drives
enabling the
vehicle to spin
around on its axis

Articulated MEYCO Cobra Extremely

compact and
strong chassis
for tight mining
tunnels

4WD/4WS MEYCO Poca/Potenza 4-wheel-drive

including crab
steering and self-
blocking front axle
for difficult ground
conditions

Truck based MEYCO Roadrunner Roadworthy truck

to travel from site
to site with quick
set-up

Rail bound MEYCO Rama Individual layouts

based on standard
components

Figure 8-12: MEYCO Remote controlled manipulators

203
8.3.2.1. Basic spraying booms

As crane booms were already used on jobsites, it was obvious to

use them for the application of sprayed concrete. Crane booms are
designed for vertical loads only and are therefore not ideal for spraying
concrete. As sprayed concrete must not only be applied to the crown
of the profile, lateral loads from the spraying jet and sprayed concrete
hoses result in an unstable boom while spraying sideways. Additionally,
crane booms are not normally designed to handle rebound and con-
tinuous operation such as moving backwards and forwards over a long
period, which results in high wear costs.

8.3.2.2. Spraying booms

The first true spraying booms were introduced to the market at the
beginning of the 1980s. Equipment manufacturers around the globe
came up with various designs of spraying booms, some based on
converted concrete-placing booms, others with some kind of spraying
lance installed on drill booms. In 1983, MEYCO Equipment introduced
MEYCO Robojet to the market as one of the first specially designed
sprayed concrete booms.

Figure 8-13: MEYCO Robojet

204
Today, most designs consist of a main boom with attached spraying
lance to facilitate spraying parallel to the surface. Additionally, an auto-
matic parallel adjustment of the lance is available on most booms to
reduce the manipulations necessary during spraying while moving up
and down the profile.

Since space is limited in most tunneling projects, there is no space

to extend the spraying boom sideways after tramming to the applica-
tion area. Equipment manufacturers came up with special manipulator
designs which can be extended out of their transport position on top of
the chassis into the working position without turning. Manipulators such
as the MEYCO Compacta and Maxima can be parked on top of the car-
rier without the need for extra space outside of the carrier.

Figure 8-14: MEYCO Compacta

For very narrow tunnels, such as those found in mines, hydropower pro-
jects and escape tunnels, it is sometimes necessary to spray side drifts
or safety bays while standing in the main drive. Booms constructed
according to the rollover principle, such as the MEYCO Minima, have
proved to be a good option.

205
 Figure 8-15: MEYCO Minima

When the overall dimensions are limited, booms with several extensions
driven by hydraulic tandem cylinders are a good solution. The very
versatile MEYCO Rama spraying boom can be mounted on almost any
suitable carrier, shaft installation or TBM.

Figure 8-16: MEYCO Rama

206
8.3.2.3. Computer-assisted booms

With new tunneling methods and technological advances in recent years,

spraying of bigger tunnel profiles has become possible. Computer-
assisted booms for extreme working ranges have been offered to the
market. Instead of using a heavy manipulator with many joints to reach
extreme spraying positions, computer controls allow smooth spraying
parallel to the surface without having a spraying lance. Only having
three main fields of movement, guided using an ergonomically designed
remote control, the MEYCO Maxima is very simple to use and the ‘learn-
ing curve’ is short. An extreme spraying reach, together with automatic
movement speed, makes the placement of an even layer of sprayed
concrete in big tunneling projects very efficient.

Figure 8-17: MEYCO Maxima

8.3.2.4. Computer-controlled booms

With the change from dry to wet spraying at the beginning of the 1980s
and the accompanying need for spraying booms to handle the weight
of the nozzle and hoses, the industry sought more and more automa-
tion of spraying equipment to cope with the demands for defined and/or
guaranteed layer thickness and to reduce the number of underground
personnel exposed to the spraying process.

The automation of spraying equipment had the objective of eliminating,

or at least reducing, the actual challenges of manual application at that
time, such as:

207
 < K
 eeping the stand-off distance between the nozzle and application
surface constant.
< Keeping the correct spraying angle even with uneven profiles.
< Leading the nozzle with a constant speed over the wall.
< Guaranteeing 100 % coverage of the application area.

All this was needed alongside continuous operation 24/7 and the appli-
cation of high volumes in changing geometries.

Figure 8-18: Difficulties with manual application due to uneven surface

The need for the industry to move towards robotic equipment led to the
development of MEYCO Logica technology. This technology is based
on the well-known kinematic principles of the MEYCO Robojet boom
and has been developed in cooperation with the tunneling industry and
academia.

8.3.2.4.1. MEYCO Logica Technology

MEYCO Logica robots are electro-hydraulically driven spraying robots

which are used for the application of wet-mix sprayed concrete, passive
fire protection and sprayable membranes. Their eight degrees of free-
dom enable the operator to use the manipulator in various modes, from

208
purely manual to semi-automatic and fully automatic, within selected
underground areas. The fully automatic mode can be vital where condi-
tions are extremely dangerous.

Prior to application, a laser scanner sensor measures the heading

geometry and this information is used to automatically control the spray-
ing distance, speed and angle of the spraying jet to the surface. The
calculation of the kinematics is performed by the control system in con-
junction with a user-friendly operator interface.

Figure 8-19: MEYCO Potenza Logica

Today’s demand for accurate layer thickness can be easily achieved

with MEYCO Logica technology, be it for a minimum of sprayed con-
crete for rock support or for a very accurate thickness as required in the
application of fire protection materials.

The aim of this system is not primarily to automate the whole job of
spraying, but to simplify the task and enable the operator to use the
robot as an intelligent tool, working in an efficient way to achieve a high
level of quality. With the correct angle of application and a constant
spraying distance, a remarkable reduction in rebound and therefore
cost savings can be achieved.

209
 Operator panel and onboard visualization

An intuitive graphical operator level touch screen (GUI) provides visual

information on the measured tunnel data prior to the application and
records any failure of the machine. It also allows the entering of param-
eters such as spraying distance and speed of the nozzle and concrete
pump parameters.

If the measurement of the profile is repeated after the application, the

layer thickness achieved will be displayed on the built-in screen in false
colors, which allows an immediate visual control and, if required, subse-
quent respraying. All measured data will be stored on the machine and
can be easily transferred by USB flash drive or WLAN to the site office
for further processing and/or quality control.

Smart planner and filling function

Depending on the application, it is vital for material support to spray

bottom-up or, if this is not necessary, to spray the complete profile in one
go. An integrated Smart Planner helps to speed up the spraying process
while maintaining a constant quality on the surface; at the operator’s
command the computer can interrupt the flow of concrete and air and
proceed independently to the next start position.

A selectable automatic equalization of over and under breaks is possible

through the computer reviewing the scanned surface for such incon-
sistencies and adjusting the speed of the nozzle appropriately in these
areas during the spraying process.

210
 Figure 8-20: Graphic user interface of MEYCO Logica

Simulation

Training new operators can be done without risk by means of a fully

functional 3D simulation of the complete MEYCO Logica system, using
the original radio remote control and operator panel, and in the profile
dimensions of the tunnel where the application will take place.

Advantages of the MEYCO Logica system

< C
 ost savings: reduction of time, labor, rebound material and operator
training, and through using only one machine for measuring the tun-
nel profile and spraying.
< Increased output: due to automation, continuously high output, inde-
pendent of the operator’s skill, rock surface conditions and visibility.

211
 < Improved working conditions: with the simplified and ergonomic
remote control, the operator focuses more on visual quality control
of the spraying than on manipulator movements, due to the computer
assisted system.
< Increased and constant quality: the nozzle is automatically kept at
the correct distance and angle, even in bad visibility areas, resulting
in better compaction and less rebound.

8.3.3. Other equipment and systems

8.3.3.1. Ring beam installations such as for TBM

Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) vary greatly in their individual construc-

tion, depending on the geological structure of the ground and therefore
the type of machine. This in turn influences the design of the spraying
installation. Space is at a premium and the logistics are difficult, mean-
ing that a manipulator must have the greatest possible range of move-
ment, without, however, cluttering up the already crowded back-up rig.

Ring construction type manipulators on the circumference of the TBM

and centrally placed lance units are well known set-ups. These units are
always tailormade, but contain all the basic principles and components
to enable movement, dexterity and ease of handling for the nozzleman.
Due to the distance between the wet spraying machine and the nozzle
on the manipulator (it can be more than 150 m), a wet spraying machine
with higher pressure is often used, such as the MEYCO Suprema with
an output of 22 m3/h at 75 bars of concrete pressure.

A large ring would be similar to the equipment used in the Lötschberg

Project in Steg and Raron (AlpTransit, Switzerland), where double lances
run on rings and sprayed concrete is supplied by tailormade MEYCO
Suprema twin pumps installed at a considerable distance from the
spraying location.

212
 Figure 8-21: Installation on a tunnel boring machine (TBM)

8.3.3.2. Shaft-sinking installations

The mounting of shaft manipulators has a lot in common with ring con-
structions made for TBM manipulators. The big difference is the angle
and direction in which the carrier vehicle, in this case a stage, is either
lowered or raised within a vertical borehole. As in the case of TBM ring
constructions, the manipulator must be an integral part of a coordinated
sprayed concrete system. Depending on the diameter of the hole, a cen-
trally mounted lance or a ring running around the stage would be used.

213
 Figure 8-22: Shaft-sinking installation

8.3.4. Benefits of mechanized spraying

Benefits resulting from mechanized spraying include:

< S
 hortened work cycles due to higher output rates.

< E
 limination of time-consuming installation and removal of scaffold-

ing, particularly in tunnels with variable profiles.

214
 < C
 ost savings through rebound reduction leading to less material
wastage and cleaning time.
< Improved accuracy of the finished sprayed concrete surface topology,
through use of manipulators designed for easier spraying operation.
< B etter working conditions for the nozzleman and team due to protec-

tive distance from collapses, rebound, and dust.

< S praying less labor intensive due to integrated systems and opera-

tional control through remote control.

8.4. Compressed air requirements

A minimal amount of compressed air is required to achieve good com-

paction of the sprayed material on the surface. Dry spraying needs more
air than wet spraying due to the additional air required to convey/trans-
port the material from the dry spraying machine to the nozzle. Rotary
vane and screw compressors are the most common compressor types
in use on jobsites around the world.

When selecting a compressor for spraying concrete, the following

important criteria should be considered:
< V
 olume and air pressure according to application and installation

altitude.
< F
 ilter system at air intake (cyclone and fine filter).

< O
 il absorber or oil free compressor type.

< C
 ooling capacity for compressor oil and compressed air (capacity

might be reduced at high altitudes).

< An air vessel is not normally required.

As compressors normally run in dusty and harsh environments, daily main-

tenance is a good investment to keep the whole spraying process going.

Air volume and pressure are important for high quality sprayed concrete.
It should be ensured that the diameter of the air hose is big enough, so
pressure loss in the line is reduced to an acceptable level.

8.4.1. Air requirements for dry spraying

For dry spraying, the consumption of compressed air depends mainly

on the diameter of the conveying line, the length of the line, the maxi-

215
 mum grain size and the vertical elevation, as well as on the moisture
contained in the mix. If the dry-mix sprayed concrete machine is driven
by a compressed air motor, air consumption will increase by about 5
m3/min.

m3 / min m3 / min
13 30

11 25 Ø 90
Ø 80
9 9 Ø 65
Ø 50
7 7
Ø 50
5 5
Ø 40
3 3
Ø 32
Ø 25
1 1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Hose length in m Hose length in m

Figure 8-23: Air requirements for dry spraying with MEYCO Piccola (left)
and MEYCO GM (right)

As a rule of thumb, the air requirements for dry spraying can be calcu-
lated as follows:
< Air consumption: nominal output of compressor.

< Pressure: 0.4–0.6 MPa (4-6 bar).

< Standard altitude of installation above sea level: 500 m.

< F or sites higher than 500 m above sea level, add 3 % to air volume for

the first 1000 m. For every successive 1000 m add 5 % to air volume.
< Volume weight of the conveyed mix: 1.8 t/m3

< Humidity of the conveyed mix: 5 %

< Horizontal conveying line.

8.4.2. Air requirements for wet spraying

To accelerate the wet sprayed concrete stream in the nozzle to approx.

30 to 50 m/s, the required volume of compressed air is approx. 11 m3/
min with a pressure of 0.6 to 0.7 MPa (6 to 7 bar). To achieve good com-
paction of the sprayed concrete on the substrate, the volume of com-
pressed air is more important than the pressure level. Spraying mobiles

216
 such as the MEYCO Potenza are equipped with a compressor that has
a nominal output of 11.5 m3/min at a pressure of 0.6 MPa.

Air requirements for wet spraying

14.0
13.0
Air volume [m3/min]

12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Pump output [m3/min]

Figure 8-24: Air requirements for wet spraying (based on author’s prac-
tical experience)

Air volume [m 3/min] Pressure [MPa (bar)]

Dry-mix method 2-25 0.4-0.6 (4-6)
Wet-mix method 8-11 0.6-0.7 (6-7)

Table 8-2: Air volumes and pressures for dry and wet spraying

8.5. Dosing equipment and systems

For high quality sprayed concrete, it is vitally important to use a very

accurate, pulsation-free dosing system. Dosing must be uniform in rela-
tion to the cement content and remain so despite changing conditions
of pumping volume, pressures etc.

217
8.5.1. Dosing equipment for wet-mix spraying

For wet-mix spraying, it is especially important to use a very accurate,

pulsation-free dosing system which is fully integrated into the concrete
pumping cycle, whenever possible. An independent pump cannot pos-
sibly cope with the demand for an exact distribution of accelerator,
and its use would inevitably result in loss of quality and waste. Dosing
must be uniform in relation to accelerator weight and remain so despite
changing conditions of pumping volume, pressures etc

MEYCO Dosa

The MEYCO Dosa TDC (Total Dosing Control) system fulfils these
demands and, in addition, it provides the possibility of fine-tuning the
dosage according to prevailing conditions (see also Chapter 8.1, MEYCO
Suprema).

The dosing parameters such as dosing quantity, type of accelerator

and concrete amount are entered to the control system by using the
keyboard on the display. The screw pump then feeds a constant volume
of accelerator into the flow of compressed air blown into the nozzle. The
control system (PLC) regulates the volume of accelerator by changing
the speed and with it the output of the dosing pump according to the
set dosage using the feedback from the flow meter which measures
the volume of accelerator continuously in a closed loop. This system is
linked to the concrete output, and controls the set ratio of accelerator
and cement content automatically.

8.5.2. Dosing equipment for dry-mix spraying

Dry spraying normally requires a dosing system that delivers a constant

amount of accelerator to the water flow fed into the spray nozzle. The
ratio of accelerator to the weight of cement must be constant, inde-
pendent of a varying water flow to the nozzle.

Key criteria to select a dry spraying dosing system are:

< Dry running protection.

218
 < O
 verpressure switch for safety and as a remote control to stop the
pump during application.
< S
 ystem separator to prevent dangerous reverse pumping of accelera-

tor into the fresh water supply system.

< D
 isplay for amount of accelerator supplied (l/min).

< F
 ree access to the most important parts for service works.

< E
 asy operation and low maintenance.

Due to their easy handling and dry running capabilities, hose pumps (syno-
nym: peristaltic or Bredel) are commonly used for dry-mix spraying.

8.5.3. Dosing accuracy

The accuracy of the accelerator dosing system plays an important

role when it comes to sprayed concrete quality and the overall cost of
a sprayed concrete application. An under-dosage of accelerator may
delay the reaction of the sprayed concrete while an over-dosage harms
final strength development and generates extra spending on accelera-
tors. The following example demonstrates the financial loss resulting
from an inaccurate dosing system.

With a target accelerator dosage of 5 % and a cement content of 400 kg

per cubic meter of sprayed concrete, 20 kg of accelerator are required
per cubic meter of sprayed concrete. With a dosing error of +10 % the
over-dosage results in 2 kg of accelerator. Taking the cost of accelera-
tor of approx. EUR 1 per kg into account, the extra cost would be EUR
2 per m3 of sprayed concrete. In an average project with a volume of
approx. 100,000 m3 of sprayed concrete, additional spending on accel-
erators would be EUR 200,000.

Inaccurate accelerator dosing has clear commercial and safety implica-

tions. Under-dosing delays strength development, which might cause
sections of freshly applied sprayed concrete to fall out of the crown,
with associated safety risks, and would also slow down the whole tun-
nel advance. Over-dosing might influence final strength development,
and would require extra input into logistics and financial outlay on
accelerator purchase.

219
 Dosing systems such as the MEYCO Dosa system have proved to
delivery accelerator to an accuracy of 5 % or better.

8.6. Conveying systems and spraying nozzles

Conveying and nozzle systems are an important element of spraying

equipment. They make an essential contribution to providing lower
rebound and improved bonding, compaction and safety through the
proper mixing of accelerators and air/water in the wet-mix spraying
or dry-mix spraying method. Large diameter hoses and pipes help
to reduce back pressure and the risk of blockages. In the event of a
blockage in the nozzle, suitable systems for pressure release should
be used.

MEYCO Equipment sprayed concrete pumps and nozzle systems have

built-in safety elements such as pressure release (blow-off) of the
nozzle and automatic reverse pumping in the event of a blockage or
overpressure in the system.

Figure 8-25: MEYCO Nozzle System

Only with the correct conveying and nozzle systems, adapted to the
type of application (wet-mix/dry-mix method, mechanized/hand appli-
cation) and the accelerator used, can low wear and outstanding quality
of the in-situ sprayed concrete be obtained.

220
 From a safety point of view, it is important that wet-mix spraying hoses
and couplings are of the highest quality. They should be high-pressure
tested and certified.

Figure 8-26: Nozzle system (100 to 80 mm) for mechanized application

8.7. Data logging and testing equipment

Today, contractors increasingly demand a full record of the works

executed. This is required to monitor the ongoing works, for reporting
to site management and to have a record of the works if it comes to
quality issues later on.

Starting in 2002, equipment manufacturers began to offer such sys-

tems for wet sprayed concrete machines and some contractors use
them today on a daily basis. Since time and manpower is limited dur-
ing tunneling, such systems have to collect the required data reliably
and independently, without disturbing the process. Immediate results,
such as total volume of sprayed concrete and accelerator pumped,
operating time and a summary of incidents, should be available at the
machine after finishing the spraying job. A more detailed analysis of the

221
 data, including generation of reports and data storage, can be made
in the office later on.
To measure the strength development of fresh concrete, several sys-
tems have been developed and offered to the market. Two of the most
common measurement instruments to gauge early strength will be
described in this section.

8.7.1. MEYCO Data

The MEYCO Data system enables data exchange by means of a data

logger in the electrical control box (e.g. of a MEYCO Suprema). The
operational parameters of the machine will not only appear on the dis-
play, but can be easily transferred onto a PC by using a USB memory
stick. The evaluation macro, which is included in the delivery package,
allows the analysis and presentation of recorded data in various for-
mats. Recorded operational information can include:
< Date, time and machine number.

< Cement content and accelerator percentage.

< Operating and pumping time.

< Volume of concrete and accelerator.

< Type of accelerator and density.

< Concrete temperature (optional).

< Indication of working shift and tunnel sections in meters (from/to).

Along with the above mentioned, 16 different equipment faults and

incidents together with associated details, such as time and date, are
automatically recorded, for example:
< Oil pressure too high.

< Oil level too low.

< Required dosing amount not reached.

< Emergency stop has been activated.

< Dry running of dosing pump etc.

222
 Figure 8-27: MEYCO Data

Thus, a comprehensive machine operation history can be established.

This will enable site management to analyze the spraying operation
very accurately over a defined period of time and it provides an invalu-
able tool that can lead to advances in cost management, quality con-
trol, shift performance comparison and even safety matters.

8.7.2. Testing equipment

The early strength of sprayed concrete cannot be measured with a test

specimen, since cubes or other test shapes cannot be sprayed prop-
erly. The rough tunnel environment requires robust measuring methods
that are easy to use, fast and can be used everywhere in the tunnel.

Measuring methods and testing equipments have been developed to

measure the early strength development of fresh sprayed concrete.
Three accepted methods are described below.

223
 Penetration needle method

The penetration needle method allows measurement of the early

strength of sprayed concrete up to 1.0 MPa. It is an indirect test
method, using a needle of defined dimensions which is pushed with a
defined force to a defined depth into the fresh sprayed concrete. The
resistance measured is an indication of the compressive strength of the
sprayed concrete.

To be precise, this method measures a combination of compressive

and shear strengths, or the resistance to local plastic deformations.
The aggregates contained in the sprayed concrete and the support
behavior of the granulometry strongly affect the results.

Figure 8-28: MEYCO penetration needle

Stud driving method

According to the operating instructions provided by Hilti:

The Stud driving method uses powder-actuated threaded studs, which

are driven into the concrete with a defined driving energy. Subsequently
the studs are pulled out from the concrete with measurement of the
pullout force. The stud driving method is applicable beginning from
concrete strength of about 2 N/mm². The relevant test parameter is the
ratio of pullout force to depth of penetration.

Besides the Standard-method (Hilti DX 450-SCT with Green cartridge)

also other procedures with a different measuring range (1 to 8 MPa,

224
17 to 56 MPa) were calibrated. Generally only the Standard-method
should be used, in order to avoid confusion on the job-site.

Both the Penetration needle and the Stud driving method have been
successfully proved on tunnel jobsites all over the world.

For determination of strength beyond 10 N/mm² cores are generally

taken from the sprayed concrete.

In Table 8-3 a summary of the previously described test methods is

provided.

Power
Strength
setting Max.
range Method Cartridge Mix Specification*
DX 450- aggregate
[MPa]
SCT
mixed
dolomitic
Penetration 0–8 limestone EN 14488-2
0.2–1.2 needle - - 0–11 (not ÖVBB 2006
method 0–16 relevant ÖVBB 1999
for this
method)
Stud driving White***, mixed
1–8 method Hilti Special- 1* 0–8/11 dolomitic ÖVBB 1999
DX 450 method limestone
mixed
0–8/11 EN 14488-2
dolomitic
Stud driving Green 0–16 ÖVBB 2006
limestone
2–16 method Hilti Standard- 1*
DX 450-SCT method hard
0–16 aggregate EN 14488-2
(diabase)
Stud driving Yellow mixed
17–56 method Hilti Special- 2* 0–8/11 dolomitic ÖVBB 2006
DX 450-SCT method limestone

*Calibrated for piston guide L140 (corresponds with used equipment

of the Hilti DX 450-SCT, item number 233871); in the exceptional case
of the use of the piston guide L125, different power settings need to be
applied.
**ÖVBB = ÖVBB guideline “Sprayed Concrete” with the corresponding
edition year (all available in English except ÖVBB 2009).
***Former method, generally not used anymore.

225
 Table 8-3: Summary of test methods for measuring the early strength of
sprayed concrete (Source: Hilti Operating Instructions)

Pull-out test

The pull-out test indirectly determines strength development from 2 to

15 MPa. This method measures the force that is needed to pull out a
draw bolt embedded in the sprayed concrete. From this force and the
surface area of the torn-out, truncated cone specimen, it is possible to
calculate the shear tensile strength and, consequently, the compres-
sive strength of the sprayed concrete at the time of testing.

Figure 8-29: MEYCO Kaindl used for pull-out testing

8.8. Trends and new developments

The latest developments in the field of sprayed concrete pumps are the
minimization of pulsation and higher outputs. In addition, tighter inte-

226
 gration of the various systems found on a spraying rig into the control
system has been achieved, including data logging possibilities.

8.8.1. Measurement of layer thickness

Prior to fully automatic application, the MEYCO Logica has to measure

the tunnel profile using a laser scanner. This data can be used for a first
profile control prior to the application of sprayed concrete. If the same
area is scanned after the application of material, the applied layer thick-
ness can be calculated and will appear on the display of the machine.
This data can be used to monitor the current application and for quality
control. To input the acquired profile data referring to the tunnel coordi-
nate system, an external Total Station is required. During the scanning
process, the Total Station, which is linked in to the tunnel coordinate
system, tracks a prism which is mounted on the MEYCO Robojet
Logica boom. With this additional data, the relationship between the
relative profile data and the absolute coordinates of the total station
can be established and the data can be transformed into the tunnel
coordinate system.

Figure 8-30: User interface of MEYCO Logica with layer thickness

227
 Figure 8-31: Prism installed on MEYCO Robojet Logica

8.8.2. Data exchange between underground equipment

Requests from the industry clearly show the need to exchange data
between underground equipment and higher level systems. Data log-
ging systems such as those for wet concrete pumps (see Chapter 8.7.1)
or other machine parameters and information about actual profiles help
to speed up the whole process as the acquisition time is reduced in
general and data collection is reduced to only one piece of equipment,
such as profile data in the case of the MEYCO Logica.

8.8.3. High-pressure water scaling for surface preparation

The quality of the surface preparation prior to the application of the

sprayed concrete plays an important role in achieving good bonding
of the sprayable material to the substrate. After blasting, some loose
rock normally remains in the profile and dust generated by the blast
or traffic in the tunnel will reduce bonding. Several systems are used

228
 to remove the material from the surface, such as compressed air with
water, mechanical scalers and high-pressure water scaling equipment.

A common solution is to use the compressed air already present

together with some water, which is mixed in the spraying nozzle of the
existing spraying equipment. This relatively low-impact spray loosens
most of the light material on the surface and removes any debris while
washing the surface down.

Another possibility is to use a high-pressure water jet generated by

a nozzle which is mounted just next to the sprayed concrete nozzle.
Depending on the water pressure used, the scaling effect is more
efficient and with higher pressure can even lead to further unwanted
excavation.

If the rock strength is very high, hydraulic hammers are used to bring
down any unwanted material. This sometimes dangerous and time-
consuming procedure is often used in deep mining operations.

High-pressure water cleaning system (HPWC)

Preparation of the rock surface by using high-pressure water cleaning

is quite common in Northern Europe. Such HPWC systems deliver 150
l/min at a pressure of 90 bar (approx. 22 kW) and power comes from the
same hydraulic pump normally used for the concrete pump as these
two systems are never in operation at the same time.

Such a HPWC system can be very dangerous and nobody is allowed

to be close to the scaling nozzle during operation. Additional safety
elements such as an overpressure switch and whip checks on every
connection element of the high-pressure system and the nozzle are a
must.

229
 Figure 8-32: MEYCO high pressure water cleaning

High-pressure water scaling system (HPWS)

If more hydraulic power is required to bring down any loose material,

high-pressure water scaling systems with up to 270 l/min at a pressure
of 140 bar (approx. 75 kW) are used underground. While pointing the
jet into a small crack, such powerful systems are able to break out big
blocks of rock which might lead to over-break or serious danger to
operators and equipment.

Another issue could be the volume of water needed to supply the

machine during scaling and also the effort to pump the water out of the
excavation area once the scaling has finished.

230
Figure 8-33: MEYCO high-pressure water scaling

231
9. TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL
The placing of concrete by means of spraying is a unique method with
many unusual applications which require careful attention to detail from
design through to construction. Therefore, the establishment of quality-
control procedures is fundamental to ensure the functionality of the final
product as designed and a satisfactory life expectancy. Different factors
determine the quality of sprayed concrete, i.e. design, materials, appli-
cation equipment, craftsmanship and installation techniques.1

The amount of effort to be expended on quality control usually depends

on the size and character of the application. The planned costs should
be based on the benefits expected to be derived from these efforts.
Besides testing procedures, constant monitoring of every phase of
sprayed con​crete installation should also be included within quality con-
trol. Understanding of and experience in the application of sprayed
concrete are required from whoever is engaged in this task. In addition,
sufficient flexibility is needed to adapt specifications according to spe-
cific local conditions.

9.1. Design and quality control

In a successful sprayed concrete application, proper design is required. It

may be empirical or based on analytical procedures for concrete design.
These procedures support the determination of shape, thickness, rein-
forcement, and mixture proportions. Quality control ensures that the
design parameters and requirements are fulfilled during construction.
However, it will not guarantee that the application will function as designed.

9.2. Materials

The source and quality of all materials used should be approved by

design authorities. Materials suppliers must certify that all materials meet
specifications. Tests should be carried out on a regular basis. Handling
and storage must be in accordance with suppliers’ instructions.

1 See ACI Committee 506, Guide to Shotcrete ACI 506R-05, 2005, Page 35f

232
9.3. Application equipment

All equipment has to be specified and approved by the contractor. All

relevant functions for the application (mechanics, compressors, pumps,
hoses, nozzle, dosing equipment etc.) have to be checked before and
maintained after spraying according to a detailed plan (see also EFNARC
Sprayed Concrete Nozzleman Certification Scheme, 2011 or ACI 506).

9.4. Craftsmanship

High-quality sprayed concrete will only be produced by skilled craftsman-

ship. Hence, the training and education of all underground personnel are
decisive criteria for the achievement of satisfactory results. Procedures for
the evaluation of pre-construction requirements, as well as for the entire
application, and quality control after spraying should be in place. Special
attention must be given to the qualifications of nozzlemans, who need a
comprehensive knowledge of all relevant factors on site (see also EFNARC).

9.5. Inspection

It is recommended to install quality-assurance procedures for all issues

and steps before, during and after the application of sprayed concrete. The
quality-assurance officer (inspector) should be an experienced profession-
al who understands all the requirements of sprayed concrete (construc-
tion, materials, application, quality control etc.), and should be familiar with
plans, specifications and applicable standards of the job. The inspector
should continuously check the work, paying attention to materials, forms,
reinforcement, equipment, placement, finishing, curing and the protection
of the finished product. The inspector is also in charge of all field testing.

9.6. Testing procedures

Testing procedures for all materials (constituents and concrete), their

quality and performance are crucial (ACI 506.2). This applies to all
materials before, during and after spraying. Special attention must be
given to the samples’ preparation, whereas test methods are specified
by individual norms (ASTM C, EN 196, BS 8500).

233
10. SAFETY, HEALTH AND ECOLOGY

10.1. Hazards related to application of sprayed concrete

A sprayed concrete operation may have multiple hazards due to the

operating equipment, high pressure lines (air, water and material) and
the projection of rebound.

In addition to the above mentioned hazards, underground personnel

involved with sprayed concrete application have to be aware of a sub-
stantial risk of rock falls or concrete drop-outs. In addition, high pres-
sures and the high velocity of concrete mass and gravel represent a
high risk during spraying. Safe distances and protective measures (e.g.
wearing safety glasses, dust masks or respirators, long-sleeved shirts
to protect against cement burns) have to be taken.

Cement can cause dry and cracked skin, dermatitis and alkali burns.
Regarding admixtures, caustic accelerators in particular may create
additional hazards. Therefore, all underground personnel should use
proper protective devices, ointments and adequate clothing. Enclosed
areas require special caution.

Underground personnel involved with sprayed concrete application

must always wear PPE (Personnel Protective Equipment) and ensure
adequate ventilation in the application area as sprayed concrete appli-
cation usually creates dust, mist and other airborne contaminations.
Furthermore, protruding steel fibers in the sprayed concrete surface
present a hazard to underground personnel as these can cause punc-
tures of the skin. A thin layer of unreinforced sprayed concrete can help
avoid this hazard.

Special attention has to be given to safety requirements and operation

instructions provided by the equipment manufacturer and material sup-
plier. Heavy and moving equipment as well as high pressure represent
high risks for construction underground personnel. Advanced spraying
equipment (robots) as described previously in Chapter 8 are ideal tools
for mechanized spraying from a safe distance.

234
10.2. Chemical admixtures and complementary products

Admixtures and water-reducing admixtures in particular, as well as com-

plementary products, are generally considered harmless to humans and
to the environment. Due to their moderate corrosivity, we recommend
the use of alkali-free accelerators for any application. For handling and
storage, individual Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and suppliers’
instructions have to be respected.

Since some accelerators are slightly acidic and corrosive to metals,

stainless steel or plastic containers are required. Corrosion of acidic
materials with metals may generate hydrogen gas.

10.3. Working environment

When working with the dry-mix method, operators were exposed to

a lot of dust. Dust emissions were located not only at the nozzle, but
also at the spraying machine. Measurements of fine dust in this work-
ing atmosphere normally gave results of more than three times of the
amount allowed (usually 6 mg/m3 air). Figure 10-1 shows ranges of fine
dust concentrations which were measured 6 m behind the excavation
face during the application of sprayed concrete by means of different
dry-mix methods (DD = dry-mix method with quick cement and oven-
dried aggregates / DM = dry-mix method with quick cement and moist
aggregates) and by the wet-mix method with mostly liquid accelerators
(WA).

With the introduction of the wet-mix method, the change in the working
atmosphere was evident, and the amount of fine dust is now normally
below the maximum allowed value.

235
 35
Common limit value 6 mg/m3
30

Fine dust [mg/m3]

25
20
17
15
10 10

5
3
0
DD ovendry DM moist WA wet

Min.
Mean
Max.

Figure 10-1: Ranges of fine dust concentrations measured 6 m behind

the excavation face during application of sprayed concrete [48]

Over the last two decades the change to wet-mix spraying in combina-
tion with modern mix-design competences, utilizing advanced admix-
tures technologies and alkali-free accelerators, has greatly improved the
underground working environment, including air quality.

Figure 10-2 shows a comparison of dry-mix and wet-mix sprayed con-

crete, with different types of accelerators, based on some examples of
dust measurements carried out in Scandinavia between 1979 and 1998.
The application of the wet mixes in the North Cape Tunnel was carried
out under identical conditions (equipment, operator, tunnel ventilation,
spraying capacity and mix design). Dust measurements from the North
Cape Tunnel in Norway, where high performance wet-mix sprayed con-
crete with the liquid non-caustic alkali-free accelerator MasterRoc® SA
160 was used, show a total dust content of less than 3.7 mg per m3 of
air in the immediate environment of the operator. This value is two times
lower than those of measurements obtained with liquid-modified silicate
accelerators, under the same conditions.

236
 North Cape (1998), MasterRoc
SA 160 liquid AFA, output
approx. 15m3/hour: WET-MIX

North Cape (1998), modified

silicate based accelerator,
output 15 m3/hour: WET-MIX
Project

LilleStrøm, output approx.

8 m3/hour: (ref. T. Myran):
WET-MIX
Stockholm, output approx.
5 m3/hour: (ref. T. Myran):
DRY-MIX

Ulla Førre, output approx.

5 m3/hour: (ref. T. Myran):
DRY-MIX
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Total Dust [mg/m3 of air]

Figure 10-2: Comparison of dry-mix and wet-mix sprayed concrete,

with different types of accelerators, based on some examples of dust
measurements carried out in Scandinavia between 1979 and 1998

Direct comparisons of dust measurements under equal conditions in

the same tunnel are difficult to find. One example has been reported by
M. Testor from the Irlahüll Tunnel in Germany. Dust development was
measured for three application systems:
1. Dry-mix process with oven-dried aggregates mixed with Schwenk
quick cement CEM I 32.5 R / SE, using a Rombold spray-mobile.
2. Dry-mix process with naturally humid aggregate and Heidelberg
Cronolith S quick cement, using a Heidelberg Trixer with a SBS Type
B1 spraying machine.
3. Wet-mix process with Karstadt CEM I 42.5 cement, liquid alkali-free
accelerator MasterRoc® SA 140 and a MEYCO® Roadrunner spray-
mobile.

The corresponding measurements were carried out with an optical fine

dust instrument (TM DATA, Helmut Hund GmbH). The following relative
dust intensities were measured in the immediate environment of the
spraying operator:

237
 Relative dust intensity Spraying Capacity Number of
Spraying System
[mg / m 3 of air] [m 3 / h] Nozzles
1. Dry-mix 12.6 13.5 2
2. Dry-mix 6.6 6.8 1
3. Wet-mix 3.3 15.4 1

Table 10-1: Spraying systems and measured relative dust intensities in

the immediate environment of the spraying operator as reported by M.
Testor, Irlahüll Tunnel in Germany

10.4. Environment

The leaching of admixtures from concrete to the environment is low and

the impact to the environment is negligible. Most admixtures are either
attached to cement or they have undergone a chemical transformation
during the hydration process.

Rebound of the sprayed concrete consists mostly of aggregates.

Negative impacts on the environment do not seem to be relevant. During
wet spraying, no air pollution by admixtures has been observed.

Modern sprayed concrete technologies provide substantial contribu-

tions to environmental protection: less energy, less water and less waste
disposal. The safety instructions (MSDS) provided by suppliers have to
be strictly adhered to.

Various publications dealing with related environmental issues are avail-

able from EFCA (European Federation of Concrete Admixtures):
< Leaching of Admixtures, March 2004.

< T he Impact of Concrete Admixtures on the Environment, presented

to 2004 EWRMCO conference.

< M ass flow and risk analysis of two superplasticizers, paper pre-

sented to BIBM conference 2005.

Waste and spillages have to be recycled or disposed of without affecting

the environment.

238
10.5. Conclusions

Modern sprayed concrete technology contributes substantially to the

safety of the entire working environment.
Chemicals used have been exposed to risk assessment studies.
Concrete technology and awareness of critical factors have improved
during the last two decades. Thanks to advanced admixtures, the work-
ing environment has reached a very satisfactory level. Little rebound (<
10%), almost no dust formation, little or no air pollution during spray-
ing and no leaching of harmful chemicals to the environment are real
achievements. Sophisticated equipment enables underground person-
nel to stay in safe areas away from the tunnel face. Accidents and health
problems can be reduced to a minimum.

Figure 10-3: Modern mechanized application of sprayed concrete with

minimal dust

239
11. PERMANENT SPRAYED
CONCRETE TUNNEL LININGS

Sprayed concrete single shell linings (SSL) have been built since tun-
neling based on NATM was introduced, e.g. for the construction of water
tunnels, caverns and transportation tunnels. The main design issues
were related to the structural interaction between the primary (outer) lin-
ing and secondary (inner) lining, which are usually built at different times
and thus subjected to different stresses and strains, as well as to the
watertightness of the sprayed concrete lining.

The perception of sprayed concrete as a low-quality (not durable) mate-

rial is mainly related to the way it has been typically used. For dec-
ades, the linings of tunnels and other underground structures excavated
by conventional methods (drill and blast, roadheader etc.) have been
designed and built based on the double-shell lining (DSL) approach.
Based on this technique, a temporary (and low-quality) sprayed con-
crete lining is initially built to stabilize the opening after excavation and
to contain short to medium-term loads (primary lining). Later on, a
permanent cast in- situ concrete lining (secondary lining) is installed to
contain long-term loads and meet the requirements of serviceability and
durability. Watertightness is achieved by the installation of a waterproof
sheet membrane between the temporary and permanent linings, and/or
by limiting crack width in the design of the secondary lining.

During the last two decades, significant progress has been made in
concrete technology (mix design), with advanced admixtures (e.g.
water reduction, alkali-free accelerators), as well as in the application
of sprayed concrete, with sophisticated spraying robots, in waterproof-
ing (spray applied membranes) and the passive fire protection of tunnel
linings. Also, numerical design techniques have improved. All these
factors have enabled designers to use sprayed concrete linings increas-
ingly for long-term service life. Designers have started to replace the
traditional double-shell lining system with permanent sprayed concrete
lining (SCL) systems, i.e. a composite shell lining or single shell lining
(see Figure 11-1).

240
 Permanent SC Linings:
Double Shell Lining Innovation Single / Composite Shell Lining

Design change drivers:

• High-quality wet-mix concrete with low w/c
• Modern concrete admixture technology
1 1
• Spray-applied waterproofing membranes
2 • High-quality structural fiber reinforcement 2
3
• Automated robotic application 3
• Higher skilled operatives
• Appropriate design standars, and
• Adequate design approach and techniques

1 Temporary sprayed concrete 1 Permanent sprayed concrete (ev. FRSC)

2 Geotextile & waterproofing sheet membrane 2 Sprayed-applied waterproofing membrane
3 Permanent cast in-situ concrete 3 Permanent sprayed concrete (ev. FRSC)

Figure 11-1: Change in the design of tunnel linings and related key
change drivers

Current state-of-the-art sprayed concrete technology provides the tun-

neling industry with a considerably more economical tunnel lining sys-
tem in the form of permanent composite shell or single shell linings,
eventually fiber reinforced (FRSC), providing a structural lining that is
also durable, watertight and can be surface finished to a degree that is
similar, if not equal, to cast concrete.

Product innovations such as spray-applied waterproofing membranes

(e.g. MasterSeal® 345) have also facilitated the construction of perma-
nent SCL, the so-called composite shell lining (CSL), to comply with
increasing waterproofing requirements. The waterproofing membrane
is sprayed onto the primary sprayed concrete lining and covered by
the secondary lining (sprayed or cast in-situ concrete) later on. Here,
the adhesive properties of the spray-applied waterproofing membrane
on both its sides should provide the composite effect and allow load
transfer from the primary to the secondary lining, permitting design
optimizations.

Because sprayed concrete primary linings have not usually been con-
sidered part of the permanent tunnel lining, specification of primary
linings has often led to the supply of low-quality sprayed concrete.
However, uniform, high-quality sprayed concrete linings can be con-
structed. It is now a matter of proper decision-making and specification
as well as execution control.

241
11.1. General requirements for
permanent sprayed concrete

Figure 11-2 shows the general requirements for permanent sprayed

concrete linings during construction and operation phases. During the
construction phase, the initial requirements for sprayed concrete (just
after excavation) are fast setting (high early-age strength) and high build-
ing performance to provide proper safety to underground personnel
without excessive deformation of the tunnel lining, especially in shallow
tunnels. After that, sprayed concrete should have further long-term
strength gain and maintain safe working conditions.

The requirements placed on sprayed concrete during tunnel operation

are related to serviceability and durability issues. A permanent sprayed
concrete lining should carry all permanent loads (including future loads
and hydrostatic changes) and comply with all durability requirements,
e.g. corrosion protection, watertightness, fire protection etc. Thus, per-
manent sprayed concrete demands high-quality materials, equipment
and construction.

The primary (outer) lining shall fulfill the requirements of structural safety
and guarantee durability (e.g. limit crack width). Additionally, the sec-
ondary (inner) lining shall ensure serviceability.

Figure 11-2: Expected loadings and basic requirements for permanent

sprayed concrete linings over time

242
11.2. Durability issues

As a consequence of the growing use of sprayed concrete as a perma-

nent construction material for tunnel linings, demands on its durability
have increased likewise. A durable sprayed concrete lining is defined
as one that performs acceptably in the working environment for the
duration of its expected service life. The sprayed concrete used should
maintain the integrity of the lining and protect other embedded materi-
als, e.g. reinforcement, without the need for a high degree of expendi-
ture on maintenance.

The detailed design of a permanent sprayed concrete lining, concrete

production and placement, applied curing and post-curing exposure,
as well as the operating environment of the lining and the concrete itself
(since it is a variable material), influence the durability of the lining.

11.2.1. “Buildable” design

With respect to existing concrete tunnel structures, the major durability

problems are not directly related to the concrete itself, but more often
to the corrosion of steel reinforcement elements that have been insuffi-
ciently protected against water ingress or humidity. Tunnels constructed
with permanent sprayed concrete create other durability concerns, par-
ticularly in terms of providing the required material properties, such as
compaction, and with the unknown stability concerns associated with
the necessary amount of admixtures used in modern wet-mix sprayed
concrete application methods.

As summarized in Table 11-1, to address durability requirements, a

holistic approach to the design and construction of durable sprayed
concrete tunnel linings is required. In essence, the sprayed concrete lin-
ing method is heavily reliant on human competence during construction,
and therefore the design should reflect this by considering the “build-
ability” of tunnels using sprayed concrete.

243
 Factors Design Team Construction Team
Human Independent design checking Monitoring, review and
factors Design review during construction implementation during construction
Quality assurance / Quality control Quality assurance / Quality control
Risk assessment Risk assessment
Competence Competence
Supervision
Training
Structural Construction sequences Mix design (incl. accelerator type)
factors Permanent ground reinforcement Application methods
Joint and inter-layer details Equipment choice and performance
Physical and chemical exposure Curing methods
Tunnel design life and purpose Ground improvement
Design parameters and time effects
Mesh reinforcement or fibers
Waterproofing methods
Profile geometry
Material properties

Table 11-1: Factors addressing a holistic approach to the design and

construction of durable sprayed concrete linings

The construction team should be made aware of the design elements

that are key factors in determining the safety and durability of the tunnel
structure. To ensure the quality of the concrete lining is achieved, qual-
ity review systems should be adequate to control the production. It is
of paramount importance that the communication link between design
and construction teams should be maintained from pre-design stage to
project completion so that the above processes are promoted.

11.2.2. Durability and design life

The required design life of permanent sprayed concrete linings, as in

the case of permanent cast in-situ concrete linings, shall be specified in
terms of the predicted loadings and with respect to long-term durability.
Other relevant issues to be considered in relation to design life include
the watertightness of the lining and fire-life safety, because both of these
will influence the design of any permanent lining.

244
11.2.3. Durability and tunnel use

Sprayed concrete linings are usually exposed to many different aggres-

sive environments. Not only the site location (including geological envi-
ronment), but also the use of the underground structure (road/rail tunnel,
entrance zone, cable tunnels etc.) should be considered in the design,
because they influence durability issues.

Table 11-2 summarizes the principal factors that affect the durability of
tunnel linings for normal use in different types of tunnels.

Type of tunnel Major influence on durability (normal use)

Road / rail Chlorides (de-icing salts, saltwater)
Entrance zones of tunnels Freeze / thaw, carbonation
Cable, potable water Watertightness
Storm sewers Abrasion
Foul sewers Acids, sulphates

Table 11-2: Principal factors affecting the durability of tunnel linings,

based on [53]

In addition, emergency situations in road and rail tunnels should be

considered in the design. In this case, fire (see also Chapter 11.2.4.1)
and spillages have a major influence on the durability of the tunnel lining.
Furthermore, sulfates, acids and other contaminants in the groundwater
and the ground strongly influence the durability of tunnel linings.

11.2.3.1. Sulfate resistance of sprayed

concrete with alkali-free accelerators

Sulfate resistance was tested by SINTEF, Norway. The results are sum-
marized in Key:
- none (no sulfate resistance): more than 0.1 % expansion
- moderate sulfate resistance: between 0.05 % and 0.1 % expansion
- high sulfate resistance: less than 0.05 % expansion

Table 11-3, with «high» denoting excellent sulfate resistance.

245
 Cement Type OPC OPC OPC OPC SR
Aggregates: alkali-silica non non slightly
reactive reactive
reactivity reactive reactive reactive
Microsilica 0% 6% 0% 6% 0 % and 6 %
W / C ratio 0.45 0.47 0.52 0.48 0.45 to 0.48
Modified sodium silicate
moderate high none high high
accelerator (5%)
Modified sodium silicate
none high none high high
accelerator (10%)
alkali-free accelerator (5%) high high none high high
alkali-free accelerator
moderate high none high high
(10%)

Key:
- none (no sulfate resistance): more than 0.1 % expansion
- moderate sulfate resistance: between 0.05 % and 0.1 % expansion
- high sulfate resistance: less than 0.05 % expansion

Table 11-3: Sulfate resistance of sprayed concrete (SINTEF, 1999)

The following comments can be made based on these results:

< A
 lkali-free accelerators can be used to produce sulfate-resisting

sprayed concrete up to dosages of 10 %

< A
 lkali-free accelerators perform better than modified sodium silicate

accelerators with OPC cements.

< T
 he use of 6 % microsilica provides comparable sulfate resistance

with OPC as sulfate-resisting cement (SR). This is important as it is

preferable to use OPC rather than SR cement in sprayed concrete
due to faster setting and early strength development.
< T
 he lower the water/cement ratio, the higher the sulfate-resisting

performance. It is recommended to have a w/c ratio below 0.45 and

preferably, with the aid of new superplasticizers, to attain a w/c ratio
of less than 0.4.

11.2.4. Design and specification for durability

The design and specification of permanent sprayed concrete linings

should consider all aspects related to the lining’s behavior under load-
ing and within the environment during its design life. Since all linings can
be affected by fire and will be subjected to some level of corrosion and

246
 attack by both the tunnel’s internal and external environments, pro-
ducing durable sprayed concrete linings depends not only on material
specification, but also on detailing and the design of the lining.

The design of the lining, as well as the national standards for materi-
als where the sprayed concrete is used, should be adapted to satisfy
durability requirements. The best possible design solution should be
provided based on the available practical technology.

Design and detailing of permanent sprayed concrete linings should

consider the following main factors:
< O
 perational environment (cover of the embedded steel).

< M
 aterials (type of cement, type of aggregate, type and dosage of

admixture, cement content, w/c ratio etc.)

< M
 ethod of production and application (wet-mix or dry-mix).

< W
 orkmanship (compaction, finishing, curing etc.)

< Hydro-geological conditions.

< Design life.

< Required performance criteria.

The durability of sprayed concrete linings is mainly affected by the chlo-

ride-induced and carbonation-induced corrosion of embedded metals.
Damage to the lining is also possible through aggressive agents being
part of the contents within the tunnel or in the surrounding ground.
Among other factors, the concentration and type of chemicals in ques-
tion, and the movement of groundwater (static or mobile) influence the
level of damage to the lining material. Exchange reactions may happen
between aggressive fluids and the constituents of the sprayed concrete
lining due to sulfate attack, acid attack and alkali-silica reaction (ASR).

11.2.4.1. Fire Resistance

High profile fires have happened in tunnels, for example the Channel
Tunnel, the Storebælt running tunnel, the Mont Blanc Tunnel, and the
Tauern and Gotthard tunnels, resulting in a significant loss of life in some
cases, especially in the Mont Blanc and Gotthard tunnels. Structural
damage to tunnels involves repair work at elevated costs as well as
extended periods of no operation due to tunnel closure (see Table

247
 11-4), to which one can add the negative effects on tourism, the micro-
economy, the value of the structures etc.

Lost Revenue Repair Costs Total

Tunnel
[Mio. EURO] [Mio. EURO] [Mio. EURO]
Channel Tunnel 204 49 253
Mont Blanc (*) 203 189 392
Tauern Tunnel 20 8.5 28.5
(*) estimated amounts

Table 11-4: Example of economic losses following tunnel fires

Tunnels and other underground structures should be designed to with-

stand the consequences of a fire, in order to guarantee their structural
integrity. Only in very rare cases is fire protection not considered neces-
sary, in low risk tunnels such as those with low traffic volumes in very
stable rock masses. However, many tunnels do require protection, as
the consequences of structural failure can be costly, but may also be
catastrophic, as with immersed tube tunnels and tunnels constructed
in soft, water-laden soils, common to many metro systems worldwide.
A preliminary and basic criterion to be met by any tunnel structure is to
avoid any risk of progressive collapse, i.e. local failure of any element
should not lead to an increased load on other parts of the structure
which may cause their failure.

Fire safety in tunnels applies to both the safety of people and the safety of
the structures. Active fire suppression systems include water sprinklers,
water mists and foam deluge systems, all of which are activated by early
warning sensors in the event of a fire. The theory is to reduce the fire
before it gets out of control. New developments and research programs
have proven the efficiency of those systems in controlling the heat release
rate and fire spread. Nevertheless, active fire suppression systems are
not designed for the protection of structural concrete linings.

Passive fire protection

Passive fire protection of tunnel linings has become an important issue

following a spate of fires in the past few decades in which the struc-

248
tural integrity of the concrete lining was impaired. In order to achieve
high durability requirements for permanent tunnel linings, concrete is
designed to have low permeability, which leads to poor performance
during a fire and a higher probability of spalling. This was evident in
the dramatic Channel Tunnel fire in November 1996, which resulted in
almost complete loss of the concrete section.

Passive fire protection is designed to be installed as a shield to protect

the structure from fire at any time. It is not reliant on any initiation sys-
tem as with active systems. Passive systems do not put the fire out,
but are the last line of defense and maintain the stability of the tunnel
structure.

There are many ways to protect a structure from the negative effects
of heat, however thermal barriers emerge as the most robust and fit-
for-purpose solution to protect against both the mechanism of spalling
and that of strength loss caused by the exposure of concrete structures
to elevated temperatures. The temperature at the interface concrete-
passive fire protection should not exceed 350 °C as this is the critical
point of strength loss for concrete. The temperature of steel bars in the
concrete should not exceed 250 °C for the same reason.

Thermal barriers are designed to be installed, spray applied, cast in situ

or even as prefabricated boards, as a shield to protect the structure from
fire at any time. They typically consist of extremely porous, low-density
concretes and also contain polypropylene fibers; they are not only used
to prevent the spalling of concrete, but also to protect the concrete and
the steel reinforcement from the damaging effect of heat on the resist-
ance of such materials.

Historically, thermal barriers have been vermiculite-cement based prod-

ucts applied by hand spraying with the technology being transferred
to tunnel applications from the petrochemical industry. Vermiculite-
based systems are relatively weak products (compressive strength 2.5
MPa) and may not offer adequate mechanical properties in the light of
increasing client demands for more durable solutions and where cyclic
loading resistance is required.

New studies have permitted the development of an innovative thermal

barrier (MasterRoc FP 1350) that does not contain vermiculite and which

249
 can be installed directly onto the substrate as a fully bonded system,
without the necessity of mechanical fixing, or as a mechanically bonded
system in high risk areas or where surface preparation is not possible,
or as a combination of the two.

MasterRoc FP 1350 is a high-strength (> 15 MPa), spray-applied fire pro-

tection mortar containing natural lightweight aggregates and polypro-
pylene fibers, which is based on standard concrete technology. Unlike
concrete, however, it provides an extremely good thermal insulation
effect that will prevent heat from damaging the structural concrete lining
in the severest of tunnel fires. The normal concrete aggregate has been
replaced by a different natural resource and it contains Ordinary Portland
Cement and admixtures. An alkali-free sprayed concrete accelerator is
used when applying it by spraying (typically wet-mix process).

Thickness of thermal barrier

Fire load

Interface temperature
Steel cover

Figure 11-3: Cross-section of tunnel lining protected by a thermal bar-

rier against fire

This innovative thermal barrier is environmentally friendly both during

application and after installation, as a fire will only cause the evaporation
of water. It is able to sustain dynamic and collision loads and external
hydraulic pressure, and is compatible with all cleaning and maintenance
methods without the need for surface protection. It can be sprayed with
robotic systems providing high production rates, even finish and con-
trolled thickness. It is relatively thin (e.g. 40 mm), depending on design
requirements (fire load curve etc.), and therefore ideal for both new build
tunnels and existing unprotected tunnel linings, where tunnel clearance

250
 is typically always limited. If applied as a fully bonded sprayed thermal
barrier, it ensures continuity of the concrete structure.

The main structural advantage of a fully bonded option is that potential

cracks in the existing structure will propagate to the bonded thermal
barrier and be visible on the inside surface without, however, compro-
mising its fire protection properties. This feature allows easy inspection
of the protected structure that would not be possible with a mechani-
cally fixed solution or a board solution. The resulting time and cost
advantages are impressive.

Figure 11-4: Application of MasterRoc FP 1350 onto a tunnel lining by

MEYCO Logica manipulator

11.3. Cost effectiveness

Permanent sprayed concrete lining systems can offer significant sav-

ings over the conventional double shell lining approach by integrating
the primary (outer) lining fully or partially within the final tunnel lining. The

251
 resulting reduction of the required thickness of the secondary (inner)
lining leads to a lower volume of excavation, less lining material and
reduced construction time.

As reported in [57], cost estimations have shown that constructing

a single-shell lining (SSL) system is up to 20 % lower in cost than a
double-shell lining system. Estimations were made for a tunnel section
of 36 m2 (one-track metro line) and mainly considered the construction
materials.

There is a considerable difference between opting for a sprayed or cast

in-situ concrete secondary lining. The project start-up cost of a steel
shutter for a cast in-situ option is high in comparison with the non-
shuttered option of a secondary lining of permanent sprayed concrete.

Further savings are expected by the use of fiber-reinforced sprayed

concrete (FRSC) and with the increased performance of state-of-the-art
sprayed concrete admixtures and equipment, which reduce the costs of
construction materials and project duration.

11.4. Recent developments

Based on Alun Thomas [56], in some countries, such as the United

Kingdom, SCL has replaced traditional methods as the clear option for
short tunnels, shafts and junctions in ground conditions like London
clay.

The development of SCL in the United Kingdom started with projects

such as Wales’ Dinowric hydroelectric power station and the Channel
Tunnel (1989). The latter used SCL extensively for caverns in chalk. In
1996 and 1997, both the Jubilee Line Extension and Heathrow Express
Rail Link projects built tunnel linings using permanent steel-fiber rein-
forced sprayed concrete instead of conventional in-situ concrete, low-
ering costs and significantly reducing construction time, particularly in
sections with complex geometries.

Clients have also supported further developments with the use of SCL
and permanent steel-fiber reinforced sprayed concrete for the sec-
ondary (inner) lining at the Heathrow Express crossover cavern or the

252
 single shell linings at Terminal 5 of the Heathrow Express project (2002).
SCL has been repeatedly designed into recent projects such as the
Dublin Port Tunnel, Kings Cross, Hindhead Road Tunnel, Thames Water
(Hampton shaft), Victoria Station Update and Crossrail.

Some of the research initiatives in the United Kingdom have led to a

detailed understanding of the behavior of shallow SCL tunnels in soft
ground and the material behavior of sprayed concrete as well as to
improvements in design methods, e.g. numerical modeling. Research
still continues in the area of sprayed membranes as part of composite
shell linings (CSLs), and in the use of steel-fiber reinforced sprayed con-
crete for the secondary lining. The publication of new specifications and
guidance (i.e. Specification of the British Tunnelling Society) has led to
robust, fully engineered designs, with independent checking.

From a global perspective, permanent SCL has been used for differ-
ent purposes, i.e. the construction of escape tunnels, cross passages,
metro stations and tunnels, sub-sea road tunnels and road and railway
tunnels. Permanent SCL design has also been introduced for the pur-
pose of tunnel rehabilitation, mainly in Switzerland.

The use of permanent SCL will continue to increase on tunneling

projects. Its use will develop significantly in regions with continuous
expansion needs, such as big cities in Asia and Latin America.

11.5. Conclusions

To achieve durable sprayed concrete linings, the development of the

concrete mix design is just one facet that needs to be accomplished.
The production of durable sprayed concrete is significantly reliant on
human skills during spraying and equipment that is fit for purpose.

The designer also has a key role to play. The important issues in this
instance are to understand the sprayed concrete application process
and not to over-specify material properties. The key to achieving durabil-
ity is through designing buildable designs by keeping details as simple
as possible.

253
 Wet-mix sprayed concrete applied using modern, high-performance,
environmentally safe admixtures and equipment provides the tunnel
industry with an economical tool to construct permanent, durable sin-
gle-shell linings. The construction process has become highly auto-
mated, thereby significantly reducing the degree of human influence
that has prevented clients from considering sprayed concrete as a
permanent support in the past.

Figure 11-5: Mechanized robotic application of sprayed concrete

Modern sprayed concrete specifications now address the issues of

achieving a quality-controlled modern mix design, providing guidance on
promoting durability and the effective execution of spraying processes.

With the increased use of durable sprayed concrete linings, new tech-
nologies to promote and maintain their use have entered the market
recently. These systems enhance watertightness and provide high-
performance passive fire protection.

Further implementation of durable sprayed concrete for tunnels and

other civil engineering structures is increasing, with a marked change

254
during the mid 1990s. This trend is set to increase further as design and
construction teams become more familiar with modern sprayed con-
crete technology and the durable concrete that can be produced.

255
12. Outlook

The underground industry is constantly evolving by searching for more

economical construction, durability and higher efficiency while improv-
ing the environment and safety for those involved with the projects both
during the construction phase and after their completion. The ongoing
move from temporary to permanent final lining ground support in tun-
nels and mines is one example of a trend that is expected to continue.
It is not only driven by process optimization and cost savings due to
less excavation and higher advancement rates during the construction
period, but also by the industry’s commitment to sustainability. Hence,
tunnels and mines with linings of permanent sprayed concrete conse-
quently result in consumption of lower volumes of cement and natural
aggregates, which leads to a reduction of CO2 emissions. In order for us
human beings to reduce our carbon footprint, measures are put in place
by our governing bodies, either in the form of national, regional or global
regulations. Sprayed concrete is no exception; the utilization of blended
cements are on the increase, as is the demand for advancements in
the admixtures and accelerators used in combination with these, being
able not only to compliment, but also to increase the effects of the new
inclusions.

Underground construction and mining projects are becoming more

complex as we continue to drive tunnels and shafts to deeper depths,
higher elevations, longer lengths and with larger cross sections, in more
sensitive areas and in increasingly challenging ground conditions. The
demand for optimum performance in all aspects increases with these
ever rising challenges. Construction chemicals continue to play a larger
and increasingly important role with advancements in chemical sci-
ence, leading to product technologies that are becoming more efficient,
less harmful to the surroundings and more robust. Along with these
developments, products can be more easily tailored to meet individual
specifications and local cement characteristics.

The importance of education, training and certification of those involved

with tunneling and mining projects is being emphasized by construction
and mining houses creating their own training facilities where the newly
hired as well as long-term employees from all levels of the organiza-
tion undergo training relevant to their duties and responsibilities. Here,

256
sprayed concrete application also forms an important part of the training
centers. Structured training programs are being carried out with both
theoretical and practical parts, including application training according
to international standards, local standards and also project specific
standards. Life size equipment or simulators are used, where future
operators will learn the basics of operation in a controlled environment
without having to worry about delaying the tunneling advance, wasting
costly concrete or worse, causing substandard spraying that will have
to be removed from the tunnel at later stage. Today, trained and certified
people are a requirement and not an option.

Long-term goals of the underground industry are for tunnelers, shaft

constructors and miners to be able to work with the minimum direct
involvement and exposure of people, limiting the risks during the opera-
tions. All parties involved in this industry have formed working groups
and associations to develop solutions to minimize these risks.

Emerging markets such as Asia, Russia, Africa and South America will
bring a new and necessary acceptance of sprayed concrete. It can be
expected that development in these markets will bring new challenges
and requirements, and sprayed concrete will provide the answer to a
certain number of them.

The main aim of the industry over the coming years will be to create
public awareness and consequently, acceptance of the importance of
tunneling and the use of underground space. BASF, with its MasterRoc
solutions, is contributing its share to this development.

257
13. PROJECT REFERENCES

This section contains a selection of various sprayed concrete project

references from across Europe, Asia-Pacific, North America and South
America.

EUROPE

13.1. Toven tunnel, Nordland County, Norway

< C
 ontractor: Hæhre Entreprenør AS
< Construction period: 2010 – 2013

13.1.1. Description

The Rv 78 Holand-Leireosen project is located in the Nordland County,

close to Sandnessjøen. The project consists of two bridges, three kilo-
meters of new road and the Toven Tunnel with a length of 10660 meters.
Contract works include all technical installations. The cross section of the
tunnel is a T-8.5 profile (~ 50 m2). In total, 36’000 m3 of sprayed concrete
will be applied before its completion in October 2013. Due to the high
overburden of 500 meters, problems with tough rock spalling behavior
were expected, which requires significant higher early strength of the
spray applied concrete. Thanks to the new MasterRoc SA 168 alkali-free
accelerator, this can be achieved and thereby improve the safety of the
operators. The high early strength also enables sufficient layer thickness
in only one layer pass with a 6% dosage of the accelerator.

13.1.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 1
 hour: > 1.5 MPa

< 4
 hours: > 4 MPa

< 24 hours: > 21 MPa

< 28 days: > 52 MPa

258
13.1.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 460 kg (CEM II/A-V 42.5 R)
< A
 ggregate (0 – 8 mm): 1524 kg
< M
 icro-silica: 18 kg

< P
 P fibers (50 mm): 5 kg

< S
 uperplasticizer: 5.7 kg

< H
 ydration control: MasterRoc TCC 735: 5 kg

< A
 ccelerator: MasterRoc SA 168: 6 %

< W
 /(C+S) binder ratio: 0.45

< R
 ebound: < 3 %

< S
 lump: 200 mm

13.2. Boliden Mines, Kristineberg & Renström, Sweden

< C
 ontractor: New Boliden

13.2.1. Description

The Boliden mines extract zinc, copper, lead, silver and gold, with a
total of 200’000 m3 of excavation per year. Sprayed concrete is applied
for the transport and production tunnels of the mine. All of the admix-
tures are delivered from the surface down to the mine by a tank on the
sprayed concrete transmixer, and at site are pumped pneumatically to
the sprayed concrete rig.

13.2.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive cube strength specifications:

< 2
 8 days: > 40 MPa

13.2.3. Mix Design

< C
 oncrete Supplier: Dahlgrens Bygg Betong
< C
 ement (OPC): 490 kg
< A
 ggregate: 0 – 8 mm

< S
 uperplasticizer: MasterGlenium 186: 1%

< H
 ydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 0.40 - 0.60 %

< A
 ccelerator: MasterRoc SA 168: 6 - 8%

259
 < S
 teelfibers Beakert: 50 kg
< W
 /C ratio: 0.42
< S
 lump: 200 +/– 25 mm

< A
 pplication thickness: 100 – 150 mm

13.3. NEAT Gotthard Base Tunnel, Lot 151 Erstfeld

& Lot 252 Amsteg, Switzerland

< C
 ontractor: Strabag
< C
 onstruction period: 2001 - 2011

13.3.1. Description

During the construction of the longest railway tunnel in the world, the
use of construction chemicals supplied by BASF has been essential to
ensure efficiency, durability, safety and a sustainable approach to con-
struction. From 2017 onwards, the Gotthard Base Tunnel will shorten
the traveling time between Zurich and Milan by one hour. In addition,
freight trains will be able to travel with twice the load and speed due
to the track’s lesser incline. This means that people and goods will be
able to cross the Alps faster, more safely and in a more environmentally
friendly way. A total of 415’000 m3 of sprayed concrete was used for the
section of the tunnel between Erstfeld and Sedrun.

13.3.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength achieved:

< 6
 mins: 0.4 MPa

< 30 mins: 0.6 MPa

< 4 hours: 3.9 MPa

< 12 hours: 12.1 MPa

< 24 hours: 21.2 MPa

< 7 days: 31.3 MPa

< 28 days: 36.5 MPa

13.3.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement (CEM II/A-LL 32.5 R): 415 kg/m3
< Sand 0/1 mm: 39 %

260
 < Sand 1/4 mm: 28 %
< Aggregate 4/8 mm: 33 %
< Micro-silica: MasterRoc MS 660: 70 kg/m3
< Superplasticizer: MasterRheobuild 3535 SP: 1.2 %
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA 10: 0.5 %
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 6 %
< W/C ratio: 0.44
< Thickness applied: 5 – 20 cm
< Spread table: ~ 60 cm

13.4. Koralmtunnel, Lot 2, Austria

< C
 ontractor: JV STRABAG JÄGER
< C
 onstruction period: 2011 – 2014

13.4.1. Description

The Koralm Railway Tunnel is part of the European Baltic – Adriatic

Railway Corridor. The Tunnel is located south west of Graz and will
connect Graz with Klagenfurt. The tunnel has an overall length of 33
km and consists of two parallel running tunnels with a diameter of
approximately 10 m. The construction is taking place in 3 lots starting
moving from east to west. Lot 2 (“KAT2”) begins with 2 shafts close to
the city of Deutschlandsberg. The first kilometers in each direction are
being done using the drill and blast method. Standard support consists
of lattice girders, mesh reinforced sprayed concrete and rock bolts. For
the central part of the tunnel two hard rock TBMs will be installed. Due to
the special tunnel design with reduced longitudinal drainage elements
(reduction of service costs) a special type of sprayed concrete has to be
used. The potential of calcification and clogging of the drainages must
be limited. This has resulted in a special mix design with low cement
clinker content.

13.4.2. Specifications / strength achievement

SpB 20-25/II/J2/XF3 as per Austrian Guidelines:

Compressive strength specifications:

< 6 mins: > 0.2 MPa

261
 < 1 hour: > 0.6 MPa
< 6
 hours: > 1.8 MPa
< 24 hours: > 5 MPa
< 28 days: > 25 MPa

13.4.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 280 kg (CEM I 52,5 R SP)
< F
 ly Ash: 140 kg (Fluamix C)
< A
 ggregate (0 – 8 mm): 1695 kg

< A
 ir Entrainer: 0.5 kg

< S
 uperplasticizer: 2.5 kg

< H
 ydration Control: 1.5 kg

< A
 ccelerator: MasterRoc SA 186: 7 %

< W
 /(C+S) binder ratio: 0.5

< T
 hickness applied: 15 - 20 cm

< F
 low: 580 mm

13.5. Schwäbisch Gmünd Tunnel, Germany

< C
 ontractor: JV Züblin – Baresel – Hinteregger - Oestu Stettin
< C
 onstruction period: 2008 – 2011

13.5.1. Description

The Schwäbisch Gmünd Tunnel is a bypass road tunnel for the city of
Schwäbisch Gmünd located to the south east of Stuttgart. The tunnel
has two lanes and a parallel emergency and rescue tunnel. The overall
length is 2.2 km. The excavation was done using the drill and blast
method with a support consisting of lattice girders, mesh, sprayed
concrete and rock bolts.

13.5.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 6 mins: > 0.2 MPa

< 1 hour: > 0.6 MPa

< 6
 hours: > 1.8 MPa

< 24 hours: > 5 MPa

262
 < 28 days: > 25 MPa

13.5.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 380 kg (CEM II A-LL 42,5 R)
< A
 ggregate (0 – 8 mm): 1579 kg
< S
 uperplasticizer: 4.7 kg

< A
 ccelerator: MasterRoc SA 183: 7 %

< W
 /(C+S) binder ratio: 0.51

< T
 hickness applied: 15 - 20 cm

< F
 low: 600 mm

13.6. A3 Hindhead Road Tunnel, Surrey, England

< C
 ontractor: Balfour Beatty
< C
 onsultant – Mott MacDonald
< C
 onstruction period: 2008 - 2011

13.6.1. Description

The A3 Hindhead Tunnel, commissioned by the UK Highways Agency, is

a twin bore 1.8 km road tunnel that completes the dual carriageway link
between London and Portsmouth. Each bore has a 7.3 m wide 2 lane
carriageway with 1.2 m verges. The tunnel bores are parallel and linked
at 100 m intervals by cross passages. The tunnels were excavated in
two stages, the crown followed by the bench. The geology consisted
of variable, weakly cemented sandstone with some fault zones. Cover
to tunnel ranged from 30 to 100 m. The design of the tunnels utilized
the single shell approach, with a permanent primary lining of sprayed
concrete, a spray applied waterproof membrane (MasterSeal 345), and
a secondary lining of both cast and sprayed concrete. The sprayed con-
crete was applied robotically using Meyco Potenza Logica machines.
The total volume of sprayed concrete applied (for both primary and
secondary linings) was 90’000 m³.

13.6.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 1 hour: > 1.0 MPa, reduced to 0.8 MPa

263
13.6.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 390 kg (Ketton)
< F
 ly ash: 50 kg
< S
 teel fiber: 30 kg (Dramix)

< M
 icro-silica: EMSAC 500 S: 50 kg

< S
 uperplasticizer: MasterGlenium 5: 2.8 liters

< H
 ydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 2.5 liters

< A
 ccelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 7%

< W
 /C ratio: 0.38

13.7. Croix Rousse Tunnel, Lyon, France

< O
 wner: Grand Lyon, assisted by Egis Tunnel
< D
 esigner: Setec
< C
 onstruction company: VINCI - Spie Batignolles JV

< C
 onstruction period: 2010 – 2014

13.7.1. Description

The project consists of a new 1700 m long gallery, 10 m diameter, and 11

cross passages connected to the existing Croix Rousse tunnel, in order
to improve its safety standards for underground structure. The new
gallery will be dedicated to public transport, bicycles and pedestrians.
The excavation was done by the drill and blast method. The project also
used 2 MEYCO Potenza for the application of the sprayed concrete as
temporary rock support.

13.7.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 7 days: > 17 MPa

< 28 days: > 25 MPa

Compressive strength achieved:

< 7
 days: 25 MPa

< 28 days: 36 MPa

264
13.7.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 380 kg (CEM I – 52.5 PMES Vicat St Egrève)
< Aggregate: 1750 kg (sand 0/4 and crushed aggregates 4/10)
< Fiber: MasterFiber SP 650 (5 kg)
< Superplasticizer: MasterPolyheed 510 (3.8 liters, 0.8%)
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 167 (26 kg, 7%)
< W/C ratio: 0.47
< Slump: 20 cm

13.8. A86 – Balbigny / La Tour de Salvagny Highway,

France

< O
 wner: ASF, assisted by Egis Tunnel
< Designer: Setec
< Contractor:
< Violay Tunnels: VINCI – Eiffage TP JV
< Bussière and Chalosset Tunnels: Razel – Spie Batignolles JV
< Construction period: 2009 – 2012

13.8.1. Description

Declared of public utility on April 17, 2003, the A89 which runs from
Balbigny to the Tour de Salvagny is a highway interconnection about
50 km long. This project is part of the great cross link from the Atlantic
to the Rhone-Alpes region, and includes the excavation of 3 tunnels by
drill and blast method: Violay tunnels: 2 x 3’900 m, Bussière tunnels: 2
x 1’030 m and Chalosset tunnels: 2 s 700 m. The project used BASF’s
MasterRoc SA 167 for the application of the sprayed concrete lining for
its performances.

13.8.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 7 days: > 17 MPa

< 28 days: > 25 MPa

Compressive strength achieved:

< 7
 days: 24 MPa

265
 < 28 days: 35 MPa

13.8.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 410 kg (CEM I – 52.5 PMES Vicat St Egrève and Lafarge Val
d’Azergues)
< Aggregate: 1710 kg (sand 0/4 and crushed aggregates 4/10)
< Superplasticizer: MasterPolyheed 500 (2 liters, 0.5%)
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 167 (28 kg, 7%)
< W/C ratio: 0.50
< Slump: 18 cm

13.9. C–15 Highway, Vilanova y la Geltrú, Manresa,

Catalonia, Spain

< O
 wner: Generalitat de Cataluña
< Contractor: Dragados
< Construction period: 2010 - 2011

13.9.1. Description

The C-15 Highway project is part of the 67 km long Eix Diagonal Project
for the C-25 Highway, which will join some important towns in the
south of the Barcelona province with the north of Catalonia, improv-
ing the freight traffic through Catalonia to France. The project consists
of 3 tunnels: Montgros (2 x 1’600m), Costa Bernarda (2 x 350 m) and
Rocaforadada (2 x 350 m). A total of 30’000 m3 of sprayed concrete was
applied in two or three layers of 10 – 15 cm. A better safety environment
inside the tunnel was create for the personnel than with the traditional
aluminate, and compressive strength much higher than the nominal (fck
= 30.0 MPa) was achieved, thanks to the accelerator MasterRoc SA 167.

13.9.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 24 hours: > 10 MPa

< 3 days: > 22.5 MPa

< Fck: 30 MPa

266
 Compressive strength achieved:
< 2
 4 hours: 13.5 MPa

< 3 days: 27 MPa

< Fck: 38.4 MPa

13.9.3. Mix Design

< C
 oncrete supplier: Hormigones Roca
< Cement (CEM I 42.5 R): 425 kg
< Aggregate (6 - 12 mm): 355 kg
< Sand (0/4 mm): 1155 kg
< Sand (0/2 mm): 270 kg
< Water: 180 liters
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium TC 1394: 1% 4.25 kg (4 liters)
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 167: 6 %
< W/C ratio: 0.42

13.10. High speed railway line from Madrid through Castilla

La Mancha and the region of Valencia and Murcia, Spain

< O
 wner: Spanish government / ADIF
< Contractor: UTE Ontígola (ACCIONA-Obras Subterráneas)
< Construction period: 2008 - 2010

13.10.1. Description

The El Regajal tunnel (2’080 meters long), is part of the new line of the
high speed railway to the east of the country from Madrid. It is a very
important project for the Spanish government. Located in the south
of the Madrid province, this tunnel has been built to pass through an
important ecological area without creating any damage to the environ-
ment. The accelerator MasterRoc SA 167 and nano-silica MasterRoc
MS 685 met the requirements established for the jobsite. A thickness of
more than 20 cm was applied in several parts of the tunnel, and a total
of 40’000 m3 of sprayed concrete was applied.

13.10.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

267
 < 24 hours: > 12 MPa
< 3 days: > 30 MPa
< Fck: 40 MPa

Compressive strength achieved:

< 2
 4 hours: 13 MPa

< 3 days: 35 MPa

< Fck: 45 – 55 MPa

13.10.3. Mix Design

< C
 oncrete supplier: own concrete plant
< Cement (CEM I 52,5 R/SR): 475 kg
< Aggregate (6/12mm): 320 kg
< Sand (0/4 mm): 1025 kg
< Sand (0/2 mm): 350 kg
< Water: 180 liters
< Fiber: MasterFiber 545: 6 kg
< Micro-silica: MasterRoc MS 685: 1,5% 7.1 kg (6.2 liters)
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium TC 1370 SK: 1.2% 5.7 kg (5.5 liters)
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 167: 6 %
< W/C ratio: 0.39

13.11. Galleria Cassia-Monte Mario tunnel, Rome, Italy

< O
 wner: RFI (Rete Ferroviaria Italiana) Rome
< Designer: Italferr Rome
< Construction company: Pacchiosi (Rome)
< Construction period: 2008 - 2011

13.11.1. Description

The project is a refurbishment of the existing Cassia-Monte Mario tun-

nel in order to improve its safety standards. Overburden was an issue
due to housing above the tunnel alignment. The new concrete lining in
the full tunnel profile was achieved with a minimum of 37 cm of sprayed
concrete using the alkali-free accelerator MasterRoc SA 167.

268
13.11.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 24 hours: > 10 MPa

< 48 hours: > 14 MPa

< Fck: 35 MPa

Compressive strength achieved:

< 2
 4 hours: 14.5 MPa

< 48 hours: 26.6 MPa

< Fck: 38.5 MPa

13.11.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 500 kg (42.5R type A-LL)
< Aggregate: 540 kg (crushed sand 0/6)
< Water: 210 liters
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium SKY 624: 4.5 liters
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 167: 40 kg (8% cement content)
< W/C ratio: 0.42
< Slump:

ASIA-PACIFIC

13.12. Downtown Line Stage 1, Contract 905 (DTL1, C905):

Design & Construction of Tunnels between
Promenade Station and Marina Bay, Singapore

< O
 wner: Land Transport Authority, Singapore
< Construction period: 2007 – 2010

13.12.1. Description

C905 was located in the heart of the Singapore Business District adja-
cent to Marina Bay and consisted of 2.1 km of new metro tunnels for
both the Circle and Downtown lines. The sprayed concrete work includ-
ed one 90m and two stacked 30m by 7m diameter tunnels with a total

269
 volume of 2550m3. The tunnels were constructed in traditional heading,
bench and invert with rounds of maximum 1m. Following completion
of the temporary lining, the tunnels were subsequently completed with
permanent precast concrete tunnel segments. Travel times from the
ready mixed concrete plant to site were dependent on traffic conditions.
Through the use of BASF ’s MasterGlenium T 803 and MasterRoc HCA,
the sprayed concrete workability was maintained at suitable levels for
application to be carried out while also ensuring the high compressive
strength requirements were met.

13.12.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 2
 8 days: > 45 MPa

13.12.3. Mix Design

< C
 oncrete Supplier: Pan-United Concrete Pte Ltd
< Cement: OPC – 490 kg
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium T 803 – 900 ml / 100 kg
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 0.45 – 0.65 %
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 6 %
< W/C ratio: 0.4
< Slump: 200 +/– 25 mm
< Application thickness: 100 – 150 mm

13.13. Pirpanjal Rail Tunnel, Jammu & Kashmir, India

< O
 wner: Northern Railway
< Construction period: 2005 – 2011

13.13.1. Description

The Pirpanjal Railway Tunnel is India’s longest and Asia’s second long-
est railway tunnel. The 11 km long “Pir Panjal” tunnel between Banihal
and Qazigund is part of the 340 km long railway project in Jammu and
Kashmir, which will link the Valley with the rest of the country. The dis-
tance between Banihal and Qazigund will be reduced to about 16km
once the tunnel becomes operational. The rail link, declared a National

270
 Project in 2002, will provide an all-weather means of transport in an area
which is snow-bound for a significant part of the year.

13.13.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength achieved:

< 3
 .5 hours: 1 MPa

< 28 days: 36 MPa

< Final average of 40 - 45 MPa

13.13.3. Mix Design

< C
 oncrete Supplier: Site Mix
< Cement: 475 kg Ambuja 53 grade OPC
< Superplasticizer: MasterRheobuild SP1: 1.7% by weight of cement
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 8 %
< W/C ratio: 0.39
< Application thickness: 150 – 160 mm
< Slump: 130 – 140 mm

13.14. Liyang Pumped Storage Hydro Project,

Jiangsu Province, China

< C
 ontractor: Sinohydro Bureau No. 3
< Construction period: 2011 – 2013

13.14.1. Description

This hydro project consists of an underground complex with 1 power

house, 2 water intake tunnels with a diameter of 11m and a length of
800m, and 2 tailrace tunnels with a diameter of 12 m and a length of
1200m. Furthermore, there is a transformer Chamber with 6 turbines
of 250 MW each, with a total capacity of 1500 MW. A total volume of
50’000 m3 of sprayed concrete was applied by a MEYCO Potenza.

13.14.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 2
 4 hours: > 10 MPa

271
 < 7 days: > 26 MPa
< 28 days: > 32 MPa (sprayed panel)

13.14.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 430 kg
< Sand (0 - 5mm): 700 kg
< Aggregate (5 – 10mm): 850 kg
< Superplasticizer: PCE MasterRheoplus 26 R: 1.0%
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 6 – 8% (weight of binder)
< W/C ratio: 0.43
< Slump: 15 – 18 cm (with open time of 2 hours)

13.15. Perilya Mine, NSW, Australia

< O
 wner: Perilya Ltd.

13.15.1. Description

The Broken Hill ore body is «world class», having produced more than
200 million tonnes of ore over the 120 years since mining commenced
in 1885.
The mine produces two products, a zinc concentrate and a lead con-
centrate. Concentrates from Broken Hill are a premium coarse-grained
product, being of low complexity and containing a grade of about 50
per cent zinc in the zinc concentrate and 70 per cent lead in the lead
concentrate.
The Perilya Mine was the first mine in Australia to use MasterGlenium
SKY 8703 in their sprayed concrete mix. They identified superior slump
retention, compressive strength gain and the rheology of the sprayed
concrete to be the main indicators in changing from RHEOBUILD 1000
NT to MasterGlenium SKY 8703.
Perilya have recently commissioned a new batch plant and slick line for
their sprayed concrete operations.

13.15.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength achieved:

< 2
 8 days: 34 MPa

272
13.15.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: ABCL HE: 450 kg
< Aggregate (7 mm): 445 kg
< Cracker Dust: 180 kg
< Sand: 1000 kg
< Water: 200 l
< Fiber: 6 kg
< Plasticizer: MasterPozzolith 370 C: 1680 ml
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium SKY 8703: 4000 ml
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 3000 ml
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 4 – 8 %
< W/C ratio: 0.45
< Slump – slick line: 210 – 250 mm
< Surface mix: 180 – 220 mm

13.16. Olympic Dam Mine, SA, Australia

< O
 wner: BHP Billiton

13.16.1. Description

Olympic Dam is a multi-mineral ore body. It is the world’s fourth larg-

est remaining copper deposit, fifth largest gold deposit and the largest
uranium deposit. It also contains significant quantities of silver. Olympic
Dam is Australia’s largest underground mine, relying on in-cycle sprayed
concrete for rapid development in ground support.

13.16.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength achieved:

< 7
 days: 30 MPa

< 28 days: 40 MPa

13.16.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: ABCL GP: 470 kg
< Aggregate (7 – 10 mm): 314 kg

273
 < Cracker Dust: 530 kg
< Sand: Clinton: 700 kg
< Fiber: 40 kg
< Plasticizer: MasterPozzolith 370 C: 2625 ml
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 1500 ml
< Superplasticizer: MasterRheobuild 1000 NT: 4000 ml
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 167: 4 %
< W/C ratio: 0.45
< Slump: 170 – 200 mm

NORTH AMERICA

13.17. Devil’s Slide Tunnel, San Francisco, USA

< C
 ontractor: Kiewit Construction
< Construction period: 2006 to 2010

13.17.1. Description

After a 20 year interval, the California Department of Transportation

approved the construction of a highway tunnel. They awarded the con-
struction of the Devil’s Slide Tunnel on Highway 1, south of San Francisco,
to Kiewit in early 2006. The twin tunnels were excavated by drill & blast
and by 120-Ton roadheader equipment. Each tunnel is designed to be
1280m long with a cross section of 8.6m high x 9.9m wide. Over 60000
m3 of sprayed concrete and CIP were used on the job. There are 16
cross passages connecting north and southbound tunnels. Sprayed
concrete was applied by 2 MEYCO Potenzas, 2 MEYCO Orugas and 2
MEYCO Supremas that worked around the clock.

13.17.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength achieved:

< 2
 4 hours: 9.7 MPa

< 7 days: 22.1 MPa

< 28 days: 28 MPa

274
 < 7 day first crack flexural strength: 4.83 MPa

13.17.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 446 kg (sources varied, Type II/V)
< Aggregate (3/8): 477 kg (Vulcan)
< Sand: 1230 kg (Hanson)
< Superplasticizer: MasterRheobuild 1000: 2.9 l
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 443 ml
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 6 %
< W/C ratio: 0.40
< Fiber: 5 kg EPC Shogun (later BC-54)
< Slump: 80 mm

13.18. Niagara Tunnel Project, Niagara Falls,

Ontario, Canada

< C
 ontractor: Strabag
< Construction period: 2006 – 2012

13.18.1. Description

The Niagara Tunnel Project is the construction of a new 14.4 m diameter

by 10.4 km long tunnel to carry water from the Niagara River above the
falls to its Sir Adam Beck Generating Complex. When completed, it will
deliver enough additional water to existing turbines at the Beck plants
to produce an additional 1.6 terawatt-hours every year – enough elec-
tricity to more than meet the annual needs of a city about twice the size
of Niagara Falls. The contractor Strabag chose MEYCO equipment to
apply the estimated 150’000 + m3 of sprayed concrete for this project.

13.18.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 3
 0 mins: 0.5 MPa

< 24 hours: 6 MPa

< 28 days: 40 MPa

275
13.18.3. Mix Design

< B
 inder: 20 %
< Micro-silica: 8 %
< ACI aggreagate gradation no. 2: 1’750 kg
< Superplasticizer: PS 1466: 2 – 3 kg
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 3 – 4 kg
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 5 – 7 %
< W/B ratio: 0.40
< Slump: 200 mm+

13.19. No 7 Line Extension, Station Cavern, New York, USA

< C
 ontractor: S3 II (JF Shea, Schiavone and Skanska Joint Venture)
< Construction period: Mid 2008 to the end of 2009

13.19.1. Description

The No. 7 Line Subway Extension includes the excavation of a cavern

that measured approximately 300 m long by 15 m wide by 15 m high.
In addition to the mining of the caverns, 3 shafts (24 m deep) were also
mined. The method of mining was drill and blast. Approximately 32 km
of sprayed concrete was used for this project. The application of the
sprayed concrete was executed with the use of 2 MEYCO Orugas, 2
MEYCO Potenzas, and 3 MEYCO Supremas. The excavation of the
cavern finished ahead of schedule with no major issues with either the
sprayed concrete or its application.

13.19.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength achieved:

< 2
 4 hours: 19 MPa

< 28 days: 41 MPa

< ASTM 1609 Peak Strength: 5 MPa

13.19.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 350 kg (LaFarge Type I/II)

276
 < Silica Fume: 23 kg
< #8 Stone: 465 kg (Tilcon)
< Sand: 812 kg (Roanoke)
< Water: 127 l
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium 7500: 2 kg
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 1.6 kg
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 4 – 8 %
< W/C ratio:
< Slump: 203 mm

13.20. Soudan Mine, Soudan, MN, USA

< C
 ontractor: Engineering and Construction Innovations, Inc.

13.20.1. Description

The Soudan Mine was decommissioned in the 1960’s and has since
been used as a research facility for the University of Minnesota and as a
tourist attraction and park. Early in 2011 a fire occurred at the bottom of
the shaft which destroyed much of the old wood bracing that provided
ground support. The owner decided to “shotcrete” the area where
the fire occurred to provide new support of the ground. The sprayed
concrete was batched on surface using a volumetric mixer. It was then
pumped through a 51mm line down the 700m shaft to the point of place-
ment. To prevent segregation during pumping and the subsequent free
fall of the sprayed concrete down the vertical slick line, two 360 degree
loops were installed in the line to slow the drop. The remoteness of the
project and the difficult working conditions made this a challenging yet
interesting project.

13.20.2. Specifications / strength achievement

< 2
8 day compressive strength specifications: 34 MPa
< High slump (250 mm) required for pumping purposes
< Need to maintain cohesion of the mix during the pumping process
< N
 eed to be able to pump 2100 feet through a 5 cm slick line vertically

down a shaft to the point of placement

< N
 eed to be able to batch and control the mix using a volumetric mixer

due to remote location of the mine

277
13.20.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 398 kg
< Sand: 1123 kg
< V
 iscosity modifier: RHEOMAC SF100: 23 kg, RHEOMAC UW 450:

1.1 liters
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium 7500: 2.1 liters
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 1.1 liters
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 6 %
< W/C ratio: 0.42
< Slump: 250 mm

13.21. Mexico City - Tuxpan Highway, Mexico

< C
 ontractor: ICA and FCC (CONNET)
< Construction period: 2009 – 2012

13.21.1. Description

The construction of this highway is a federal government initiative to

shorten the driving time from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean,
specifically from Mexico City to the port of Tuxpan, Veracruz. This will
help to improve the commercial route from one side to the other of the
country by its narrowest part through Mexico City. The total length of the
highway is about 80 km, there are 5 twin tunnels totaling 7 km, which
were excavated by drill and blast. A total of 60’000 m3 of sprayed con-
crete is being applied.

13.21.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 2
 8 days: 25 MPa

< Slump: 160 mm

13.21.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 340 kg (CPC 30R)
< Aggregate (3/8): 560 kg (basalt)

278
 < Sand: 1020 kg (basalt)
< Fiber: 35 kg (Macaferri, metalic)
< Water reducer: MasterPolyheed 746: 8cc per kg of cement
< H
 ydration control: MasterRoc HCA: 4cc per kg of cement

< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 8 %

< W/C ratio: 0.40

SOUTH AMERICA

13.22. Metro Line A, Buenos Aires, Argentina

< C
 ontractor: Dragados
< Construction period: 2009 - 2011

13.22.1. Description

The government of the city of Buenos Aires extends its metro network
yearly. The extension of Line A was done by the Spanish contractor
Dragados who decided to work with BASF, due to the company’s expe-
rience in Argentina on these types of projects. A total of 60’000 m3 of
sprayed concrete was used for this single shell tunnel lining.

13.22.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 3
 hours: 6 MPa

< 28 days: 25 MPa

13.22.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement type I: 400 kg
< Fine sand: 542 kg
< Crushed sand: 684 kg
< Aggregate (coarse, max 12 mm): 400 kg
< Water: 178 liters
< Plasticizer: MasterGlenium TC 1301: 0.88 kg
< Superplasticizer: 1.6 kg

279
 < Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA 29: 1.8 kg
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 6%
< First layer: 10 – 15 cm
< Final lining: 30 – 100 cm
< Rebound: +/- 10 %
< Slump: > 20 cm

13.23. Metro Line 5, Caracas, Venezuela

< C
 ontractor: Odebrecht
< Construction period: 2009 – 2012

13.23.1. Description

Metro Line 5 involves about 5 km of tunnels, passing directly through

central Caracas. The project will create 6 new stations: Bello Monte,
Las Mercedes, Tamanaco, Chuao, Bello Campo and Parque del Este.
Construction was finished in March 2012. The amount of sprayed con-
crete applied will be more than 1’000’000 m3.

13.23.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 1
 2 hours: > 15 MPa

< 24 hours: > 20 MPa

< 28 days: > 42 MPa

13.23.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 475 kg (CEM II/A-V 42.5 R)
< Micro-silica: 40 kg
< Aggregate (0–10 mm): 1650 kg
< Water reducer: MasterPolyheed 248: 11 cc per kg of cement
< Plasticizer: MasterPozzolith 2237R: 2 cc per kg cement
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 7 %
< W/(C+S) binder ratio: 0.36
< Slump: > 200 mm

280
13.24. Metro Line 4, Santiago, Chile

< C
 ontractors: Vial & Vives, Tecsa, Ferrovial, Besalco, Sacyr
< Construction period: 2004 - 2006

13.24.1. Description

The Metro de Santiago is South America’s most extensive and modern

metro system with 5 lines, 108 stations and 103 kilometres of track: Line
4 has an underground length of 10 km, and was constructed between
2004 and 2006 using the NATM excavation method. The soil was a mix
of sand and gravel. More than 300,000 m3 of sprayed concrete was
applied.

13.24.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 1
 2 hours: > 15 MPa

< 24 hours: > 20 MPa

< 28 days: > 42 MPa

13.24.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 400 kg (CEM II/A-V 42.5 R)
< Aggregate (0–10 mm): 1600 kg
< Viscosity modifier: RHEOMAC SF 100: 30 kg
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium TC 1303: 3.7 – 5.4 kg
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA 29: 2 kg
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 7 %
< W/B ratio: 0.46
< Rebound: < 5 %
< Slump: 150 – 200 mm

13.25. Volcan Mines, Andes mountain range, Peru

< C
 ontractors: Unicon, Robocon

281
13.25.1. Description

Grupo Volcan is the biggest mining company in Peru, exploiting different

minerals such as copper, silver, lead and zinc. Volcan own underground
mines in Cerro Pasco, Yauli, Andaychagua, San Cristobal, Ticlio and
Chungar. Monthly production of sprayed concrete is about 13,000 m3.
The mines are situated in the Andes mountain range, at approximately
4000 meters above sea level.

13.25.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength achieved:

< 2
 4 hours: 8 MPa

< 3 days: 11 MPa

< 7 days: 23 MPa

13.25.3. Mix Design

< C
 ement: 360 kg (CEM II/A-V 42.5 R)
< Lime filler: 40 kg
< Aggregate (0–10 mm): 1590 kg
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium 1300: 4 kg
< Hydration control: MasterRoc HCA 29: 2 kg
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 5 %
< W/(C+S) binder ratio: 0.45
< Thickness applied: > 50 mm
< Rebound: < 5 %
< Slump: 15 – 20 cm

13.26. Amoya Hydroelectric dam, Tolima, Colombia

< O
 wner: Isagen
< Construction period: 2010 – 2012

13.26.1. Description

This large scale power plant is located at the Amoya River in the central
Colombian region of Tolima, and with an annual output of 510 gigawatt
hours it is estimated to become the most profitable hydropower project

282
 in the history of the country. The Amoya River hydropower project is
divided into three main segments: the retaining section is composed
of a dam as well as a sand trap and a gravel trap. The tunnel section
comprises an 8.5 km long intake tunnel and an outlet tunnel of about 2.8
km in length. The third section, the machine room, houses two turbines
with about 40 kilowatts each.

13.26.2. Specifications / strength achievement

Compressive strength specifications:

< 26.5 MPa

Compressive strength achieved:

< 8
 hours: 9 MPa

< 3 days: 15 MPa

< 7 days: 28 MPa

< 28 days: 35 MPa

13.26.3. Mix Design

< C
 oncrete Supplier: own concrete plants
< Cement: 465 kg (OPC)
< Superplasticizer: MasterGlenium C355: 4.42 liters
< Plasticizer: MasterPolyheed 710: 0.4 – 0.8 %
< Accelerator: MasterRoc SA 160: 6 %
< W/C ratio: 0.45
< Slump: 200 +/– 25 mm
< Application thickness: 100 – 150 mm

283
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292
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