CE 102b

THEORY OF STRUCTURES 2

Module 1
DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS:
GEOMETRIC METHODS

MODULE CONTENT

• Deflection Diagrams and the Elastic

Curve
• Elastic-Beam Theory
• The Double Integration Method
• Superposition Method
• Moment-Area Method
• Bending Moment Diagrams by Parts
• Conjugate-Beam Method

Engr. KISSA P. BANAWIS

Assistant Professor II
Lesson 1: DEFLECTION DIAGRAMS AND THE ELASTIC CURVE

Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape when subjected to forces.
If the deformations disappear and the structure regains its original shape when the actions causing
the deformations are removed, the deformations are termed elastic deformations. The
permanent deformations of structures are referred to as inelastic, or plastic, deformations.
In this course, we will focus our attention on linear elastic deformation. Such deformations
vary linearly with applied loads (for instance, if the magnitudes of the loads acting on the structure
are doubled, its deformations are also doubled, and so forth). In order for a structure to respond
linearly to applied loads, it must be composed of linear elastic material, and it must undergo small
deformations. The principle of superposition is valid for such structures.

The methods that have been developed for computing deflections can be broadly classified
into two categories, (1) geometric methods, which is based on a consideration of the geometry of the
deflected shapes of structures, and (2) work-energy methods, which are based on the basic principles
of work and energy. In this module, we will study geometric methods commonly used for
determining the slopes and deflections of statically determinate beams.

Before the slope or displacement of a point on a beam or frame is determined, it is often

helpful to sketch the deflected shape of the structure when it is loaded in order to partially check the
results. This deflection diagram represents the elastic curve or locus of points which defines the
displaced position of the centroid of the cross section along the members. For most problems the
elastic curve can be sketched without much difficulty. When doing so, however, it is necessary to
know the restrictions as to slope or displacement that often occur at a support or a connection. As
shown in the figures below, supports that resist a force, such as a pin, restrict displacement; and
those that resist moment, such as a fixed wall, restrict rotation. Note also that deflection of frame
members that are fixed connected (4) causes the joint to rotate the connected members by the same
amount θ. On the other hand, if a pin connection is used at the joint, the members will each have a
different slope or rotation at the pin, since the pin cannot support a moment (5).

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 2

 If the elastic curve seems difficult to establish, it is suggested that
the moment diagram for the beam or frame be drawn first. By our sign
convention for moments, a positive moment tends to bend a beam or
horizontal member concave upward, Fig. 1.1. Likewise, a negative
moment tends to bend the beam or member concave downward, Fig. 1.2.
Therefore, if the shape of the moment diagram is known, it will be easy
to construct the elastic curve and vice versa. For example, consider the Fig. 1.1
beam in Fig. 1.3 with its associated moment diagram. Due to the pin-
and-roller support, the displacement at A and D must be zero. Within
the region of negative moment, the elastic curve is concave downward;
and within the region of positive moment, the elastic curve is concave
upward. In particular, there must be an inflection point at the point
where the curve changes from concave down to concave up, since this is Fig. 1.2
a point of zero moment. Using these same principles, note how the
elastic curve for the beam in Fig. 1.4 was drawn based on its moment
diagram. In particular, realize that the positive moment reaction from
the wall keeps the initial slope of the beam horizontal.

Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4

Being able to draw the deflection curve also helps engineers in locating the steel needed to
reinforce a concrete beam, column, or wall. Concrete is rather weak in tension, so regions of a
concrete structural member where tensile stresses are developed are reinforced with steel bars,
called reinforcing rods. These rods prevent or control any cracking that may occur within these
regions. Examples of the required placement of reinforcing steel in two beams is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Notice how each member deflects under the load, how the internal moment acts, and the placement
of the steel needed to resist the tensile stress caused by the bending.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 3

 Fig. 1.5

Lesson 2: ELASTIC-BEAM THEORY

In this section we will develop two important

differential equations that relate the internal moment in
a beam to the displacement and slope of its elastic curve.
These equations form the basis for the deflection
methods
presented in this chapter, and for this reason the
assumptions and limitations used in their development
should be fully understood.
To derive these relationships, we will limit the
analysis to the most common case of an initially straight
beam that is elastically deformed by loads applied
perpendicular to the beam’s x axis and lying in the x-v
plane of symmetry for the beam’s cross-sectional area,
Fig. 1.6a. Due to the loading, the deformation of the beam
is caused by both the internal shear force and bending
moment. If the beam has a length that is much greater
than its depth, the greatest deformation will be caused by
bending, and therefore we will direct our attention to its
effects. Deflections caused by shear will be discussed
later in this module.

Fig. 1.6
When the internal moment M deforms the element of the beam, each cross section remains
plane and the angle between them becomes dθ, Fig. 1.6b. The arc dx that represents a portion of the
elastic curve intersects the neutral axis for each cross section. The radius of curvature for this
arc is defined as the distance ρ, which is measured from the center of curvature O’ to dx. Any arc on
the element other than dx is subjected to a normal strain. For example, the strain in arc ds, located
at a position y from the neutral axis, is ε = (ds’ – ds)/ds. However, ds = dx = ρ dθ and ds = (ρ - y) dθ,
and so
(𝜌−𝑦) 𝑑𝜃− 𝜌 𝑑𝜃 1 𝜖
𝜖= 𝜌 𝑑𝜃
or
𝜌
= − 𝑦
If the material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear elastic manner, then Hooke’s law
applies, ε = σ / E. Also, since the flexure formula applies, σ = - My / I. Combining these equations
and substituting into the above equation, we have
Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 4
 1 𝑀
= eq. 1.1
𝜌 𝐸𝐼
Where:
ρ = the radius of curvature at a specific point on the elastic curve (1/ρ is referred to as the
curvature)
M = the internal moment in the beam at the point where ρ is to be determined
E = the material’s modulus of elasticity
I = the beam’s moment of inertia computed about the neutral axis

The product EI in this equation is referred to as the flexural rigidity, and it is always a positive
quantity. Since dx = ρ du, then
𝑀
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 eq. 1.2
𝐸𝐼
If we choose the v axis positive upward, Fig. 2.6a, and if we can express the curvature (1/ ρ)
in terms of x and v, we can then determine the elastic curve for the beam. In most calculus books it
is shown that this curvature relationship is
1 𝑑 2 𝑣/𝑑𝑥 2
= eq. 1.3
𝜌 [1+(𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑥)2 ]3/2

Therefore,
𝑀 𝑑 2 𝑣/𝑑𝑥 2
= eq. 1.4
𝐸𝐼 [1+(𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑥)2 ]3/2

This equation represents a nonlinear second-order differential equation. Its solution, v = f(x),
gives the exact shape of the elastic curve—assuming, of course, that beam deflections occur only due
to bending. Since the slope of the elastic curve for most structures is very small, we will use small
deflection theory and assume dv/dx ≈ 0. Consequently, its square will be negligible compared to
unity and therefore the equation reduces to,
𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝑴
= eq. 1.5
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝑬𝑰

Lesson 3: THE DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

Once M is expressed as a function of position x, then

successive integrations of eq. 1.5 would yield
𝒅𝒗 𝑴
= ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = θ - slope equation
𝒅𝒙 𝑬𝑰
𝑴
v = ∫ (∫ 𝑬𝑰 𝒅𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 - deflection equation

For each integration it is necessary to introduce a

“constant of integration” and then solve for the
Fig. 1.7
constants to obtain a unique solution for a particular
problem.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 5

 Sign Convention. When applying Eq. 1.5, it is
important to use the proper sign for M as established by
the sign convention that was used in the derivation of
this equation, Fig. 1.8a. Furthermore, recall that positive
deflection, v, is upward, and as a result, the positive
slope angle θ will be measured counterclockwise from
the x axis. The reason for this is shown in Fig. 1.8b. Here,
positive increases dx and dv in x and v create an increase
dθ that is counterclockwise. Also, since the slope angle
θ will be very small, its value in radians can be
determined directly from θ ≈ tan θ = dv/dx.

Boundary and Continuity Conditions. The

constants of integration are determined by evaluating
the functions for slope or displacement at a particular
point on the beam where the value of the function is
known. These values are called boundary
Fig. 1.8
conditions. For example, if the beam is supported by a
roller or pin, then it is required that the displacement be
zero at these points. Also, at a fixed support the slope
and displacement are both zero.

If a single x coordinate cannot be used to express the equation for the beam’s slope or the
elastic curve, then continuity conditions must be used to evaluate some of the integration constants.

Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure provides a method for determining the slope and deflection of a
beam (or shaft) using the method of double integration. It should be realized that this method is
suitable only for elastic deflections for which the beam’s slope is very small. Furthermore, the
method considers only deflections due to bending. Additional deflection due to shear generally
represents only a few percent of the bending deflection, and so it is usually neglected in engineering
practice.

Elastic Curve
• Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. Recall that points of zero slope and
zero displacement occur at a fixed support, and zero displacement occurs at pin and
roller supports.
• Establish the x and v coordinate axes. The x axis must be parallel to the undeflected beam and its
origin at the left side of the beam, with a positive direction to the right.
• If several discontinuous loads are present, establish x coordinates that are valid for each region
of the beam between the discontinuities.
• In all cases, the associated positive v axis should be directed upward.

Load or Moment Function

• For each region in which there is an x coordinate, express the internal moment M as a function
of x.
Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 6
 • Always assume that M acts in the positive direction when applying the equation of moment
equilibrium to determine M = f(x).

Slope and Elastic Curve

• Provided EI is constant, apply the moment equation EI 𝑑 2 𝑣/𝑑𝑥 2 = M(x), which requires two
integrations. For each integration it is important to include a constant of integration. The
constants are determined using the boundary conditions for the supports and the continuity
conditions that apply to slope and displacement at points where two functions meet.
• Once the integration constants are determined and substituted back into the slope and deflection
equations, the slope and displacement at specific points on the elastic curve can be determined.
The numerical values obtained can be checked graphically by comparing them with the sketch of
the elastic curve.
• Positive values for slope are counterclockwise and positive displacement is upward.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the equations for the slope and deflection of the beam shown in Fig. 1.9a by the double
integration method. Also, compute the slope at each end and the deflection at the midspan of
the beam. EI is constant.

Fig. 1.9

2. Determine the slope and deflection at point B of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 1.10 by
double-integration method.

Fig. 1.10

3. Each simply supported floor joist shown in the photo is subjected to a uniform design loading
of 6 kN/m, Fig. 1.11. Determine the maximum deflection of the joist. EI is constant.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 7

 6 kN/m

R1 R2
Fig. 1.11

4. The cantilevered beam shown is subjected to a couple moment M0 at its end. Determine the
equation of the elastic curve. EI is constant.

Fig. 1.12

Lesson 4: SUPERPOSITION METHOD

When a beam is subjected to several loads, it is usually convenient to determine

the slope or deflection caused by the combined effect of loads by superimposing
(algebraically adding) the slopes or deflections due to each of the loads acting
individually on the beam. The slope and deflection due to each individual load can be
computed by using either the double-integration method described previously or one
of the other methods discussed in the next lessons. Also, many structural engineering
handbooks contain deflection formulas for beams for various types of loads and
support conditions, which can be used for this purpose.

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 Fig. 1.13 Fig. 1.14

Lesson 5: MOMENT-AREA THEOREMS

Otto Mohr and later stated formally by Charles E. Greene in 1873. These theorems provide a
semi graphical technique for determining the slope and deflection at a specific point on a beam due
to bending. They are particularly advantageous when used to solve problems involving beams
subjected to a series of concentrated loadings or having segments with different moments of inertia.
To develop the theorems, reference is made to the beam in Fig. 1.15a. If we draw the moment
diagram for the beam and then divide it by the flexural rigidity, EI, the “M/EI diagram” shown in
Fig. 1.15b results. By Eq. 1.2,
𝑀
𝑑𝜃 = ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
Thus, it can be seen that the change dθ in the slope of the tangents on either side of the
element dx is equal to the lighter-shaded area under the M/EI diagram. Integrating from point A on
the elastic curve to point B, Fig. 1.15c, we have
𝑩𝑴
𝜽𝑩/𝑨 = ∫𝑨 𝑬𝑰
𝒅𝒙 Eq. 1.6

Theorem 1: The change in slope between any two points on the elastic curve
equals the area of the M / EI diagram between these two points.

The notation θB/A is referred to as the angle of the tangent at B measured with respect to the
tangent at A, Fig. 1.15a. From the proof it should be evident that this angle is measured
counterclockwise from tangent A to tangent B if the area of the M/EI diagram is
positive, Fig. 1.15b. Conversely, if this area is negative, or below the x axis, the angle θB/A
Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 9
is measured clockwise from tangent A to tangent B. Furthermore, from the dimensions of
Eq. 1.6, θB/A is measured in radians.

Fig. 1.15

The second moment-area theorem is based on the relative deviation of tangents to the elastic
curve. Shown in Fig. 1.15d is a greatly exaggerated view of the vertical deviation dt of the tangents
on each side of the differential element dx. This deviation is measured along a vertical line passing
through point A. Since the slope of the elastic curve and its deflection are assumed to be very small,
it is satisfactory to approximate the length of each tangent line by x and the arc ds by dt. Using the
circular-arc formula s = θ r, where r is of length x, we can write dt = x dθ. Using Eq. 1.2, dθ = (M/EI)
dx, the vertical deviation of the tangent at A with respect to the tangent at B can be found by
integration, in which case
𝑩
𝑴
𝒕𝑨/𝑩 = ∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑨 𝑬𝑰

Recall from statics that the centroid of an area is determined from 𝑥̅ ∫dA = ∫ x dA. Since
∫M/EIdx represents an area of the M/EI diagram, we can also write
𝑩
𝑴
̅
𝒕𝑨/𝑩 = 𝒙 ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝑨 𝑬𝑰

Here x is the distance from the vertical axis through A to the centroid of the area between A
and B, Fig. 1.15e.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 10

 Theorem 2: The vertical deviation of the tangent at a point (A) on the elastic
curve with respect to the tangent extended from another point (B) equals the
“moment” of the area under the M/EI diagram between the two points (A and B). This
moment is computed about point A (the point on the elastic curve), where the
deviation tA/B is to be determined.

Provided the moment of a positive M/EI area from A to B is determined, as in Fig. 1.15e, it
indicates that the tangent at point A is above the tangent to the curve extended from point B, Fig.
1.15f. Similarly, negative M/EI areas indicate that the tangent at A is below the tangent extended
from B. Note that in general tA/B is not equal to tB/A, which is shown in Fig. 1.15f. Specifically, the
moment of the area under the M/EI diagram between A and B is determined about point A to find
tA/B, and it is determined about point B to find tB/A.

Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure provides a method that may be used to determine the displacement and
slope at a point on the elastic curve of a beam using the moment-area theorems.

M/EI Diagram
• Determine the support reactions and draw the beam’s M/EI diagram.
• If the beam is loaded with concentrated forces, the M/EI diagram will consist of a series of straight-
line segments, and the areas and their moments required for the moment-area theorems will be
relatively easy to compute.
• If the loading consists of a series of concentrated forces and distributed loads, it may be simpler to
compute the required M/EI areas and their moments by drawing the M/EI diagram in parts, using
the method of superposition. In any case, the M/EI diagram will consist of parabolic or perhaps
higher-order curves, and it is suggested that the table on the inside back cover be used to locate the
area and centroid under each curve.

Elastic Curve
• Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. Recall that points of zero slope occur at fixed
supports and zero displacement occurs at all fixed, pin, and roller supports.
• If it becomes difficult to draw the general shape of the elastic curve, use the moment (or M/EI)
diagram. Realize that when the beam is subjected to a positive moment the beam bends concave up,
whereas negative moment bends the beam concave down. Furthermore, an inflection point or
change in curvature occurs where the moment in the beam (or M/EI) is zero.
• The displacement and slope to be determined should be indicated on the curve. Since the moment-
area theorems apply only between two tangents, attention should be given as to which tangents
should be constructed so that the angles or deviations between them will lead to the solution of the

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 11

problem. In this regard, the tangents at the points of unknown slope and displacement and at the
supports should
be considered, since the beam usually has zero displacement and/or zero slope at the supports.

Moment-Area Theorems
• Apply Theorem 1 to determine the angle between two tangents, and Theorem 2 to determine
vertical deviations between these tangents.
• Realize that Theorem 2 in general will not yield the displacement of a point on the elastic curve.
When applied properly, it will only give the vertical distance or deviation of a tangent at point A on
the elastic curve from the tangent at B.
• After applying either Theorem 1 or Theorem 2, the algebraic sign of the answer can be verified from
the angle or deviation as indicated on the elastic curve.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the slopes and deflections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown by the
moment-area method.

2. Use the moment-area method to determine the slopes at ends A and D and the deflections at point
B and C of the beam shown.

3. Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown by the moment-area method.

4. Use the moment-area method to determine the slope at point A and the deflection at point C of
the beam shown.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 12

Lesson 5: BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS BY PARTS

As shown in the following illustration, application of the moment-area method involves

computation of the areas and moments of areas of various portions of the M/EI diagram. When a
beam is subjected to different types of loads, such as a combination of distributed and concentrated
loads, determination of the properties of the resultant M/EI diagram, due to the combined effect of
all the loads, can become a formidable task. This difficulty can be avoided by constructing the
bending moment diagram in parts - that is, constructing a separate bending moment diagram for
each of the loads. The ordinates of the bending moment diagrams thus obtained are then divided
by EI to obtain the M/EI diagrams. These diagrams usually consist of simple geometric shapes, so
their areas and moments of areas can be easily computed. The requi9red areas and moments of
areas of the resultant M/EI diagram are then obtained by algebraically adding (superimposing) the
corresponding areas and moments of areas, respectively, of the bending moment diagrams for the
individual loads.
The first procedure simply involves applying each of the loads separately on the beam and
constructing the corresponding bending moment diagrams.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 13

 Fig. 1.16
The second procedure for constructing bending moment diagrams by parts consists of
selecting a point on the beam (usually a support point or an end of the beam) at which the beam is
assumed to be fixed, applying each of the loads and support reactions separately on this imaginary
cantilever beam, and constructing the corresponding bending moment diagrams. This procedure is
commonly referred to as constructing the bending moment diagram by cantilever parts.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 14

 Fig. 1.17
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the deflection at point C of the beam shown by the moment-area method.

Lesson 6: CONJUGATE-BEAM METHOD

The conjugate-beam method was developed by H. Müller-Breslau in 1865. Essentially, it

requires the same amount of computation as the moment-area theorems to determine a beam’s
slope or deflection at a specific point. However, this method relies only on the principles of statics,
and hence its application will be more familiar.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 15

 Here the shear V compares with the slope θ, the
moment M compares with the displacement v, and the
external load w compares with the M/EI diagram. To Fig. 1.18
make use of this comparison we will now consider a beam
having the same length as the real beam, but referred to
here as the “conjugate beam,” Fig. 1.18. The conjugate
beam is “loaded” with the M/EI diagram derived from the
load w on the real beam. From the above comparisons, we
can state two theorems related to the conjugate beam,
namely,

Theorem 1: The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the shear at
the corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
Theorem 2: The displacement of a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the
moment at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
Note that, as a rule, neglecting axial force, statically determinate real beams have statically
determinate conjugate beams; and statically indeterminate real beams, as in the last case in Fig. 1.19,
become unstable conjugate beams. Although this occurs, the M/EI loading will provide the
necessary
“equilibrium” to hold the conjugate beam stable.
Table 1

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 16

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 17
 Fig. 1.19

Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure provides a method that may be used to determine the displacement and
slope at a point on the elastic curve of a beam using the conjugate-beam method.

Conjugate Beam
• Draw the conjugate beam for the real beam. This beam has the same length as the real beam and
has corresponding supports as listed in Table 1.
• In general, if the real support allows a slope, the conjugate support must develop a shear; and if
the real support allows a displacement, the conjugate support must develop a moment.
• The conjugate beam is loaded with the real beam’s M/EI diagram. This loading is assumed to be
distributed over the conjugate beam and is directed upward when M/EI is positive and downward
when M/EI is negative. In other words, the loading always acts away from the beam.

Equilibrium
• Using the equations of equilibrium, determine the reactions at the conjugate beam’s supports.
• Section the conjugate beam at the point where the slope θ and displacement Δ of the real beam are
to be determined. At the section show the unknown shear V’ and moment M’ acting in their
positive sense.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 18

• Determine the shear and moment using the equations of equilibrium. V’ and M’ equal θ and Δ,
respectively, for the real beam. In particular, if these values are positive, the slope is
counterclockwise and the displacement is upward.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the slopes and deflections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown by the
conjugate beam method.

2. Determine the slope and deflection at point B of the beam shown by the conjugate beam method.

3. Use the conjugate-beam method to determine the slopes at end s A and D and the deflections at
points B and C of the beam shown.

4. Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown by the conjugate-beam method.

Module 1: Deflection of Beams: Geometric Methods CE 102b - TOS 2 19

5. Determine the slope at point A and the deflection at point C of the beam shown by the conjugate-
beam method.

6. Use the conjugate-beam method to determine the deflection at point C of the beam shown.

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