Foreword

L
iteracy Development in the Early Years: Helping Children Read and Write was pub-
lished in its first edition in 1989. With the publication of this ninth edition, it has
now been in print for 30 years. New features were added to each of the previous
editions, as they are in this new edition. In the ninth edition, material dealing with
what was research-based best practice 30 years ago was retained, and other material
was updated based on current research, policy, and practice. This book was one of the
first on the topic of early literacy and has prevailed as one of the most utilized texts of
its kind in the country.
The first edition of Literacy Development in the Early Years appeared when research
on emergent literacy was just beginning to be implemented. We once thought that
children learned to speak and listen during their early years and later learned to read
and write at 6 and 7 years of age. We also believed that early childhood was a time to
learn to read and the elementary grades were a time to read to learn. We now know
that children begin to develop early forms of language and literacy ability concur-
rently and from the day they are born. We now know that learning to read and read-
ing to learn go hand in hand. We have discovered that excellent strategies are good
for all children at all ages. Excellent literacy instruction is created in literacy-rich
­environments in social contexts through immersion in literacy experiences, explicit
­instruction, practice, and modeling by teachers—all with constructive feedback. Les-
ley Mandel Morrow based her book on her own research as well as that of others and
her practical experience as a classroom teacher, reading specialist, researcher, mother,
and now grandmother. She took a look at historical theories and philosophies about
how children learn. As time passed and policy changes in teaching reading were leg-
islated, Morrow took these developments into account and shared this very important
information. With these new laws came new challenges, especially in the area of test-
ing. There is a great deal about assessment in this edition so that teachers can assess
children’s needs by doing a case study with all materials in this new volume.
English learners (ELs) make up a large portion of our school population. ­Morrow
has added more material to the chapter covering diversity and has incorporated the
label, Teaching English Learners, to call out specific activities throughout the book that
work particularly well with children who are English learners. Morrow demonstrates
the value of involving children in many types of language and literacy experiences.
She provides insightful examples of children’s approximations of writing and reading
as she establishes the necessity of giving them unlimited opportunities to practice.
Further, she illustrates the ways in which adults provide models, explicit instruction,
and feedback for young learners as they attempt to read and write. Morrow takes
a comprehensive perspective toward literacy instruction by selecting the best tech-
niques based on sound learning theories, such as a constructivist model with a prob-
lem-solving approach to more explicit instruction.
Children’s literature plays an important role in Lesley’s literacy environment.
Literature serves as a model for language learning and provides strong motivation
for learning to read and write. It is a springboard for many literacy-related activities.
Most important, literature is a way of knowing. It is shaped around story whether it
is narrative or expository—a primary act of human minds. She is also aware that in
early literacy development, materials designed for instructional purposes are neces-
sary for skill development and to attain national, state, and local standards for literacy
learning.

x
 Foreword xi

Dr. Morrow recognizes the importance of parents, siblings, grandparents, and

other caregivers reading to children and enjoying books together. She shows how
reading to babies influences their grasp of language and story patterns that serve
them well as they learn to read and write. She illustrates how children learn concepts
about print, book handling, and conventions of stories as they interact with books.
She establishes that adults teach by example as they enjoy shared reading and shared
writing with children. She shows the impact of having a literacy center in a classroom
and the effects of storybook reading aloud by a teacher. She illustrates that when chil-
dren know authors and illustrators as real people, they want to read their work and
write in a manner similar to them. Morrow states that storytelling is similar to read-
ing aloud in its impact on children. She also recognizes the necessity of skills that in-
volve learning concepts about print and books. For example, children need to develop
phonological and phonemic awareness, alphabetic principles, and phonics for reading
success. They also must learn to construct meaning from text by learning strategies for
comprehension. Speaking from her own experiences as a teacher, researcher, parent,
and grandparent, Morrow charts a path that leads to successful literacy learning.
Lesley has taken a long view of literacy development in the early years, show-
ing its historical roots. She also knows and draws on the research of today’s leaders
because she is a member of that research community. She succinctly summarizes lan-
guage theories and relates current research to shape sound practices. She has con-
ducted much of the original research herself, testimony to the fact that she can bridge
the gap among theory, research, and practice. Her examples are anchored in real class-
room experiences—her own and those of other teachers with whom she works collab-
oratively. The examples are authentic and add credibility to the content of this book.
Morrow spends a significant amount of time on organizing and managing lan-
guage arts throughout the day. In case studies and outlines, she takes the reader step
by step to show what exemplary literacy instruction looks like. This edition puts a
great deal of emphasis on the use of technology in the early childhood literacy class-
room, differentiated instruction, response to intervention, and content-area literacy
instruction. She has added information about looking at schools as “Communities of
Learning” that have a positive mindset for success. She addresses the need for teach-
ers to look at the social, emotional, physical and intellectual parts of a child and what
that means for literacy instruction. Her book is filled with photographs, figures, and
illustrations that take the reader into classrooms, and reproducible strategies for the
classroom are sprinkled throughout the book. There also are online video clips where
students can see strategies come to life in the classroom.
Lesley Morrow’s treatment of literacy development is on the cutting edge of cur-
rent knowledge. She is well informed about her subject and makes connections among
all aspects of literacy learning. She is a sensitive observer and writer, letting children
and teachers speak for themselves through their work.
Dr. Morrow states that few children learn to love books by themselves. Someone
must lure them into the wonderful world of the written word. She shows us how to do
that and enriches our lives and the lives of children through her work. Her contribution
to the literacy development of children from birth through grade 3 is a lasting one.

Linda B. Gambrell, Ph.D.

Distinguished Professor of Education
Clemson University
Distinguished Professor Emeritus
Preface

L
iteracy Development in the Early Years, ninth edition, is for teachers, reading spe-
cialists, administrators, students in teacher education programs, and parents.
It is appropriate for graduate, undergraduate, and professional development
courses in early literacy, and it complements texts on teaching reading in the elemen-
tary school, children’s literature, child development, early childhood curriculum, and
teaching language arts.
I wrote the book because of my special interest in literacy development in early
childhood. I taught in preschool, kindergarten, and the primary grades; I was a read-
ing specialist; and then I taught early childhood curriculum and literacy courses at the
university level. My research has focused on instructional strategies in early literacy.
Over the years, research in early literacy has generated new theory. It has implications
for new instructional strategies and reinforces older practices based on little or no
­research to establish their validity. The book describes a program that nurtures literacy
development from birth through third grade.
The ideas in the book are based on research. They have been tried and they have
worked, but not all are appropriate for all teachers or all children. The good teacher
functions most effectively with strategies he or she feels most comfortable with. The
teacher needs to be a decision maker who thinks critically about the design of his or
her literacy program and the selection of materials. Children come to school with di-
verse social, emotional, physical, and intellectual abilities and achievement levels.
They have diverse cultural backgrounds, experiences, and exposures to literacy. All
must be addressed appropriately.
Underlying this book is the merging of the art and the science of teaching. The
science involves theories based on research findings that have generated instructional
strategies. The book is also based on current standards for teaching literacy and cur-
rent policy. Most of the book contains descriptions of strategies and steps for carrying
them out. But the research does not necessarily take into account individual differ-
ences among teachers and children. The art of teaching concentrates on those human
variables. This book provides a comprehensive and balanced approach to early lit-
eracy instruction. Constructivist ideas that involve problem-solving techniques are
blended with explicit direct instructional approaches so that teachers can decide what
works best for the children they teach. There is a strong emphasis on learning to read
through the integration of reading, writing, listening, speaking, and viewing. There
is also a strong emphasis on the integration of these literacy skills into content-area
learning. Differentiation of instruction is a major theme. That theme suggests that
teaching must be directed to the individual needs of every child and, in addition,
there is a strong emphasis on the diverse nature of children.

Chapter Organization
Chapter 1 places you in an early childhood classroom immediately. Its purpose is to pro-
vide you with an exemplary model of excellent literacy instruction. It provides the student
with a look at what can be in an excellent early literacy classroom. It lays the groundwork
for the rest of the book, which looks at each part of an exemplary literacy day.
Chapter 2 provides a framework of theory, research, and policy from the past and
present that has influenced strategies for developing early literacy.

xii
 Preface xiii

Chapter 3 covers the important issues of assessment and provides you

with concepts for authentic assessment, portfolio assessment, and standardized
assessment. This chapter emphasizes how assessment must guide instruction and
how they are connected. With this philosophy in mind, strategies for assessment
are integrated into all chapters. There is also a look at standards to see how they
influence what we teach.
Chapter 4 is about the diversity in our classrooms. The chapter has been
expanded because of the diverse nature of our classrooms. There is an emphasis
on English learners (ELs) as well as discussions of special learning needs such as
learning disabilities, physical disabilities, gifted children, and others. This chapter
provides strategies for teaching children who are diverse in many ways. However,
meeting the needs of these individuals is a special focus throughout the book.
Chapters 5 through 10 deal with emergent literacy skills and strategies, oral lan-
guage and vocabulary development, word study, comprehension, and writing. These
chapters discuss theory and research—specifically, developmental trends, instruc-
tional strategies, and methods for assessment. The book views the development of
literacy skills (reading, writing, oral language, listening, and viewing) as concurrent
and interrelated; the development of one enhances the development of the others.
Furthermore, the theories, stages, acquisition, and strategies associated with each are
similar, and it is difficult to separate them entirely. To make the volume more readable,
however, I have treated the various areas of literacy in different chapters.
Chapter 11 places a strong emphasis on the importance of children’s literature in
literacy development as well as creating rich literacy centers in classroom.
Chapter 12 focuses on motivation through the integration of literacy throughout
the school day. The topics discussed are technology and literacy, content areas and
literacy, and playfulness in school. Thematic instruction and project-based instruction
are discussed.
Chapter 13 provides the organization and management of the components pre-
sented in the book that are organized to create a successful program. The best strate-
gies will fall apart if the school day is not organized well. Ways of scheduling the
school day are discussed, as well as descriptions of how to organize whole-group,
small-group, and individualized instruction. An area of extreme importance to teach-
ers is how children can learn to work independently at centers while teachers instruct
small groups to meet achievement needs. This is accomplished through differentiation
of instruction.
Chapter 14 discusses the strong influence of the home on the development of lit-
eracy, especially in a child’s earliest years. It discusses broad perspectives concerning
family literacy, such as integrated home and school programs, intergenerational pro-
grams, and sensitivity to cultural differences to provide programs that are not intru-
sive but build on the strengths of the families being served.
Each chapter begins with expected outcomes to focus on while reading the text.
Important vocabulary in the chapter is listed at the beginning of each chapter. The
questions and vocabulary are followed by theory and research, a great deal of practice
and assessment. Each chapter has multiple and reproducible strategies throughout.
The chapters end with a summary that focuses on the expected outcomes with ques-
tions and activities for further study. The appendices supplement the text with lists
of materials that teachers use in carrying out a successful program to develop early
literacy. Appendix E offers the instructor ideas for his or her college classroom. Key
words dealing with early literacy development are defined in the glossary at the end
of the book.
xiv Preface

What’s New in the Ninth Edition

New features of the ninth edition include the following:
• There are 14 chapters instead of 10 in this edition. The purpose was to make chap-
ters shorter with less information but more targeted information in each one. This
was done to make the book more student-friendly. New chapters are Chapter 5,
Early Childhood Language Development: Birth to Age 2; Chapter 6, Language
and Vocabulary Development: Preschool Through Grade 3; Chapter 7, Emergent
Literacy Skills and Strategies: Helping Children Figure Out Words; and, Chapter
8, Phonological Awareness and Phonics Instruction.
• There is an emphasis on creating a community of learners in literacy instruction
by embracing a positive mindset of “You can do it,” “We can do it” and “I will do it”.
• There is an emphasis on the use of informational text, integration of literacy
throughout the curriculum, a look at close reading, and text complexity.
• More strategies than ever before are embedded within the book followed by
­vignettes to illustrate how to put them into practice.
• Appendix B provides a new Integrated Language Arts Thematic Unit entitled
Healthy Bodies, Healthy Minds. This unit not only covers content to encourage
healthy living but identifies how to seamlessly integrate reading and writing strate-
gies into lesson planning and meet Common Core standards.
• Continued emphasis is placed on research and policy in early literacy development,
including findings from the National Reading Panel, the National Early Literacy
Panel, Preventing Reading Difficulties, Reading First, the Rand Report, the impli-
cations of the No Child Left Behind legislation, Race to the Top, and the Common
Core State Standards.
• Updated photographs, as well as tables and illustrations enhance the text.
• There are additional strategies for developing literacy in writing workshops, read-
ing workshops, independent and partner reading, organizational methods, and
comprehension development.
• Appendices for children’s literature, early literacy software, and multiple websites
for teachers and children have been updated.
• There are additional assessment tools for carrying out a very complete case study
of a child’s abilities and needs in literacy development and an emphasis on assess-
ment guided instruction.
• Emphasis is placed on school relevance and motivation.
• There is a strong focus on how to organize children with similar needs for small-
group instruction.

MyLab Education
One of the most visible changes in the ninth edition, and also one of the most signifi-
cant, is the expansion of the digital learning and assessment resources embedded in
the eText and the inclusion of MyLab Education in the text. MyLab Education is an
online homework, tutorial, and assessment program designed to work with the text to
engage learners and to improve learning. Within its structured environment, learners
see key concepts demonstrated through real classroom video footage, practice what
they learn, test their understanding, and receive feedback to guide their learning and
to ensure their mastery of key learning outcomes. Designed to bring learners more
directly into the world of K–12 classrooms and to help them see the real and powerful
 Preface xv

impact of early literacy concepts covered in this book, the online resources in MyLab
Education with the Enhanced eText include:

• Video Examples.  About two or three times per chapter, an embedded video
provides an illustration of an early literacy principle or concept in action. These
video examples most often show students and teachers working in classrooms,
and sometimes they show students or teachers describing their thinking or
experiences.

• Self-Checks.  In each chapter, self-check quizzes help assess how well learners
have mastered the content. The self-checks are made up of self-grading multiple-
choice items that not only provide feedback on whether questions are answered
correctly or incorrectly, but also provide rationales for both correct and incorrect
answers.

• Application Exercises.  These exercises give learners opportunities to practice ap-

plying the content and strategies from the chapters. The questions in these exercises
are usually constructed response. Once learners provide their own answers to the
questions, they receive feedback in the form of model answers written by experts.
Acknowledgments
I extend my heartfelt appreciation to those who helped with the ninth edition. These
individuals always said yes to whatever request I had and worked tirelessly on many
parts of the book with me. They are Christina Boyland, Jennifer Renner Del Nero,
­Lucia Oubina Laka, Melissa Stawicki, Pooja Rajan, and Stephanie Rosato. I extend my
appreciation to Drew Bennett the Acquisitions Editor at Pearson for supporting the
ninth edition of this book, and for the guidance he offered during the revision process.
I would also like to thank Clara Bartunek and Vanitha Puela for their careful atten-
tion during the editing process. Also thanks to Linda Bishop and thanks to the CSC
­composition team for all their help.
Thank you to students, teachers, and administrators who worked on the other
eight editions: Paula Batsiyan, Lisa Mullin, Kathy Minto, Sara Stofik, Doug Bushell,
Elizabeth Freitag, Stefanie Lederman, Stacy Stannzel, Joellen Surace, Thu Win, Danielle
Wintringham, Julie Anastasi, Lara Heyer, Kristen Valvanis, Patricia Addonizio, Susan
Burks, Kathleen Cunningham, Katie Farrell, Mary Ann Gavin, Laura Babarca, Tricia
Lyons, Melody Olsen, Michele Preole, Mary Joyce Santoloci, Sari Schnipper, Karen
Szabo, Patricia DeWitt, Erica Erlanger, Michael Gravois, Katherine Heiss, ­Pamela Kel-
liher, Lisa Lozak, Stacey Rog, Monica Saraiya, Amy Sass, Connie Zauderer, Stephanie
Adams, Ellen Abere, Bonita Bartholomew, Maxine Bell, Lynette Brenner, Karen Buda,
Pat Burton, Barbara Callister, Heather Casey, Jennifer Castio, Melissa C ­ olucci, Shan-
non Corcoran, Tom DelCasale, Judy DeVincenzo, Fran Diamente, TamiLyn Eisen,
Gina Goble, Arlene Hall, David Harris, Lori Harrje, Catherine Hickey, Joanne Jacob-
son, Adriann Jean-Denis, Noreen Johnson, Tracy Kahn, Linda Keefe, Sheryl King,
Gail Martinez, Nancy Mason, Joyce McGee, Carna Meechem, Dennis Monaghan,
Stephanie Moretti, Joyce Ng, Susan Nitto, Ellen O’Connor, Catherine Ogletree, Lucy
Oman, Barbara Oxfeld, Mary Payton, Tammye Pelovitz, Cynthia Peters, John Quinta-
glie, Robert Rosado, Sonia Satterwhite, Joyce Schenkman, Linda Schifflette, Christine
Temple, Patty Thaxton, Marcia Wesalo, Susan Yoder, Margaret Youssef, Andrea Shane,
Milton Mandel, Howard Manson, Cheryl Devine, Kate Brach, Danielle Lynch, Lynn
Cohen, Lisa Rosenfeld, Jennifer Chiaramida, Kelly Lamar, Amy Sass, Michael Gravois,
Kenneth Kunz, Marilyn Burnbaum, Lisa Bratas, Jen Chen, Jennifer DelNero, ­Maureen
Hall, Jennifer Kamm, Patricia Tait, Ghina Molinari-Schiano, Bethany ­Reichwein,
Christina Speizio, Sharon Weldon, Jennie Dzurrila, and Cathy Kobylarz.
Thank you to the children I taught, my college students, and the excellent teachers
I have observed and from whom I’ve learned so much. I am grateful to the researchers
in early literacy who have provided exciting information in the field. I consider this
book a cooperative effort as a result of the contributions of so many in both direct and
indirect ways.
To those who reviewed the eighth edition of the book, especially Rosemary
Geiken of East Tennessee State University, and offered suggestions for what to include
in the ninth edition, I appreciate your thoughtful comments. To the college professors,
college students, teachers, and parents who purchased earlier editions and demon-
strated their support for the publication, the ninth edition was made possible by you.
Finally, I thank my parents, Mary and Milton Mandel, who provided a literacy-
rich environment for me and a work ethic that gave me the ambition to take on this
task. Thank you to my family, Stephanie M. Bushell, Doug Bushell, and Bob Janney for
their support and my grandson James and granddaughter Natalie for demonstrating
the validity of many of the concepts expressed in the book.

L. M. M.
James and Natalie, you light up my life.
xvi
Chapter 1
Looking at an
Exemplary Early
Literacy Classroom

Photo credit: Lesley Mandel Morrow

In this chapter, I describe an early childhood teacher and her students in the beginning
of first grade. The purpose of this introduction is to give you an idea of what an exem-
plary early childhood classroom in which literacy is emphasized looks like. This will
give you a framework for what you will read in the rest of the book.
This chapter presents information you should know and be able to create in your
classroom after reading the book. By previewing this case study, you will have some
background knowledge about what is to come. The rest of the book will look at each
part of the day and skills being taught. You will find new vocabulary in the chapter
that is unfamiliar. These words will be defined in the chapters to come. In the descrip-
tion of this classroom, many of the critical components, materials, and routines of an
exemplary literacy instruction will be discussed. After completing the book, come back
to Chapter 1 and read it again.

Introduction to the Teacher

and Students
Wendy Hayes has been teaching first grade for the past seven years. Recently, she
­completed a master’s degree with a reading specialist certification. She teaches in a
working-class community.  She has 22 students in her class, including 7 African American,

1
2  Chapter 1  Looking at an Exemplary Early Literacy Classroom

6 Caucasian, 5 Hispanic, 2 from Korea and 2 children from India. Nine of Wendy’s chil-
dren speak one of four languages at home: English, Spanish, Korea, and Hindi. Twelve
students are girls and ten are boys. There is a full-time aide assigned to one student
who is physically disabled and uses a wheelchair.
Wendy’s philosophy of teaching includes integration of the curriculum so that
students can build connections between content areas. She purposefully integrates
literacy skill development in reading, writing, listening, speaking, and viewing with
her social studies and science themes as much as possible. Her small-group literacy
instruction emphasizes her belief in differentiated instruction. In the small groups, she
teaches skills in an explicit manner. Ms. Hayes uses both narrative and informational
texts. She is spending more time on informational books than she has in the past since
she recognizes that children gain background knowledge and vocabulary from this
material. She is aware that people read a variety of informational texts such as how-to
manuals, applications, instructions, recipes, and websites. Consequently, Ms. Hayes
understands that children must be introduced to multiple genres at a young age. She
uses standards from her state in her early literacy program.

Setting the Stage for Wendy’s Teaching

Wendy’s classroom is warm and inviting, with well-defined stations. The displays on
the walls clearly reflect the theme being studied. They also show considerable evidence
of the children’s growing literacy development. The displays include charts that Wendy
wrote with the children and samples of children’s writing and artwork. Wendy has an
easel with chart paper for the morning message, a calendar, a weather chart, a tempera-
ture graph, a helper chart, a daily schedule, a pocket chart, a word wall and an anchor
chart that lists classroom rules made by the teacher and children. All of this is in the
area where she teaches the whole group.
Wendy’s largest station is the literacy station that has a rug for independent reading
and whole-class meetings. The area includes lots of space for storing books. One set of
shelves holds books organized in two different ways. There are baskets of books leveled
for difficulty coordinating with Wendy’s small-group guided reading instruction. For
example, students reading books in the green basket during small-group instruction
know that these are the books for instruction. Other shelves hold baskets of books of
many different levels organized by themes, such as dinosaurs, sports, and weather.
Wendy rotates books in the baskets monthly. Colored stickers on the books and bas-
kets assist students in returning them to the correct spot. Student-made class books
and stories are displayed in another basket. Books about the current theme are on an
open-faced shelf.
The literacy station has a felt board and characters, a magnetic board with magnetic
characters, puppets, and props for storytelling. There is a rocking chair for the teacher
and other adults to use to read to the class. The children use the rocking chair to read
independently and to each other. The listening area in the literacy center has a CD
player for listening to stories. The literacy center also has manipulative materials for
learning about print, etc. Wendy has an electronic white board for presenting lessons
in word study and comprehension as well as activities for students to do on their own.
Finally, she embeds the use of technology in her teaching with digital texts, by accessing
information from the Internet, and posting information on the class website. She and
the children also create PowerPoint presentations and videos; these are programs that
enhance literacy and engage children, such as Animoto and Puppet Pals.
The writing station is an extension of the literacy station. There is a round table for
In this video, students work
small groups of children to meet with the teacher. Shelves hold many types of paper
independently at a writing station,
before sitting in the author’s (lined and unlined), a stapler, markers, crayons, colored pencils, dictionaries, alphabet
chair to present their work. stamps, and ink stamp pads. A word wall in the writing center has the letters of the
 Introduction to the Teacher and Students  3

alphabet taped on horizontally. When the children learn a new word, it is written on
a card and taped under the letter it begins with on the word wall. Children use the
words when they need the spelling of a word or to practice reading. During instruc-
tion, children are asked to think of words that begin with the same letter and sound
as a word on the word wall, or to think of words that rhyme with a word on the word
wall. Wendy puts her students’ names on the word wall. She also puts high-frequency
sight words that her children are expected to learn.
Content area stations are difficult to find space for. Wendy wants to make sure all
areas of the curriculum are visually apparent in her room. The next set of stations are
spaces she finds to display materials such as shelves, window, sills and doors.
Wendy’s science station provides a home for the class guinea pig and hermit crabs.
Equipment in this center includes plants, magnets, magnifying glasses, and objects
that sink or float. Materials are added to match the themes being studied, and there are
always new hands-on experiments for students to complete.
The dramatic play station includes a table, chairs, and a bookshelf. Changes are
made to the area to reflect the themes studied during the year. This center has been
converted into a restaurant where children take orders and read menus. The restau-
rant helps with learning about multicultural food and customs. This year the area has
been an Italian restaurant, Indian, Mexican, Japanese, and a Jewish Deli. Dramatic-play
­settings also include a newspaper office, a post office, and a travel agency.
There is a construction station which includes blocks of all sizes and shapes and
other items for construction, such as Legos®. There are trucks, cars, trains, people, and
animals in this area with labels designating where each toy goes. Also supplied are
5 × 8 cards and tape for labeling structures created by the children. There are signs
written by children such as “Please Save” on buildings under construction and signs
naming finished structures. Children sign their names on the labels.
Located near the sink is the art station, which contains an easel, table, and chairs.
There are scissors, markers, crayons, and paper of many colors, types, and sizes.
Collage materials such as cotton balls, doilies, foil, wallpaper, stickers, and glue are
also included.
The math station contains math manipulatives for counting, adding, measuring,
weighing, graphing, and distinguishing shapes. There are felt numbers to use on the felt
board, magnetic numbers for magnetic boards, numbers to sequence in a pocket chart,
and geometric shapes, such as squares, triangles, cylinders, and rectangles.
The children sit at tables clustered together. In a quiet corner of the room, there
is a kidney-shaped table that Wendy uses for small-group instruction. Shelves near
the table have materials for small groups, such as letters of the alphabet, rhyming
cards, leveled books, sentence strips, index cards, white boards, markers, and word-
study games.

Assessing Students to Determine Instructional Needs

To provide instruction to meet the varied reading and writing levels of her students,
Wendy spends considerable time assessing them with formal and informal measures.
In September, January, and June, she assesses students’ phonemic awareness, phonics
knowledge, their ability to read sight words, vocabulary development, their reading
comprehension, fluency, and writing ability. She plans instruction based on the needs
she identifies. She also looks at daily performance samples. Wendy takes monthly run-
ning records for children who are reading and checks knowledge of concepts about
books and print (CAP) for those not yet reading. These early assessments are called
formative assessments to help the teacher identify the types of errors that children make,
the decoding strategies they use, and their comprehension and reading grade level. A
comparison of previous running records to new ones and CAP tests indicate student
4  Chapter 1  Looking at an Exemplary Early Literacy Classroom

progress and how well her teaching strategies are working. These are called summative
assessments. Wendy writes anecdotal notes about child behavior that indicates achieve-
ment and what help is needed. She collects samples of children’s writing, evaluates
them, and places these in student portfolios. Wendy also observes students for social,
emotional, and physical development.

Small-Group Guided Reading Instruction

Wendy developed a schedule that allows her to work with small groups of children to
develop reading skills. Using the collected assessment information, she places students
with similar needs together for small-group guided reading instruction. As she works
with children, she takes careful notes regarding progress in literacy and adjusts the
members of her various groups as needed. While in small groups, Wendy provides
skills instruction for the children. She could work on phonics, comprehension, flu-
ency writing or vocabulary development. Wendy currently has four small groups and
meets with each group from once a week to at least four times a week depending on
the group’s needs.

Wendy’s Daily Schedule

8:45 - When children arrive at school, they have a Do Now time:

Carry out their jobs

Partner read
Make entries in their journals
Complete unfinished work

9:00 to 9:15 - The group meets as a whole for

Morning greetings
The calendar and weather are discussed
The schedule for the day is reviewed

9:15 to 10:00 - Vocabulary morning meeting

 here is a vocabulary lesson to match the theme being studied. Vocabulary words
T
from the theme are reviewed and some new ones added to the list. With a part-
ner, the children create sentences with the new vocabulary. In this vocabulary
period, grade-level vocabulary is also introduced. Engaging vocabulary lessons
will ­happen here.

10:00 to 10:20 - Reading comprehension workshop

The teacher does a read-aloud based on the theme being studied and does a mini-
lesson to build comprehension using either an informational or narrative book.
After the lesson, children select from a group of books the teacher has provided.
They read with a partner to practice the skill taught. The teacher moves around the
room and conferences with children about their reading, offering guidance when
necessary. The class as a whole shares what each student learned from partner
reading based on the comprehension skill taught in the read aloud.

10:20 to 11:10 - Small-group guided reading instruction and station activities to dif-
ferentiate instruction

The teacher meets with small groups and does explicit instruction for the needs of
the group. Literacy activities in stations are assigned and children are required to
complete three tasks.
 A Typical Day in Wendy’s Classroom 5

11:15 to 12:00 - Writing workshop

The teacher does a mini-skill lesson for the whole group focusing on one writing
skill. The children write alone or with a partner to practice the skill. The teacher
holds conferences with the children as they write. The children share their writing.

12:00 to 12:45 - Lunch and indoor or outdoor play

12:45 to 1:15 - Word study session

1:00 to 1:40 - Math

1:40 to 2:15 - Theme or project based-related activities in social studies or science in

which reading and writing activities are purposefully embedded

2:15 to 2:50 - Creative arts, music, or gym (specials or classroom teacher-related to

classroom theme studied and tied into literacy skills provided by the
classroom teacher)

Wrap up: Read-aloud or silent reading

Sharing and reviewing the most important things learned that day
Planning for tomorrow

A Typical Day in Wendy’s Classroom

Wendy and her students are studying dinosaurs. In her classroom, reading, writing,
listening, speaking, and content-area subjects are integrated into the dinosaur theme.
On Monday, she organizes activities for the week.
It is Monday morning and Wendy’s room is filled with quiet chatter as her students
arrive. Classical music plays in the background as children complete their morning routines.
Children move their name tags on the attendance board from the side labeled “Not here”
to “Here” and place their name stickers into the “Buy lunch” or “Milk” can. Some children
cluster around the easel, where Wendy has written the morning message and included the
question for the day. The message says, “Good morning, children. Today is Monday, April
3rd. We will have art today as our special. Our question for today is how many dinosaur
names do you know? Write them in your journal and we will talk about it later.”
Children check the helper chart for jobs such as feeding the animals, watering
plants, and recording the temperature and day’s weather on the weather graph. Wendy
puts pictures next to each step to help with reading the chart. This is particularly useful
for struggling readers and English learners (EL).
Students know it is “Do Now” time and write their weekend news in their journals.
On other days of the week, they partner read three times and journal write one more
time. Wendy greets each child as she circulates among the readers or writers. A two-
minute warning bell rings, letting children know that it is time to gather on the rug for
the morning meeting.

Morning Message and Vocabulary Meeting

Wendy says, “Good morning,” and the children repeat the greeting to each other and
shake hands around the circle. Because they are starting with April as a new month,
they echo read and then choral read a poem about the month that Wendy showed on
the digital white board. She gives the children a paper copy of the poem to put in their
poem books, along with other poems for each month.
Next, Wendy leads the class in reading the morning message together. She asked the
children to look at the morning message and read it together. It said, “Good ­morning,
children. Today is Monday, April 3rd. We will have art today as our special. What dino-
saurs did you write down? Can you tell me something about them?” The morning
6  Chapter 1  Looking at an Exemplary Early Literacy Classroom

message is used to develop vocabulary. They discussed the dinosaurs and Wendy brought
pictures of them to show as they are mentioned. New dinosaur names were added to the
themed word wall to continue vocabulary development. The children talk about the one
characteristic of the new dinosaurs that is different from the others. The new ‘character-
istic’ word is also added to the word wall to help children engage in a discussion about
the characteristics of the dinosaurs and identify the differences among them.

Reading Comprehension Workshop

In this video, a kindergarten Wendy has her class move to another portion of the room for reading comprehension
teacher models a read aloud workshop. She will do a read-aloud and comprehension mini-lesson. The book is an
for an informational text. informational book about dinosaurs. They look through the pages together and decide
https://www.youtube.com/ what the book will be about. It seems it might be about plant-eating dinosaurs. Wendy
watch?v=Oyb-OjQmM1M
tells them to listen for all the types of plants that the animals eat. She tells the children
to compare characteristics of meat-eating dinosaurs they read about recently and the
plant-eating dinosaurs she was going to read about today. The children have copies of
the book and follow along as the teacher reads. After reading, they discuss the facts
in the book and compare the meat eaters to the plant eaters.
After the discussion, children choose a book to read from a selection of dinosaur books.
The books are about meat-eating dinosaurs and plant eaters. Children are to remember
facts about the meat-eating dinosaurs and the plant-eating dinosaurs to compare. While
they read with a partner, the teacher circulates and listens to readers. She offers assistance
if needed. She may even conference with some who seem to need additional help.
After their partner reading, the class shares and compares facts together. They
discuss the differences between plant-eating dinosaurs and meat-eating dinosaurs on
a Venn diagram and discuss things they have in common.

Station Time
Wendy spends a few minutes reviewing the center activities and describing new ones
placed in the centers for the exploration of dinosaurs. Stations have materials that are in
place over a period of time, and they are enriched with activities that reflect the current
theme and skills that need to be practiced. All of the stations require students to engage
in literacy activities. A description of what has been added to each station related to the
dinosaur theme follows.

• Writing station:  Dinosaur-bordered writing paper, dinosaur-shaped books, a dino-

saur dictionary, a dinosaur-shaped poster with words about dinosaurs, pencils,
crayons, colored pencils, and markers.
• Literacy station:  Fiction and nonfiction dinosaur books, dinosaur books with
accompanying CDs, a dinosaur vocabulary puzzle, a dinosaur concentration mem-
ory game, and a teacher-made dinosaur lottery game.
• Computer station:  Find information on different types of dinosaurs, and watch a
video about fossils and list important facts.
• Science station:  Small skulls and old animal bones, along with a magnifying glass
and rubber gloves to examine the bones and draw what they think the entire animal
may have looked like; dinosaur pictures to sort into meat eaters and plant eaters;
other pictures to be sorted into “walked on two feet” and “walked on four feet.”
There are recording sheets for all activities.
• Math station:  Measuring tools in a basket and sheets to record the measurement
of various plaster bones of dinosaurs; dinosaur counters; little plastic dinosaurs in
an estimation jar; and a basket containing 50 little dinosaurs numbered from 1 to
50 to be put in sequential order.
• Blocks center:  Toy dinosaurs, trees, bushes, and some dinosaur books.
 A Typical Day in Wendy’s Classroom 7

• Art center:  Dinosaur stencils, dinosaur stamps, clay models of dinosaurs, and
many pictures of dinosaurs to help students make their own sculptures. There are
cards for labeling each dinosaur with its names.
• Dramatic play station:  The dramatic-play area is transformed into a paleontolo-
gist’s office with chicken bones embedded in plaster of Paris, carving tools and
small hammers to remove the bones, safety goggles, paper and pencils for labeling
bones, trays to display them, dinosaur books, and posters of fossils and dinosaurs.

After Wendy reviews station activities, she assigns her students to activities. The
work in the stations is reinforcing skills that students need practice in, such as matching
pictures with letters to reinforce long and short vowel sounds. When they complete the
“have to” activities, children may select any station.

Small-Group Guided Reading Instruction:

Differentiation of Lessons to Meet the
Needs of All Children
Station time allows the teacher to work with small groups and individuals while the chil-
dren are working independently. Wendy’s first group is reading a new book. She does a
quick book walk to introduce the children to the difficult words and interesting pictures.
During the book walk they discuss the names of the dinosaurs in the book. Wendy asks
the children to whisper read the book and words that are new to them. They also discuss
the names of the animals in the book. Wendy reads the story to the children first. Next,
the children are asked to read the book orally at their own pace. As the group whisper
reads, Wendy notices that one student reads the book quickly without making any errors.
Wendy makes a note to think about moving him to a more challenging reading group.
After the children finish reading, Wendy asks everyone to turn to page eight. “I noticed
that James read, ‘We saw the pot bear’ and then changed it to ‘polar bear,’ since he looked
back at the letters and took into account the meaning of the sentence. He remembered
that the words have to match the letters and what you read has to make sense.”
While the children were reading, Wendy did a running record on one child. She
noted that this student read “tooth” instead of “teeth” and said “winds” instead of
“wings.” Wendy will help this child pay more attention to the print when working
with him.
Wendy’s next group is reading a different and more difficult book. This group is
more advanced than the first. The group has worked with this book before; therefore,
the lesson that Wendy will carry out will help her children become more independent
readers. She will teach them how to figure out unknown words by using the meaning
of a sentence and by looking at the letters in the words. They begin with a game called
“Guess the Covered Word,” similar to an activity they used during the morning meet-
ing. This time, the covered word in the sentence “I can fast” is the word “run.”
The children are encouraged to select a word that makes sense in the sentence and then
look at the letters in the word to see which is the correct word. Words generated for
the missing word were: walk, eat, hop, sleep, and run. The activity is repeated in other
sentences throughout the book.
The next group is reading another book. In this lesson, Wendy focuses on teach-
ing the children to look at ending sounds to figure out words. Wendy wrote, “I am
go to the store” on the chart. She reads the sentence and the children quickly point
out that it does not sound right. Joan writes a second sentence, “I am going to the
store.” They ­identify the difference in the two sentences by pointing to the words go
and going. Wendy reminds the children to look at the ends and beginnings of words
when reading. They read the book with special attention to the word endings. After the
first reading, she starts a discussion to demonstrate their ability to infer and asks them
if they could think of another way to end the story.
8  Chapter 1  Looking at an Exemplary Early Literacy Classroom

A Quick Snack
For a snack there are dinosaur animal crackers and what Wendy refers to as “dinosaur
juice.” Children read independently when finished with the snack.

Writing Workshop
The children gather for writing in the whole-class meeting area. Wendy prepares them
for a school-wide activity. They will survey all students in the school to find out what
their favorite dinosaurs are. Wendy does an interactive writing activity to draft a let-
ter asking the teachers and children in other classrooms to participate. She begins by
reviewing the format of a letter, which was introduced during a previous unit on the
post office. They discuss how to begin and end a letter. Using chart paper, Wendy asks
the children to offer suggestions to start the letter and write the letter. The children and
their teacher compose the text. Wendy types the letter and distributes it to each class-
room. The original shared writing chart will be posted on the cafeteria door.
Next, Wendy introduces the writing activity for the week. The children will be writ-
ing informational texts about dinosaurs. They are each to select their favorite dinosaur
and answer the following questions before they begin their writing:
What are the parts of your dinosaur? What does your dinosaur eat? Where did
your dinosaur live? What else do you know about your dinosaur?

Each child selects a partner to work with and a dinosaur to study. Jamal and Damien
chose a tyrannosaurus. Wendy has provided books for looking up information in the
categories outlined and has identified websites for children to review. Each child takes
two sections of the book on which to write.
Through this initial activity, the children have learned that brainstorming is a cru-
cial step in the writing process. Brainstorming helps children decide what they will
write. On Tuesday, they will continue to browse through dinosaur books for informa-
tion and start to draft. Children will write the facts collected in informational stories
and illustrate them. When the activity is completed at the end of the week, children will
share their informational dinosaur stories.

Lunch and Play

Lunch is in the cafeteria. After eating, if weather permits, the children play outside. If
not, they play in the gym or their classroom.

Word Study Session

The school where Wendy teaches has a phonics program that makes sure children
­systematically learn the skills they need to read automatically and independent. This
program includes many manipulative materials that engage children in building words
using initial consonant blends and digraphs, and creating word families. In addition to
using the phonics program, Wendy always adds something that brings meaning to the
lesson. For example, with the study of dinosaurs as meat eaters and plant eaters, she
points out that the word “meat” follows the rule she has taught that says, “when two
vowels go walking, the first one does the talking.” She asks the children for other words
with ea that follows that rule. Children mention “treat,” “seat,” and “beat.” They also
look at the word “plant” to notice the blend at the beginning of the word. They think
of other words that have the pl blend at the beginning, such as place, plot, and play.

Math
There is a specific math curriculum that Wendy follows in her school. She also ties her
math to her theme and literacy. Children are working on subtracting a one-digit number
 A Typical Day in Wendy’s Classroom 9

from a two-digit number. After working on the skill, she asks the children to write a
word problem that involves subtraction and dinosaurs. James wrote the following,
“Fifteen dinosaurs went for a walk in the forest. They were plant eaters and munching
on plants along the way. Five of them at the end of the line got lost. How many dino-
saurs were left in the big group.”

Science: Theme Activity and Center Time

Wendy has planned a theme-related art activity. Everyone will contribute to a mural and
construct a habitat environment for dinosaur sculptures the children will create with
the art teacher. To introduce the mural and habitat activity, everyone listens as Wendy
explains the details. Children talk about a piece of the mural they would like to work
on, such as trees, vines, a cave, a river, or plants. Wendy writes the children’s names on
a chart with the item they would like to draw with markers.
One-third of the students remain on the carpet to work on the mural. These chil-
dren huddle around books depicting plants and trees from the time of the dinosaurs.
Animated discussions take place as each child draws food, shelter, water, and other
elements necessary to sustain dinosaur life. The rest of the children use this time to
complete unfinished journal writing or station work. If they have completed all their
work, they can select any station activity they wish. Students who did not get to work
on the mural will have a chance another day during the week.

Art, Music, and Gym

At this time of day, the class goes to a special teacher for art, music, or gym. Wendy
has coordinated with these teachers about the current class theme so the art teacher is
working on papier-mâché dinosaur sculptures with the children.
The music teacher has found some great dinosaur songs and one about habitats as
well. The gym teacher has thought of some movement activities to help the students
walk like dinosaurs.

Wrap Up
At the end of the day, students gather in the meeting area for a read-aloud and a review
of the day. Wendy has selected an informational book about dinosaurs. This book will
provide children with more facts and vocabulary that they can use in their writing
and for the mural habitat they are creating. Before she reads it, she points out some of
the features of this informational book. There is a table of contents that includes each
chapter and glossary of new words. There are labels on figures, captions describing
pictures, headings introducing new topics, and new vocabulary written in a bolder
and bigger print than the rest of the words. Wendy knows this book will introduce
children to a topic not yet discussed in class: The differences between dinosaurs that
were plant eaters and those that were meat eaters. After reading, Wendy helps children
list the characteristics of plant-eating and meat-eating dinosaurs on an interactive writ-
ing chart. There were new dinosaur terms to learn, such as armored plates, carnivore,
and extinct.
In another shared reading at the end of the next day, Wendy focused on finding
facts in the informational text. When she read, she asked the children to listen for the
facts about dinosaurs and the elements in the book that make it informational.
After reading, Wendy asked, “What elements made this book an informational
story?”
Student 1: There aren’t characters that have a story to tell.

Student 2: It is about real things.

Student 3: You learn a lot of facts.

10  Chapter 1  Looking at an Exemplary Early Literacy Classroom

After the discussion, Wendy made a web that included the facts in the text. She
drew a circle on a chart with the word dinosaurs written in the center. Then she drew
lines radiating out from the center circle. Next, she drew smaller circles connected to
each line radiating out from the larger circle.
As children recalled facts about dinosaurs, Wendy wrote the words in one of the
smaller circles. After writing the web, Wendy and the children read it: Dinosaurs: big,
scary, vegetarians, meat eaters, dangerous, extinct.
Wendy talked about how informational texts are also called nonfiction because
everything is real instead of make-believe. One student raised her hand and said:
Student 1: I think the book is make-believe, because the pictures are drawings. If
it was an informational book, there would be photographs that we take
with cameras.

Student 2: But they can’t have real photographs because dinosaurs are dead, and
they didn’t have photographs since they had no cameras when they were
alive. We don’t have any more dinosaurs. What is that word, they are?
Oh yeah, they are extinct.
The teacher gives each child a sticky note to write the three most important things
they learned. They put the sticky notes on a bulletin board and make a copy to bring
home. This reinforces what was learned and lets parents and guardians know what was
learned as the children share the sticky note with their families.

Tuesday: Learning More about Dinosaurs

Tuesday’s schedule is the same as Monday, but with new books and assignments.
During the rest of the week, the children followed the same routines with morning
messages, vocabulary meeting, reading comprehension workshop, with a shared story
book reading, etc. whole-group skills lessons, and reading practice. There is small-
group instruction, center work, writing workshop, and theme-related activities in social
studies, science, math, art, music, and play.

Summary
Wendy’s classroom allows children to have the opportu- instruction, writing workshop, and station time. Reading
nity to explore and experiment while also receiving explicit and writing are integrated in content-area learning. Chil-
instruction. They are expected to complete work assigned to dren in Wendy’s classroom read and write all day long in
them during small-group instruction or during whole-group all of the content areas. Her classroom is arranged so the
lessons. However, they also have choices in the selection of children have access to ­varied materials and books. Most
activities a few times during the day. A lot of information importantly, Wendy’s children are engaged in literacy from
is introduced during whole- and small-group lessons, and the time they walk into the classroom in the morning until
information is repeated and reviewed all week long. Chil- they leave in the afternoon.
dren’s individual needs are met during small-group reading
Chapter 2
Foundations of Early
Literacy: From the
Past to the Present

Courtesy of Douglas Bushell

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
2.1 Discuss the historical roots of early childhood education.

2.2 Discuss the evolution of theory and practice in early childhood

education across the twentieth century.
2.3 Identify key approaches to early literacy instruction.

2.4 Describe the effects of evidence-based research, governmental

policies, and legislation on early childhood literacy.

11
12  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

Sylvia Ashton-Warner wrote in her book Spinster “What a dangerous activity reading
VOCABULARY is: teaching is. All this plastering of foreign stuff. Why plaster on at all when there’s
so much inside already? So much locked in? If only I could draw it out and use it as
Accommodation
working material. If I had a light enough touch, it would just come out under its own
Assimilation
volcanic power” (Ashton-Warner, 1963, p. 14). What Sylvia Ashton-Warner said is true.
Child-centered curriculum
The issue is how do we unlock what is inside the right way? Following is a vignette
(progressive education)
that a mom helps a child who has a lot locked inside and helps her daughter with a
Constructivist
light touch to draw it out.
Emergent literacy
Four-year-old Natalie and her mother were in the mall and doing some errands.
Explicit instruction
As they approached one store, Natalie said, “Look, Mommy, I can read those letters:
Integrated language arts
T-A-R-G-E-T. Those letters spell Marshalls.” Natalie’s mother smiled and said, “That
Reading readiness
was great, Natalie. You got every letter right. Now, I’ll read the sign for you; it says
Scaffolding
Target. This is another store like Marshalls. You did some good thinking when you
Schema
tried to read that word since the stores look alike. Do you see any letters in the word
Whole-language instruction
“Marshalls” that you have in your name?” Natalie looked and then said, “I have an A
and so does Marshalls, and I have an L.”
Not too long ago, we would have chuckled at Natalie’s remarks as cute, but incor-
rect. Today, we realize that she is demonstrating a great deal of literacy knowledge that
needs to be recognized. First, she knows what letters are, and she can identify the ones
on the sign. Next, she knows that letters spell words. She knows that words are read
and have meaning. Although she did not read the word correctly, she made an informed
guess. Through utilizing background knowledge, Natalie was aware that this building
was a department store. Even though she had never been to this one, she called it by a
store name she was familiar with. Her mother offered encouraging reinforcement for
what Natalie did know and helped her with the correct response when she needed help.
Her mother continued the learning experience by asking Natalie if any of the letters in
Marshalls were in her name.
Babies begin to acquire information about literacy from the moment they are born.
They continue to build their knowledge of oral language, reading, and writing as they
grow. A great deal of attention must focus on literacy development in early childhood.
Research demonstrates that teachers, parents, and administrators must view young
children as having literacy skills even though the literacy demonstrated by them is not
conventional like adults. Early literacy behaviors have implications for instructional
practice and later reading success.
Like a child’s first words and first steps, learning to read and write should be excit-
MyLab Education ing and rewarding. This book draws on research and blends it with theory, policy, and
Video Example 2.1 practice that have proved successful in developing literacy. It presents a program for
Literacy Development
developing children’s literacy from birth to 9 years. This book takes into account the
In this video, Dr. Lesley Morrow joint position statement of the International Reading Association (IRA) and the National
discusses literacy development.
Association for the Education of Young Children entitled Learning to Read and Write:
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=c8A38PdipDc Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children (1998) and the position state-
ment by the IRA, Literacy Development in the Preschool Years (2006). It also considers the
National Reading Panel Report (2000), National Early Literacy Report (National Center for
Family Literacy, 2004), Common Core State Standards (CCSS, 2011), and the concept of
mindset (Dweck, 2007) The rationale for the book includes the following beliefs:
1. Literacy learning begins in infancy.
2. Families need to continuously provide a literacy-rich environment and literacy
experiences at home to help children acquire skills.
3. Children come to school with unique and prior knowledge about reading and writ-
ing and teachers need to build on their existing information.
4. Literacy learning requires a supportive environment that builds positive feelings
about self and literacy activities. There must be a mindset established that says to
the child, “You can do this.”
 Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present 13

5. Literacy learning requires a school environment rich with accessible materials and
varied experiences.
6. Teachers must serve as models for literacy behavior by scaffolding or demonstrat-
ing strategies to be learned.
7. Children should socially interact during literacy experiences, share information
and learn from one another.
8. Reading and writing experiences must motivate children by being engaging, con-
crete, relevant, and evidenced-based best practice.
9. Early reading and writing experiences need to provide systematic and explicit
instruction.
10. Literacy development should focus on experiences that integrate reading, writing,
listening, speaking, and embed these language arts into content areas such as social
studies, science, and so on.
11. Diversity in culture and language backgrounds must be addressed in early literacy
development.
12. Differences in literacy development will vary and must be addressed with small-
group and one-to-one differentiated instruction.
13. Struggling readers must be provided with early intervention programs in addition
to the regular literacy instruction.
14. Assessment of achievement should be frequent and guide instruction. Multiple
formats for evaluating a student’s literacy development should be used.
15. For children to read fluently by the end of third grade, standards for early literacy
grade-level must be acknowledged.
16. Instruction must be age appropriate for the development of children, with high
and achievable expectations.

This book incorporates the work of philosophers, educators, psychologists, and

researchers who have described how young children learn and what they need to be
taught. The book emphasizes that literacy development occurs in prepared, literacy-rich
environments where planned experiences facilitate development in reading, writing,
listening, speaking, and viewing in coordination with content-area subjects. Although
some chapters concentrate on language, reading, or writing, an important concern at
all times is the integration of all these literacy dimensions. In early childhood, literacy
instruction should occur all day long. It should be explicit, embedded, and spontaneous.
Literacy development must focus on both learning and teaching. Teachers must
explicitly instruct children while also encouraging them to be actively involved in col-
laborative learning experiences, using materials with which they can explore and exper-
iment. A major focus of the book is to motivate children to view reading as a relevant
act and associate it with pleasure. Children must understand that reading is a source of
information that is valuable for them to learn to succeed in life. According to statistics
from the U.S. Department of Education, Justice, and Health and research by Assel,
Landry, Swank, and Gunnewig (2007), those who are functionally illiterate are likely to:
• Drop out of high school
• Have behavior and social problems that result in being incarcerated
• Be chronically ill
• Live in poverty
• Have children who are likely to be illiterate.
Alternatively, those who learn to read are likely to:
• Graduate from high school and possibly college
• Have strong social skills
14  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

• Enjoy a healthier life

• Earn a living to support themselves and a family
• Have children who are literate

Ninety percent of the children who are below grade level in reading at the beginning
of fourth grade, although they can improve, will never reach grade level. Therefore the
early childhood teacher has a tremendous responsibility.

Historical Roots of Early Childhood

Education: How the Theories Effected
Literacy Instruction
Early childhood education is not a recent development. Since the 1700s, philosophers,
theorists, psychologists, and educators have addressed appropriate educational practice
for learning in early childhood. They address the issue of whether learning to read is a
matter of nature or nurture, both of which have implications for early literacy instruc-
tion in contemporary education.

Rousseau (1712–1778)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a philosopher, writer, and composer in the 1700s. In his work
titled Émile (1762), Rousseau recommended that a child’s early education be natural. That
is, children should only be asked to learn things for which they are developmentally

According to Pestalozzi, Froebel, Dewey,

as well as other philosophers and theorists,
­learning in early childhood occurs when
youngsters have the opportunity to explore,
experiment, and play at real-life experiences.

Photo courtesy of Lesley Mandel Morrow

 The Evolution of Theory and Practice in Early Childhood Education across the Twentieth-Century 15

ready. Rousseau advocated abandoning contrived instruction in favor of allowing chil-

dren to learn with the freedom to be themselves. According to Rousseau, children learn
through curiosity. He believed that children have individual ways of learning and that
formal instruction can interfere with development. Rousseau’s philosophy suggests that
there should be little adult intervention as possible for young children.

Pestalozzi (1746–1827)
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (Rusk & Scotland, 1979) believed in natural learning, but he
added another dimension. He developed principles for learning that combined natu-
ral elements with informal instruction. He found it unrealistic to expect children to
learn to read completely on their own, he believed that it was necessary for teachers
to create the conditions in which the reading process grows. He suggested that chil-
dren develop through sensory manipulative experiences, so he designed lessons that
involved manipulating objects he called “gifts.” Children learned about them through
touch, smell, language, size, and shape.

Froebel (1782–1852)
Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel also believed in the natural unfolding of a child; and
followed Pestalozzi’s ideas by providing plans for instructing young children (Rusk
& Scotland, 1979). Froebel stressed the importance of play in learning. He felt that the
benefits of playing to learn required adult guidance and a planned environment. The
teacher was a designer of playful activities that facilitate learning. He was the first
educator to design a systematic curriculum for young children that included objects
and materials. In handling and playing with these materials, children learned about
shape, color, size, measurement, and comparison. Many of Froebel’s strategies are used
in early childhood classrooms today, such as circle time when the class sings songs and
learns new ideas through discussion. He coined the term kindergarten, which means
“children’s garden.” This illustrated his philosophy that, such as seeds, children grow
if they are tended to and cared for by the gardener, or teacher.

MyLab Education Self-Check 2.1

The Evolution of Theory and Practice

in Early Childhood Education across
the Twentieth-Century Teaching English Learners
Out of the philosophies of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries evolved the theories Dewey’s thoughts about building
and practices that defined early childhood education across the twentieth and twenty- on children’s interests through
first centuries. Of course there were and are still numerous other theories to mention. themes is helpful with English
Language Learners.

Dewey—Progressive Education
John Dewey’s (1966) philosophy of early childhood education led to the concept of the
child-centered curriculum, or progressive education as it was called. Dewey believed that
curriculum should be built around the interests of children and that children learn through
play in real-life settings. He maintained that social interactions encourage learning and
that themes of interest to children, such as learning about dinosaurs, are the vehicles for
learning information and skills. Dewey rejected the idea of teaching skills as ends unto
themselves. He also believed that learning is maximized through integrating content areas.
16  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

Dewey influenced programs in United States early childhood education. Class-

rooms reflecting Dewey’s ideas contained centers for different activities and content
areas. Shelves held various sizes and shapes of blocks, toy trucks, and figures of people.
An art area had easels with paint, crayons, paste, scissors, construction paper, clay,
scraps of fabric, pipe cleaners, and so on. The dramatic-play center looked like a kitchen,
with a sink, oven, refrigerator, empty food boxes, table and chairs, telephone, mirror,
dolls, and some clothing for dressing up. A science area revealed a water-play table,
tables with shells, rocks, plants, a class animal, and magnets. The music area had a
piano, rhythm instruments, and, at that time, a record player. There was a rug for chil-
dren to sit on when they came to sing by the piano. One corner of the room had a shelf
of children’s literature and soft pillows to lie on when looking at books.
The day in kindergarten began as children played with quiet toys. Then circle time
on a rug to talk about the weather and the calendar. The conversation focused on a
theme being studied with a social studies or science topic, for example: animals or com-
munity helpers. Children sang about the theme. Circle time was commonly followed by
a period of free play in which children could use the materials in the different areas of
the room. There was minimal guidance during free play. A snack was followed by a rest
period. The day included a special lesson in art, social studies, or science appropriate to
the theme being studied. Outdoor play allowed children to run and climb. The teacher
read a story daily, and related it to a class theme.
Reading and mathematics were not taught formally or as isolated skills. Instead,
the teacher might ask a child to count out enough cookies for the children in the class, to
name the date on the calendar, or to compare the sizes of different children. In the area of
language arts she might list some of the words used in the theme and discuss them. There
were no workbooks or commercial reading materials. Teachers led informal activities that
could lead to reading, but they did not explicitly teach children to read. The letters of the
alphabet could be strung across the wall, the days of the week pointed out on a calendar,
children’s names written on their cubbies, and other items in the room labeled with words.
The goal was to accustom children to school routines and make them comfortable in this
environment. The focus was on social, emotional, physical, and intellectual development
of the children as a whole with minimal formal instruction in reading and writing.

Skinner—Behaviorism
At about the same time that Dewey was advocating progressive education, behaviorists
were taking a different approach to learning. According to behaviorists, the outcome of
learning is a permanent change in behavior that is caused by a response to an experience
or stimulus (Slavin, 1997). Behaviorists suggest that we learn through imitation and asso-
ciation, and through conditioning, or a series of steps that are repeated so that the response
becomes automatic. B. F. Skinner (1954) found that human learning was not automatic
and unintentional, as it required explicit instruction. Skinner’s research demonstrated that
positive reinforcement for a desired behavior increased the use of that behavior. Skills are
acquired in a series of steps, small enough to avoid failure, with rewards at each level.
A behaviorist learning perspective includes an organized program presented in a system-
atic and direct manner. Learning requires time on task, structure, routines, and practice.
Behaviorist programs are skill based, with little time for social, emotional, or physical
development; the main concern is the acquisition of cognitive skills. The materials are
rated according to difficulty and are often programmed sequential lessons. The programs
provide objectives for learning and then a script for the teacher using direct instruction
as demonstrated below (Engelmann & Bruner, 1969):
Teacher: sh, sh, sh. What sound is this?
Wait for Response: sh, sh, sh. Good.
Teacher: sh, sh, sh. Now you say sh.
Wait for Response: Yes, sh, sh. Good.
 The Evolution of Theory and Practice in Early Childhood Education across the Twentieth-Century 17

Some reading programs that use behaviorist methods are DISTAR: Direct Instruction
System for Teaching Arithmetic and Reading (Englemann & Bruner, 1969), Programmed
Reading Series (Sullivan & Buchanan, 1963), and Success for All (Slavin, 1997).
We all use behaviorism in classrooms with routines and rules however the theory of
learning just discussed is often not viewed as child-friendly. There are ways to use the
explicit instruction in an engaging manner. At the end of the chapter is a behavioristic
child-friendly lesson from a classroom that demonstrates explicit instruction done well.

Montessori—Senses and Systems

Maria Montessori (1965) believed that children needed early, orderly, systematic train-
ing in order to master skills. She created an environment supplied with materials for
learning concepts to meet specific objectives. The use of the materials is modeled by the
teacher, which the child imitates. The materials were manipulatives and self-correcting;
therefore, the children could determine their errors and make corrections. There are pre-
cise steps to complete each task correctly. Materials were stored in their own containers,
on a particular shelf, and in order of difficulty. According to Montessori, the teacher is
a guide who prepares an environment with materials designed to teach specific skills.
Montessori materials had children using their five senses of touch, taste, smell,
hearing, and sight, children learn about size, color, and shape by manipulating materi-
als designed to teach these skills. The curriculum includes learning reading and math,
which are taught using manipulative materials. Early reading instruction includes
learning the sounds of letters more than the names of letters, with the help of cards
that have raised textured letters. Children trace the cards as they make the sound. Sight
words are taught using real objects and pictures. Montessori’s curriculum is based on
behaviorist theory. Children’s curiosity and exploration are of less concern than work-
ing with a material to achieve a goal.

Piaget—Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget’s (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) theory of cognitive development describes the
intellectual capabilities of children at their different stages of cognitive development.
The stages are as follows:

1. Sensorimotor period (0–2 years): Thoughts are determined by sensory explora-

tions as a baby hears, sees, tastes, and feels.
2. Preoperational period (2–7): A child’s language develops, and thinking is concrete.
The child begins to organize his world.
3. Concrete operational period (7–11): The child begins his thought processes in the
concrete and is able to eventually move into some abstract ideas.
4. Formal operations period (11–adult): This high level of thinking involves using
language to deal with abstract thought.

Piaget believed that a child acquires knowledge by interacting with the world. Educa-
tors who have applied his theories involve children in natural problem-solving situations
where they learn through assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation means that the
child incorporates new information into existing schemes. That is, she interprets new infor-
mation she has from the past. For example, when Michael saw a cat for the first time, he
said, “Look at the dog, Mommy.” Michael used what he knew about four-legged animals
from his experience with dogs and applied it to the cat, an animal he had never seen.
Accommodation requires changing existing schemes to incorporate new information. A
child accommodates when a new situation is unfamiliar. In this situation, the child has to
create a new response. Michael, for example, knows what dogs do and look like, such as
bark and have four legs. When he perceived a cat to be a dog, he had assimilated the new
experience with reference to his present comprehension level. The complementary process
of accommodation may be engaged when the child finds that the new object is not a dog,
18  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

Piaget stressed that learning occurs

when children interact with peers and
adults in a social setting as they act on
the environment.

Photo by Jennifer Kamm Greco

but rather a cat, and that the cat meows and doesn’t bark. His conceptual understanding of
“cat” must be refined due to the incongruity; he accommodates his thoughts to fit the reality
MyLab Education more accurately. According to Piaget, children need to be active participants in their learn-
Video Example 2.2
ing by changing and reorganizing their knowledge. Learning occurs when children interact
Piaget’s Cognitive Development
in their environment with peers and adults. Educators who have incorporated Piaget’s
In this video, a Piagetian
theories in curricula have designed constructivist type programs: a setting with many real-
preschool curriculum,
High Scope, is discussed. life materials, including the opportunities to play, explore, experiment, and use language. A
https://www.youtube.com/ Piagetian preschool curriculum, called High Scope, encourages decision making, problem
watch?v=4oGnvxzOqDw solving, self-discipline, goal setting, planning one’s own activities, and cooperating with
teachers and peers. Piaget agreed that young children should use their curiosity and spon-
taneity to learn. His theories do not stress content-area centers such as math and science.
The Piaget curriculum has centers that involve children in cognitive activities such as:

1. Language development: Talking, listening to stories, and describing.

2. Classifying: Describing attributes of objects, to notice sameness and (differences,
sort, match, and so on).
3. Seriating: Placing objects in a particular order, typically by size.
4. Representing in different modalities: Learning about something in many differ-
ent ways; for example, to learn about an apple, eat an apple, make applesauce,
draw an apple, write and read the word apple, sing a song about apples, and so on.
5. Spatial relations: Children are asked to put things together, take things apart, rear-
range things, reshape things, see things from a different point of view, describe
direction or distance, and so on.
 The Evolution of Theory and Practice in Early Childhood Education across the Twentieth-Century 19

Vygotsky—Schema Acquisition
Lev S. Vygotsky’s (1978) general theory suggest that learning occurs as children acquire
new concepts. The new concepts are considered schema which are mental structures
where people store information. When needed, we call the stored information to mind
to help make predictions, generalizations, or inferences. According to Vygotsky, new
concepts are acquired as children interact with others who provide feedback for their
thoughts. This interaction helps them complete a task they could not do alone. Parents
and teachers who are more knowledgeable need to scaffold how to complete new tasks MyLab Education
for children by modeling what it looks like. The scaffolding directs a children’s atten- Video Example 2.3
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal
tion to what they need to know and do. Children learn by internalizing the activities
Development
and language of others into their world. Vygotsky speaks of the “zone of proximal
In this video, Vygotsky’s concept
development” when a child can do some parts of a task but not all. This is when the of zone of proximal development
adult steps back and allows the child to take responsivity to practice on his own to is explained and reviewed.
internalize the task. (Ankrum, Genest, & Belcastro, 2014; Muhonen, Rasku-Puttonen, http://www.youtube.com/
Pakarinen, Poikkeus, A., & Lerkkanen, 2016). watch?v=0BX2ynEqLL4

MyLab Education Application Exercise 2.1

Reading Readiness
Developmental psychologists advocated maturation as the most important factor in
learning to read. Preschool and kindergarten teachers were told to avoid reading instruc-
tion because such young children were not ready to read. Morphett and W ­ ashburne’s
(1931) research found that children who were developmentally 6 years and 6 months
were old enough for reading instruction. They would make better progress. Uncomfort-
able about waiting for children to mature, educators began to provide experiences they
believed would help prepare children for reading.
In the 1930s and 1940s, standardized tests were developed that included sections
of specific skills used to indicate whether a child had reached the maturity to be ready
to learn to read. The term reading readiness became popular; instead of waiting for a
child’s maturation to unfold, educators focused on nurturing that maturation through
instruction in skills seen as prerequisites for reading. Skills identified in Reading Readi-
ness are skills that students need. Some of the large motor skills such as walking a
balance beam and skipping aren’t required before teaching children to read .The skills
included are:

1. Auditory discrimination: the ability to identify and differentiate familiar sounds,

similar sounds, rhyming words, and the sounds of letters;
2. Visual discrimination: including color recognition, shape, and letter identification;
3. Visual motor skills: such as left-to-right eye progression, cutting on a line with
scissors, and coloring within the lines of a picture; and
4. Large motor skills: such as skipping, hopping, and walking on a line. The reading-
readiness model implies that children prepare for literacy by acquiring these four
skills.

These skills are taught systematically on the assumption that all children are at a
similar level of development when they come to preschool or kindergarten with little
concern for experiences and information that children may already have. However,
educators discovered that some children could read without the knowledge of many
of the skills outlined, and some children mastered the skills but had difficulty learning
to read. Some of these skills were indicators of readiness for reading, others were not.
20  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

The Research Era

Between the 1960s and the 1980s, researchers investigating early childhood literacy
development brought about many changes in practice. Investigators looked at the cog-
nitive development of the child using varied research methodologies such as experi-
mental studies with treatment and control groups, correlational research, interviews,
observations, videotapes, and case studies. The research was done in diverse cultural
and socioeconomic settings. It took place in classrooms and homes, rather than in labo-
ratories, as in the past. Research in the areas of oral language development, family
literacy, and early reading and writing had a strong impact on educators understand-
ing the processes involved in becoming literate, how children learn, and how to teach
initial reading and writing.

MyLab Education Self-Check 2.2

Key Approaches to Early

Childhood Literacy
In early childhood literacy, two approaches shared the stage. The constructivist theory
views learning as an active process by which children construct knowledge by problem
solving, guessing, and approximating. In contrast, explicit instruction views learning as
a teacher-directed activity with emphasis on teaching a task and the specific steps needed
to master it; for example teaching reading through phonics. The balanced comprehensive
approach attempts to blend these two key approaches for more effective outcomes.
The field of literacy tends to vacillate about theories and method. For a period of
time, educators embraced constructivist thinking and promoted exploration and experi-
mentation on the part of the child. Then, either switched to championing direct, explicit
instruction or rely more heavily on phonics and other direct methods. These swings
often include widespread changes in instructional materials and instructional strategies.

Emergent Literacy
To acquire literacy skills, children need models to emulate and to create their own forms
of reading, writing, and speaking. This is called an emergent literacy perspective in pre-
school and kindergarten. The emergent literacy perspective exposes children to books
early; it is a child-centered approach where social interaction and problem solving is
emphasized with less direct instruction of skills.
Emergent literacy, a phrase first used by Marie Clay (1966), assumes that the child
acquires some knowledge about language, reading, and writing before coming to school.
Literacy development begins early in life and is ongoing. There is a relationship among
the communication skills (reading, writing, oral language, and listening) because each
influences the other in the course of development. Development occurs in everyday con-
texts of the home, community, and school through meaningful and functional experiences
that require the use of literacy in natural settings. For example, when a child “pretend
reads” a book that is a sign of emergent literacy behavior. The settings for the acquisition
of literacy are often social, with adults and children interacting through collaboration and
modeling. To provide meaning and purpose, literacy activities occur and are embedded
within content areas such as art, music, play, social studies, and science. For example, in
art, children are given directions to read for making play dough.
At every age, children possess certain literacy skills, but these skills are not as yet fully
developed or conventional (Baumann, Hoffman, Duffy-Hester, & Rowe, 2000; Morris &
Slavin, 2003). Emergent literacy acknowledges a child’s scribble marks on a page as rudi-
mentary writing, even if not one letter is discernible. The child who knows the difference
between such scribbles and drawings knows the difference between writing and illustra-
tions. Similarly, when children narrate familiar storybooks while looking at the pictures
 Key Approaches to Early Childhood Literacy 21

and print and give the impression of reading, we acknowledge the activity as literacy
behavior, but not conventional reading. Emergent literacy accepts children at the level
they are functioning and provides a program for instruction based on individual needs.

MyLab Education Application Exercise 2.2

Constructivism and Whole-Language Instruction

Whole-language instruction is similar to the emergent literacy perspective, but it con-
siders children who are reading conventionally. Advocates of whole language support
the constructivist perspective and natural approaches to learning. In a whole-language
approach, literacy learning is child centered because it is designed to be meaningful, rel-
evant, and functional. Learning to read is based on a child’s life experiences at home, his
interests, or those created in school. For example, if a beehive is discovered at school and
removed by an exterminator, children may be interested in discussing, reading, or writ-
ing about bees. Although learning about bees is not a part of the curriculum, the teacher
allows children to pursue this teachable moment (Collins & Shaeffer, 1997; Fingon, 2005).
Literacy activities are integrated into the learning of content-area subjects such as
art, music, social studies, science, math, and play. The use of social studies and science
themes connects literacy and content area experiences. Skills are taught when they seem
appropriate; for example, in the unit on farms, when the class hatches baby chicks in an
incubator, journals may be kept on the progress of the chicks, and the digraph ch could
be emphasized. In art, children draw farms, sing farm songs, visit a farm, and learn
some scientific and social studies information about the farm. Topics are selected by the
children and teacher, or spontaneously based on something of interest that occurs in
school, in someone’s home, or in the world.
Equal emphasis is placed on teaching reading, writing, listening, and oral language,
because all of these components help create a literate individual. In the past, this pro-
gram has been referred to as an integrated language arts approach. Themes are studied
through the use of varied genres of children’s literature that provides the main source of
reading material for instruction. Classrooms are rich with literacy materials throughout
the room and housed in literacy centers. This design is often called a rich-literacy environ-
ment (Gelzheiser, Hallgren-Flynn, Connors, & Scanlon, 2014).
In a classroom that uses holistic strategies, teachers place more emphasis on learn-
ing than on teaching. Learning is self-regulated and individualized, with self-selection
and choices of literacy activities. Rather than teach lessons in literacy, teachers provide
experiences that engage children in literacy activities. Social interaction is encouraged
with children along with opportunities for peer tutoring. Children learn through prac-
tice by engaging in long periods of independent reading and writing and sharing what
is learned—by reading to others and presenting written pieces to an audience. A major
objective of this approach is an emphasis on the joy of reading and the development
of lifelong readers.
In classrooms that use holistic approaches, skills are taught when they are relevant
and meaningful. In whole-language classrooms, themes (such as the rain forest) are
studied. The teacher may focus on some letters and sounds found in the vocabulary of
the current theme (such as names of animals in the rain forest). In early implementation
of whole-language programs, some individuals thought that skills were not to be taught
in any systematic way; children would acquire necessary skills by being immersed in
experiences with reading children’s literature and writing. Certainly, skills are assimi-
lated through this immersion approach, but specific skills, such as decoding strategies,
require explicit instruction by the teacher.
Commercial materials do not dictate the instructional program, although they may
be used. Literacy learning is embedded throughout the curriculum during the school
day. Large blocks of time are needed for projects. Children often read independently;
22  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

however, there was little accountability for what was read. Whole language, the inte-
grated language arts approach, and emergent literacy are similar in practice and use a
social constructivist approach to learning with very limited explicit instruction.

Explicit Instruction and Phonics or

Sound–Symbol Relationships
During the mid-1980s and early 1990s, whole-language instruction began to be criti-
cized because test scores seemed to indicate that children were not acquiring literacy
skills needed to become fluent readers. Many educators misunderstood the philoso-
phy and thought that whole language meant teaching children only as a whole class.
Thus, teachers stopped meeting with small groups of children for instruction to handle
individual needs. Many educators also made the incorrect presumption that whole
language meant you shouldn’t teach phonics (sound symbol relationship, e.g., t has the
sound of tuh). Phonics would be learned through immersion into literature with spon-
taneous and contextual teaching of skills instead of explicit instruction. As a result of
the misinterpretations, many children received little or no instruction in phonics. Many
schools did not follow or monitor a scope or sequence of skill development. Because of misinter-
pretation, inadequate professional development, and incorrect implementation, many
children did not develop skills they needed to become fluent, independent readers.
The pendulum began to swing again to those who favored an approach to early lit-
eracy development with more explicit use of phonics; these individuals cited many studies
to substantiate their claims. According to Juel (1989), as children begin to experiment with
reading and writing, they need to focus on the sounds that make up words. As a precursor
to learning how to use phonics (sound–symbol relationships), children need the ability to
rhyme words, hear syllables or parts of words, know that words are made up of individual
sounds, segment sounds out of the words, and blend them together. These skills are called
phonological awareness and phonemic awareness. Phonological and phonemic awareness
instruction in preschool, kindergarten, and first grade strengthens reading achievement
(Byrne & Fielding-Barnsley, 1993, 1995; Stanovich, 1986). With phonological and phonemic
awareness, children can then learn principles of phonics, including (1) alphabetic knowl-
edge (knowing that words are composed of letters) and (2) sound–symbol relationships
(knowing that there is a relationship between printed letters and spoken sounds). Research
results report that knowledge of sound–symbol relationships, or phonics, is necessary for
learning to read and write (Anthony & Lonigan, 2004; Lonigan, 2006). Chapter 8 covers
phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, and phonics in greater detail.
A behaviorist or direct-skills approach for literacy instruction proposes the use of
a strong phonics programs in early literacy. The materials for instruction provide sys-
tematic, explicit instruction of skills with scripted guides for teachers.
Statistics surrounding achievement, coupled with current political beliefs and school
leadership, determine the type of reading instruction that is adopted. Research has proven,
however, that no single approach produces better results than another. First-grade studies
(Bond & Dykstra, 1967a, 1967b) tried to answer the question: Which method is best for
early literacy development? This classic research pooled the findings from 27 independent
studies conducted from 1964 to 1967. Bond and Dykstra ultimately concluded that no one
method was more effective than another such that it should be used exclusively. What
has been found is that exemplary teachers are the key to successful literacy instruction
(Pressley, Allington, Wharton-McDonald, Block, & Morrow, 2001).

Balanced Comprehensive Approach

The International Reading Association’s (now called the International Literacy Associa-
tion) wrote Position Statement: Using Multiple Methods of Beginning Reading Instruction
(1999), which suggests that no single method or single combination of methods can suc-
cessfully teach all children to read. Teachers must know the social, emotional, physical,
 Key Approaches to Early Childhood Literacy 23

and intellectual status of the children they teach. They must also be well versed in the Teaching English Learners
various processes involved and methods for reading instruction. Only then can educators Teachers need to know many
develop a comprehensive plan for teaching reading to meet individual needs. This per- strategies for teaching children
spective on literacy instruction, which emerged as a result of the whole language versus to read and select ones that work
for individual children. Children
phonics discussion, is a balanced comprehensive approach (BCA). The use of a BCA includes
who are EL for example, might
careful selection of the best theories and research based practices available and matches need more time with vocabulary
teaching to the learning styles of individual children to help them learn to read. Both skill- instruction than others.
based explicit instruction and holistic constructivist ideas, which include problem-solving
strategies, might be used (Morrow & Tracey, 1997). Explicit teaching of skills is a start for
constructivist problem-solving activities, and constructivist activities permit consolida-
tion and elaboration of skills. One method does not preclude the other (Pressley, 1998).
Figure 2.1 outlines a balanced comprehensive approach to literacy.
A BCA is not a random combination of strategies, nor is it a formula that uses
whole-class, small-group, and one-on-one instruction in the same format continuously.
A teacher must select strategies from different learning theories to provide appropriate
balance. One child, for example, may be a visual learner who derives little benefit from
instruction in phonics; another child, whose strength may be auditory learning, will

Figure 2.1  Strategies and Structures in a Balanced Comprehensive Approach

SOURCE: Adapted from L. M. Morrow, D. S. Strickland, and D. G. Woo, Literacy Instruction in Half- and Whole-Day Kindergarten: Research to Practice (Fig. 2, p. 76).
Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Copyright © 1998 by the International Reading Association

The language arts

Reading, writing, listening,

speaking, spelling, and viewing

Theme

Settings Materials Types of instruction Experiences and

assessment

Whole group Pencil and paper Spontaneous Shared reading and

writing
Small group Literature Authentic
Guided reading and
One on one Instructional texts Explicit writing for skill
development
Teacher directed Manipulatives Systematic
Centers Oral and silent
Construction of
reading and writing
meaning
Social
(with adults and peers) Independent reading
Problem solving
and writing
Open ended
Collaborative reading
and writing

Content connection in
reading and writing

Performance of
reading and writing
24  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

Figure 2.2  Constructivist and Explicit Behaviorist Lesson Plans for “The Three Bears”
DIRECTIONS: Photocopy, color, and laminate figures on firm paper. Cut and then paste felt on the back and tell the story to the children using the
figures and a felt board. Have the children retell the story as they heard it. Next, ask the children to tell the story again but create a new ending.
Copyright © Pearson Education

learn best from a great deal of phonics instruction. The BCA approach focuses more
heavily on what is important for individual children.
Balanced instruction is grounded in a rich model of literacy learning that encom-
passes the elegance and complexity of literacy processes. This model acknowledges the
importance of both form (phonics and mechanics) and function (comprehension, pur-
pose, and meaning) of the literacy processes. This type of instruction is characterized by
meaningful literacy activities that provide children with both the skill and motivation
to become proficient and lifelong literacy learners (Snow & Matthews, 2016).
Figures 2.2 and 2.3 illustrate a lesson that engages children in both explicit and
constructivist activities.

MyLab Education Self-Check 2.3
 Key Approaches to Early Childhood Literacy 25

Figure 2.2  Constructivist and Explicit Behaviorist Lesson Plans for “The Three Bears” (continued)
26  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

Figure 2.3  Sequencing Strips for “The Three Bears”

Directions: Cut out strips and arrange them in the correct order of events. Technology Link: Video record children in an explicit instruction les-
son and in a constructivist setting. Note the differences in how they pay attention (or don’t) and how involved they are (or aren’t)

Once upon a time, Goldilocks was wandering through

the woods.

She came across the three bears’ house and walked inside.

First she saw three bowls of porridge.

She tried the first bowl, but it was too cold.

She tried the second bowl, but it was too hot.

She tried the third bowl and it was just right.

Next she saw three chairs.

She sat in the first chair, but it was too small.

She sat in the second chair, but it was too big.

She sat in the medium-size chair and it was just right.

 The Effects of Evidence-Based Research and Public Policy on Early Literacy 27

Figure 2.3  Sequencing Strips for “The Three Bears” (continued)

Then Goldilocks went into the bedroom and saw

three beds.

The first bed was way too big.

The second bed was way too small.

The third bed was just right, so she fell asleep.

Soon after, the three bears came home.

They noticed that someone had been sitting in their chairs.

They noticed that someone had been eating their

porridge.

They noticed that someone had been sleeping in

their beds.

Little Bear found Goldilocks in his bed and screamed!

Goldilocks woke up, ran out the door, and never came back
again.

The Effects of Evidence-Based Research

and Public Policy on Early Literacy
Throughout the twentieth century until about the 1960s, federal educational policy was
mostly voluntary. Schools were governed locally; with varied teaching models accepted
with limited accountability, especially to the federal government. As time passed, docu-
ments that came from the federal government became more prescriptive. The federal
28  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

government also engaged in more of its own research as a way to improve policy deci-
sions. As a result, today there is more centralized authority and greater accountability.
Evidence-based research and public policy have had significant effects on early literacy
initiatives and practices.

Teaching English Learners National Reading Panel Report

It is important to use research-
The National Reading Panel Report (2000) was a significant meta-analysis that revealed
based strategies with English
Language Learners. key elements to literacy success. The report presents findings about the most effective strat-
egies for teaching children to read in grades kindergarten through third grade. The panel
reviewed more than 100,000 studies to come up with its results. Panelists admit, however,
that some areas that may be important to literacy instruction, such as writing development
and motivation for reading, were not studied because of a lack of adequate numbers of
high-quality investigations to analyze. In addition, only randomized experimental studies
with treatment and control groups were selected for analysis. Other research designs, such
as qualitative or case study and correlational, were not included because the designs did
not meet with the panel’s criteria. Although the report was published in 2000 it still has a
strong effect on early literacy instruction. The results of the report indicate that learning
the following processes were crucial to becoming a fluent reader by the end of third grade:
• Phonemic awareness (individual sounds are in words)
• Phonics (sound–symbol relationships)
• Vocabulary (learning the meaning of many words in order to understand what is read)
• Comprehension (being able to understand what is read)
• Fluency (reading with expression and appropriate speed).
Writing, independent reading, and motivation were not studied because there
wasn’t enough scientifically based research to determine if these were predictors of
literacy success. However, it is generally accepted among literacy researchers that these
elements are necessary for successful literacy development.

National Early Literacy Panel Report

The National Early Literacy Panel (2008) studied existing scientifically based research
to identify the skills and abilities of young children from birth through age 5 that pre-
dict later achievement in reading. After identifying the variables, the panel determined
environments, settings, programs, and interventions that contribute to or inhibit the
skills that are linked to later outcomes in reading. The variables the panel identified as
those that needed to be acquired by the end of kindergarten were:
Teaching English Learners • Knows the letters of the alphabet and sounds of the letter.
When working with young
• Knows that words are made up of individual sounds, this is called phonological awareness.
English Language Learners we
are more likely to be successful • Can rapidly name letters and numbers.
in their acquisition of the second • Can identify colors, can remember names of a set of pictures.
language than when they are
older. • Can write their name and letters.
• Can remember what was said to them for a while.
• Knows that words are read from left to right, books are read from front to back, can
show you the cover of a book, the text, and so on.
• Can produce or comprehend spoken language.
One important conclusion from the report is that involving children in appropriate
activities will help them develop in these listed areas. Schools whose students do not
score well on measures testing for these variables will be identified as needing help.
There were Early Reading First grants for schools to improve preschool and kindergar-
ten programs.
 The Effects of Evidence-Based Research and Public Policy on Early Literacy 29

No Child Left Behind

Federal research into early childhood literacy influenced policy decisions. In January
2001, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was passed by the Bush administration.
This nonpartisan program had extensive involvement of the federal government with
grants to improve literacy in grades K–3 with strong accountability required. The goal
of NCLB was for every child in the United States to become a fluent reader by the end
of grade 3. The legislation was designed to close the achievement gap in literacy devel-
opment between socioeconomic classes and prevent literacy problems early. To qualify
for these grants, states had to identify the reading assessments and programs in use and
demonstrate that the programs were reliable, valid, and scientifically or evidence based.
The use of financial incentives for districts to achieve continued under the Obama
administration, which launched the 2010 Race to the Top grant program for under-
achieving schools.
As with the Reading First grants, Race to the Top grants include teachers were
specified components to enhance educational outcomes. In Race to the Top (RTT), for
example, grant recipients were held accountable for student scores on standardized
tests and were obligated to implement merit pay for teachers whose children scored
well. Many believe that these initiatives intensified test-preparation activities because
teachers were evaluated on their outcomes. The educational community, concerned
that using one test as the measure for success, would have a negative effect on the cur-
riculum. The RTT program was discontinued in 2016.

Common Core State Standards

Standards are a staple of American schools and curriculum since the late 90s. Schools
find their academic lives shaped by whatever standards become a priority where they
live. There was an effort to develop national standards that creates a clear statement of
what students should know and be able to do at various developmental levels. Stan-
dards attempt to outline the typical progression of student performance, assessments,
and curricular schemes. Some states adopted the CCSS, others didn’t. There has been
variability in the content and quality of standards, and assessments used across states.
(Bandeira de Mello, 2011; Polikoff, Porter, & Smithson, 2011). The Common Core State
Standards Initiative (2010) was an attempt to reduce that variability.
The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) are a set of goals initiated under the
auspices of the National Governors Association (NGA) and the Council of Chief State
School Officers (CCSSO). The CCSS attempt to ensure that at the end of K–12, students are
prepared to enter either college or the workforce and take their place as knowledgeable,
contributing members of the American economy and society. The CCSS were intentionally
designed to improve upon the standards of individual states by creating clear, consistent,
and rigorous standards for the country, globally, and in a digital world.
The CCSS were established by looking closely at standards and curriculum in con-
sistently high-achieving United States sites and in other countries that are high achievers
in literacy.
The CCSS highlights the need for developing literacy and language proficiencies
by extending the involvement of the English language arts in the language arts class-
room and in content area classrooms as well. The CCSS suggests that an integrated
approach should be taken by those teaching English language arts (reading, writing,
listening, and speaking) not as separate entities but rather elements to build on each
other (Caspergue, 2017).
The CCSS are not a curriculum or methods. Schools and teachers, teach the goals
to be attained in their own way and there are assessments to measure achievement. Teaching English Learners
The CCSS have been in effect for a while. Some states have modified them to suit their Kindergarten restaurants
needs, others continue to use them as written. We will always have standards. Exactly demonstrates respect for other
how they will change in the future cannot be determined at the time this book is being cultures as the restaurant changes
written. Different administrations create policy about the teaching of reading. from one country to another.
30  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

MyLab Education Self-Check 2.4

Learning the Initial Consonant P (Explicit Instruction)

Explicit Modeling for Children

Teacher: Today we are going to learn about the sound of P. Who has a name that starts with a P?
Peter: My name does.
Teacher: You are right. Let’s everyone say Peter.
Class: Peter.
Teacher: Now put your hand up to your mouth and say Puh, Puh, Puh.
Class: Puh, Puh, Puh.
Teacher: How did it feel?
Nancy: I felt air, and it was warm.
Teacher: Good. I’m going to tell you a story that has a lot of P words in it. I will use felt figures to tell the story. Listen
and remember your favorite two P words so you can tell your neighbor about them after the story. You
might hear pig, party, pizza, panda, plums, or purple. The story is called The Pig’s Party. (See the characters
in Figure 2.4. Photocopy, color, laminate, and put felt on the back for use on a felt board or magnets for use
on a white board. The characters and items in the story are numbered here and in Figure 2.4.)

Figure 2.4  The Pig’s Party

Copyright © Pearson Education

2 3

6
8

7
 Summary 31

Pink Pig was having a party. He wanted it to be a perfect party. He had invited Patty Pig (1), his favorite pig person, Panda
Bear (2), and Proud Peacock (4). He had petunias on the table and there were pizza for dinner and popsicles for dessert.
Panda Bear came to the party first, and Pink Pig asked, “How can I look special for Patty Pig?” Panda Bear said, “Borrow
my panda bear suit, and you will look perfect.” So Pink Pig put on Panda Bear’s suit, and he thought he looked perfect (3).
Then Proud Peacock came to the party. Pink Pig asked him, “How can I look perfect for the party?” Proud Peacock said,
“Take my purple plumes and put them on, and you will look perfect.” So he did (4, 5, and 6). Everyone agreed he looked
perfect. Patty Pig (7) knocked on the door. Pink Pig opened it. She screamed when she saw Pink Pig; she thought she saw
a monster with his purple plumes and panda bear suit, and she ran away. Pink Pig gave back the suit to Panda Bear and
the plumes to Proud Peacock and took a petunia to run to find Patty Pig (1 and 8). He found her hiding behind the porch.
When she saw Pink Pig she said, “Thank goodness it is you Pink Pig,” and they had a perfect party.

Guided Practice
Teacher: Tell your partner the two words you liked the most that started with a P in the story.

Josh to Jen: I liked plumes and Patty.

Jen to Josh: I liked petunia and pizza.

Teacher: How many of you had the same two words? (Only a few children raise their hands.) How many of you
had one word the same? (A few more raise their hands.) How many had two different words? (Most of
the class raise their hands.)

Independent Practice
Teacher: I will put the pig story and the felt characters in the literacy center in this plastic baggie and you can tell the story or
read the story and write down the P words you remember and like the most. There is paper for you to write your words on.

An Idea from the Classroom

Out to Eat: Kindergarten Restaurateurs (Constructivist Theory)
At the end of a unit on nutrition, students in my kindergarten class have the opportunity to create their own restaurant menu.
Regardless of the menu they create, students are encouraged to include healthy foods. Students draw on their knowledge of
different foods and their personal experiences at various restaurants. As a result, our classroom is filled with menus for Italian
restaurants, Mexican restaurants, diners, breakfast bistros, and more. Our kindergartners write and illustrate their own menus,
using invented and conventional language.
During our morning meeting each day, several students have the opportunity to share their menus with the class and use
persuasive language to try to convince their classmates to visit their restaurant. Then, each week, one or two students set up
their “restaurant” for classmates to visit during dramatic play or centers. I assist students by making copies of their menus for
their classmate patrons and helping them locate or create the foods they will need using the kitchen area of our classroom. Not
only are many speaking and listening standards addressed as students take on the role of restaurant owner, chef, or guest, but
students utilize what they’ve learned in our nutrition unit when deciding what to order!
Amy Monaco, kindergarten teacher

Summary
2.1 Discuss the historical roots of early childhood with the freedom to be themselves. He believed that ed-
education. ucation follows the child’s own development and readi-
ness for learning. Pestalozzi combined Rousseau’s natural
Theories of early childhood began in the 1700s with Jean-
learning philosophy with elements of informal instruc-
Jacques Rousseau and continued into the 1800s through
tion, including sensory work with manipulatives. Froebel
the work of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Friedrich
continued the work of Pestalozzi with an added emphasis
Froebel. Rousseau advocated abandoning contrived in-
on the role of play in learning.
struction in favor of allowing children to grow and learn
32  Chapter 2  Foundations of Early Literacy: From the Past to the Present

2.2 Discuss the evolution of theory and practice in early text, and understanding about what was read. An explicit
childhood education across the twentieth century. (direct-skills) approach for literacy instruction includes a
strong phonics program that incorporates a systematic,
Many theories define the evolution and practice of early
explicit instruction of skills with scripted guides for teach-
childhood education in the twentieth century. Progressive
ers. The balanced comprehensive approach includes care-
education, advocated by John Dewey, argued that curricu-
ful selection of the best theories available and matches
lum should be built around the interests of the child and
learning strategies based on these theories to the learning
that learning is maximized through integrating content
styles of individual children to help them learn to read.
areas into instruction. The behaviorist learning perspec-
Both skill-based explicit instruction and holistic construc-
tive was built on the research of B. F. Skinner and advo-
tivist ideas might be used.
cated an organized program presented in a structured,
routine, systematic, and direct manner. Maria Montessori
also embraced a systematic approach but one coupled with 2.4 Describe the effects of evidence-based research
specific concepts, objectives, and sensorial experiences. and governmental policies and legislation on early
Cognitive development theories advanced by Jean Piaget childhood literacy.
argued that the content of instruction should be appropri- Throughout most of the twentieth century, federal educa-
ate for the child’s developmental stage and that children tional policy was mostly voluntary and symbolic. As policies
acquire knowledge through interacting with the world. became more prescriptive, the federal government engaged
Lev Vygotsky argued that learning occurs as children ac- in its own research to support those policy decisions. The
quire new concepts or schemas, so parents and teachers National Reading Panel Report (2000) was a significant
need to scaffold new ideas for children. Reading readiness meta-analysis that revealed key elements to literacy success:
involves nurturing children through instruction that helps phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension,
them develop skills needed for reading: auditory discrimi- and fluency. The National Early Literacy Panel (2008) stud-
nation, visual discrimination, visual motor skills, and large ied existing scientifically based research to identify the skills
motor skills. and abilities of young children from birth through age 5 that
predict later achievement in reading, such as the ability to
2.3 Identify key approaches to early literacy instruction. decode and comprehend. This research created the context
Three key approaches in early childhood literacy are con- for the No Child Left Behind Act, which requires all U.S.
structivist theory, explicit instruction, and the balanced children to become fluent readers by grade 3. Grants were
comprehensive approach, which blends the two. Emer- awarded to districts to accomplish this goal. The Bush ad-
gent literacy and whole-language instruction are built ministration created Reading First grants, and the Obama
around the constructivist approach. Emergent literacy administration created Race to the Top grants. Common
recognized that behaviors children participated in prior Core State Standards (CCSS) were adopted in 2011 as a way
to reading authentically were actual reading activities to reduce the variability of standards from state to state and
that needed to be recognized and acknowledged. Whole to raise the level of expectation to bring it in alignment with
language advocated the use of real children’s literature the most competitive nations in the world. CCSS cover Eng-
and emphasized the joy of reading, the use of narrative lish language arts as well as other disciplines.

Activities and Questions

1. The emergent literacy and whole-language carried out. Document your findings with specific
philosophies are constructivist approaches to literacy anecdotes illustrating the theory.
instruction. How do constructivists believe that
4. Figures 2.3 and 2.4 offer a basic look at teaching
children learn?
using constructivist and explicit approaches to
2. Select a constructivist mentioned in the chapter and instruction. Is one of these types of teaching better
a behaviorist. Create a lesson on any topic that uses than another and why?
both theories in the plan.
5. What is the purpose of having standards?
3. Observe an early childhood classroom (preschool
6. How have policies influenced classroom practice?
through third grade). Decide which theoretical
Explain.
influences have determined the type of practices
Chapter 3
Assessment in Early
Literacy

Photo credit: Jules Selmes/Pearson Education

Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
3.1 Explain the role of assessment in early literacy development.

3.2 Define authentic assessment and describe several techniques for

conducting it.
3.3 Identify and describe in-depth measures of assessment.

3.4 Discuss the pros and cons of standardized tests.

3.5 Discuss standards and explain how they can affect the literacy
curriculum.
3.6 Describe standards and assessment tools designed to measure
outcomes against them.

33
34  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

The following is a quote from the book First Grade Takes a Test. (Miriam Cohen. First
VOCABULARY Grade Takes a Test, pp 9–10, Star Bright Books. Copyright © 2006 Star Bright Books, Inc.)
Standards On the test there was a picture of Sally and Tom. Sally was giving Tom
Standardized tests something. It looked like a baloney sandwich. Underneath it said:
High-stakes assessment Sally is taller than Tom. 
Informal reading inventories Tom is taller than Sally. 
Portfolio assessment
Running records Jim wondered what being tall had to do with getting a baloney sandwich.
And was it really a baloney sandwich? It might be tomato. Jim took a long time on
that one (Cohen, 1980, pp. 9–10).
In the book it explains how the teacher passes out tests and how one child was very
nervous since she only knew a little English but, in Spanish she was fluent and read very
well. She filled in boxes with an X as she was supposed to but really didn’t understand
the questions to make a good decision for the answer. The author went on and talked
about another child whose name was George. He read a question about rabbits and what
they eat. The answer choices were sandwiches, lettuce, and meat. He knew that rabbits
needed to eat carrots to keep their teeth from growing too long. He had a rabbit once,
and they told him that at the pet store. He didn’t know what box to check, so he drew a
carrot in the test booklet and put an X next to it.
In both incidents, children answered questions incorrectly on the standardized test
but for different reasons. George, related his own experience to the question at hand,
and actually had a more sophisticated answer than those provided. His answer was
marked incorrect because his background experience with rabbits was different from
that of the person who wrote the test. In addition, George was not familiar with how
to take the test, by filling in the box beside the best answer provided. Rosa could not
comprehend the test in English. Although she was reading at grade level in Spanish,
she was jeopardized because of her language background. In both incidents, children
answered incorrectly, but not because they did not know the answer.

Assessing Early Literacy Development

This chapter deals with critical issues facing early childhood educators: achieving stan-
dards by assessing the needs of children. Assessment must be sensitive to children’s
different backgrounds, abilities, and needs in order for teachers to select appropriate
instructional strategies.
This chapter covers many issues relating to the topic of assessment in detail, includ-
ing basic assessment instruments. The practical applications for assessment of chil-
dren’s performance will be discussed in the chapters that deal with the various skills
and instructional strategies. The purpose of assessment in early childhood is to generate
data that can be used to create more effective instruction. That is, assessment is about
information-gathering.
Early literacy educators must take into consideration children’s interests, learn-
ing styles, and different achievement levels; therefore, they think about instruction as
being guided by assessment. Administering a single standardized paper-and-pencil
test is insufficient for assessing everything teachers need to know about each child. Nor
can one measure be the only source for evaluating a child’s progress. Teachers need to
test children and assess their performance in many areas and under many conditions.
Assessment should help the teacher, child, and parent determine a child’s strengths and
weaknesses and plan appropriate instructional strategies; it should also match edu-
cational goals and practices. To meet the needs of all children, there must be multiple
measures to see how a child performs in different settings.
 Authentic Assessment: Measures and Strategies 35

The International Literacy Association (ILA) and the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC) issued a joint position statement on learning to
read and write (1998) that recommends using culturally and developmentally appropri-
ate assessment measures. Additionally, the assessments should align with the instruc-
tional objectives, while always keeping in mind best practices for the total development
of the child. Quality assessment should be drawn from real-life reading and writing
tasks and should continuously follow a range of literacy activities.

MyLab Education Self-Check 3.1

Authentic Assessment: Measures

and Strategies
Authentic assessment is defined as assessment activities that represent and reflect the
actual learning and instructional activities of the classroom and out of school world.
MyLab Education
Several objectives emerge from an authentic assessment perspective (Johnston &
Video Example 3.1
Costello, 2005; Purcell-Gates, Duke, & Martineau, 2007; Risko & Walker-Dalhouse, 2011).
Five Keys to Comprehensive
Assessment
In this video, Linda Darling-
Objectives for Assessment Hammond reviews different types
of assessment and highlights best
• Assessment should be based on a variety of measures. practices.
• Assessment should be observations of children engaged in authentic classroom https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=HFimMJL3Wz0
reading and writing tasks, daily performance samples, standardized tests, and
standards-based tests.
• Assessment should focus on children’s learning based on the goals of
­curriculum and standards.
• Formative assessment is the continual collection of many assessments of
­children’s work over a learning period.
• Assessment should take into account the diversity of students’ cultural,
­language, and special needs.
• Assessment should be collaborative and include the participation of children,
parents, and teachers.
• Summative assessment is at the end of a learning period to evaluate the child’s
progress, how well the instruction helped the child to improve. It is a guide for
designing future instruction.

To accomplish these goals, assessment often called formative assessment, is

frequent with varied measures. The main goal is to observe and record actual behav-
ior that provides the broadest possible picture of a particular child (McKenna &
Dougherty-Stahl, 2009; Fountas & Pinnell, 2012). Every chapter in this book that
deals with a specific area of literacy development contains a section with sugges-
tions for collecting assessment data for particular skills. In this chapter, we provide
general assessment measures that will help paint a comprehensive picture of a child.
Educators should integrate a variety of authentic assessment methods into their
instruction. Some of the more common and more useful types include: anecdotal
observation forms, daily performance samples, audio recordings, videos, pencil-
and-paper forms, student evaluations, surveys and interviews, conferences, and
checklists (Dennis, Rueter, & Simpson, 2013).
36  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

Figure 3.1  Sample Observation Form

source: From Morrison, Fundamentals of Early Childhood Education, 5th edition. © 2008.

Teacher’s Name:
Child’s Name:
Date: Time: Location of Observation:
Purpose for Observing:

Significant Events During Observation:

Reflective Analysis of Significant Event (this reflection should include what you have
learned):

List at least three ways you can use or apply what you observed to your future
teaching:

Anecdotal Observation Forms

Authentic observation forms are prepared forms or teacher-made forms used for
observing and recording children’s behavior. Observation forms usually have broad
categories with large spaces for notes about children’s activities. Goals for observ-
ing should be planned and forms designed to meet those goals. Teachers can write
down interesting, humorous, and general comments about the child’s behavior in
the classroom. Observations should focus on one particular aspect of the child’s
performance, such as oral reading, silent reading, behavior while listening to sto-
ries, or writing. Within the descriptions of behavior, dialogue is often recorded, for
example:
Although Janet read orally without errors, her reading was without expres-
sion. She read, “The big bad wolf ran away” and every word was said in the
same tone. I asked her to listen to me read the sentence and then echo read
it or read it as I did after me and she did. She said, “I like doing that. Can
we try it again?”

Figure 3.1 presents a sample form that can be used for several different types of
observations—for example, oral reading behavior, writing, and more.

Daily Performance Samples

These are samples of the child’s work in all content areas that are done on a daily
basis. Daily performance samples provide data points about how the child is learning
and mastering the content. This data allows teachers to track learning trends for each
student individually, as well as the class as a whole. Various types of samples from dif-
ferent content domains should be collected periodically (refer to Figure 3.2).
 Authentic Assessment: Measures and Strategies 37

Figure 3.2  A Daily Performance Sample of Nicole’s Writing at the End of Her Kindergarten Year
Copyright © Pearson Education

Audio and Video Recordings

Both audio and visual assessments represent digital literacies that provide authentic
audiences and purposes. Students enjoy the act of performing and having their efforts
recorded; thus, these digital literacies simultaneously accomplish the goals of authentic
assessment and student participation in intrinsically motivating practices.

Audio Recordings.  Audio recordings are an assessment that can determine language
development, comprehension through a recorded retelling of a story, progress in the
fluency of oral reading, and so on. By recording discussion sessions related to responses
to literature, the teacher can better understand how youngsters function in a group.
Audio recordings can also be used as a type of self-assessment. Children can listen to
their own recordings to evaluate both their story retellings and fluency. Chapter 6 and
Chapter 9 on comprehension provides a transcription of a child’s recorded retelling and
an accompanying assessment tool.

Videos.  Videos allow teachers to view and review their students in action. Videos are
an excellent and rich form of assessment because the teacher can hear the child as well
as see the child’s facial expressions and body movements. Teachers can also use videos
to assess their own teaching performance.
Because of the wealth of information contained in assessment videos, teachers need
to have a specific purpose in mind when choosing video as an assessment tool and col-
lected recordings should be evaluated with a checklist or observation form.
38  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

Teacher-made Pencil-and-Paper Tests

As the name suggests, teachers design these tests to match instruction. Because it’s
customized, this type of assessment can closely follow the progress of the students and
what they are actually learning.

Student Evaluation Forms

Children should regularly evaluate themselves by collecting samples of their work
and discussing them with their teacher, parents, and other children. In addition, chil-
dren should use student evaluation (self-evaluation) forms to evaluate their own

Figure 3.3  Reading Interview for Children

Copyright © Pearson Education

Name: Date:
Ask questions that are age appropriate for the child you are interviewing.
1. What is a book?

2. What do people do with books?

3. What can books be about?

4. What is your favorite book? Why?

5. What is your least favorite book? Why?

6. What is fun about reading?

7. What is hard about reading?

8. Do you like to read outside of class?

9. What kinds of things do you read outside of class?

 Authentic Assessment: Measures and Strategies 39

performance. Completing self-evaluation forms allows children to reflect on their learn-

ing experience and helps them become intentional learners and start to develop meta-
cognitive skills. Self-evaluations should be an integral part of authentic assessment.

Surveys and Interviews

Teachers can prepare surveys to assess children’s attitudes about how they think
they are learning or what they like or dislike in school. Surveys can be in the form
of ­questionnaires or interviews with written or oral answers. Chapter 12 provides a
motivation survey in the form of a multiple-choice questionnaire that asks for open-
ended responses. (Note the sample surveys about literacy in Figures 3.3 and 3.4.)

Figure 3.4  Writing Interview for Children

Copyright © Pearson Education

Name: Date:
Ask questions that are age appropriate for the child you are interviewing.
1. What is writing?

2. What do people write about?

3. What is the most fun to write about?

4. What is the least fun to write about?

5. What is your favorite thing about writing?

6. What is hard about writing?

7. If you wrote a book, what would you write about?

8. Do you like to write outside of class?

9. What kinds of things do you write about outside of class?

 40  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

Conferences
Conferences allow the teacher to meet with a child one-to-one to assess skills such as
reading aloud, discuss a child’s progress, talk about steps to improve, provide individ-
ual instruction, and prescribe activities. Children should take an active role in evaluat-
ing their progress, and parents should be involved in conferencing with teachers about
their child’s progress—both with and without the child present. Read the following
interaction between Janice and her teacher Ms. Hall. Notice how the teacher and child
contribute to learning.
Ms. Hall: Janice, that was excellent reading. You used expression, and you used the
illustrations to help you know what was written.

Janice: I remember how you read it when we did echo reading with this book
and I used the expression I learned from you. The pictures help a lot. I
like to look at them first to get an idea what that page will be about.

Ms. Hall: Janice, I noticed you had a problem figuring out one of the words at the
end of the book and I helped you. The word was prepared and the sentence
was, “Mother prepared spaghetti for dinner.” What was the problem?

Janice: I couldn’t sound it out and didn’t know what else to do.

Ms. Hall: So, I asked you to read the sentence and look at the picture and fill in a
word that made sense. You said, “It might say Mother made spaghetti for
dinner.” That makes sense but the first letter of the word is p so the word
“made” wasn’t right. So, I asked you to try and sound out the word now
by making sense and also looking at the letters in the word.

Janice:  h and I looked at the picture which

O
helped so I finally got it.

Ms. Hall:  reat job “Janice” you are using all of

G
the strategies we learned to figure out
words.

Checklists
Checklists and inventories include lists of
developmental behaviors or skills for children
Photo credit: Jennifer Kamm Greco

to accomplish. The checklist should be based

on objectives a teacher may have for instruc-
tion and designed to determine whether goals
set forth have been accomplished. Figure 3.10
at the end of the chapter organized the devel-
opmental characteristics of children and can be
used as a checklist to determine how children
are developing socially, emotionally, physi-
Conferences or one-on-one meetings provide a chance for students and teachers to cally, and cognitively based on their age.  In
have interactive assessments, which help the teacher and child discuss what he or several chapters of the book, checklists for
she has learned and what is needed to learn more.
skills are presented.

MyLab Education Self-Check 3.2

More In-depth Measures of Assessment

The assessment tools discussed to this point have offered ways to take a snapshot of
a student’s performance at a particular moment. As informative as they are, however,
teachers also need to incorporate more in-depth tools into their assessment programs,
 More In-depth Measures of Assessment 41

for example, running records, informal reading inventories (IRIs), and portfolio
assessments.

Running Records
Marie Clay (1993a) created running records for observing and recording children’s
oral reading and for planning instruction. In this analysis, what a child can do and
the types of errors the child makes when reading are recorded. Running records
can be useful in determining the appropriate material to use for instructional pur- MyLab Education
poses and for independent reading, and they can also help the teacher identify a Video Example 3.2
student’s frustration level. The data collected from a running record, specifically the Running Record Assessment
numbers and types of errors students make, should inform the level of material the In this video, a teacher
teacher uses for instruction and the types of instructional strategies used to deliver discusses how to analyze a
running record. It is part of an
it. Having the instruction reflect the information gathered from running records is
18-video series on Running
crucial. One drawback of running records, however, is that they devote more time Records.
indicating types of errors students make in oral reading than evaluating their ability https://www.youtube.com/
to comprehend text. watch?v=QHrHS6wGOko
Using running records is straightforward. In taking a running record, the child is
asked to read a short passage of 100 to 200 words from a book the child has not read
before. Younger children have shorter passages, and older children have longer ones.
Select a book you believe is at the independent level for a child, that is, a book that
she or he can read easily. If the child gets each word correct, then select a book that is
a bit more difficult. The teacher and the student each have a copy of the passage. As
the child reads, the teacher makes the running record by marking the passage using
the prescribed coding system to indicate whether words are read correctly and what
types of errors are made. The types of errors recorded are insertion of a word, omis-
sion of a word, repeating a word, substituting one word for another, reversal, refusal
to pronounce a word, and an appeal for help. Self corrections are recorded but are not
considered errors (refer to Figure 3.5). For the running record to be a valid representa-
tion of the student’s ability, the teacher must know the difficulty level of the materials
being used and match students to the appropriate level. Leveled books for difficulty
are discussed later as commonly used materials.
After collecting the raw data by marking up the passage, the teacher needs to ana-
lyze the data by organizing it on a running record form such as the one in Figure 3.6.
The form allows the teacher to systematically review the errors the students made and
classify them as meaning (M), structure (S), or visual (V) errors.

1. Meaning error (Does it make sense?). When you look at an error, figure out
if the child is using meaning cues in identifying the word. If the child is using
information from the text, picture clues, or context clues and reads, “The boy took
the leaf from the tree” instead of “The boy pulled the leaf from the tree,” he has
made an error but the meaning is intact. This error should be marked with an M.
The child knows how to use the context to get the word but needs to look more
closely at the print.
2. Visual errors (use of phonics). When a child makes a visual error, she knows how
to use phonics to decode but doesn’t pay attention to the meaning of the text. This
child reads, “I stepped the milk,” instead of “I spilled the milk.”
This error is marked with a V. In this situation, ask the child if what she read
makes sense and emphasize that it is important to think about the meaning of the
sentence when reading, as well as look carefully at the words.
3. Structure error (Is the syntax correct?). The child makes a structure or syntax error
when he intuitively understands the syntax in sentences. For example, if a child
42  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

Figure 3.5  Running Record Coding System

From Teaching Children to Read by D. Ray Reutzel and Robert B. Cooter. Copyright © 2013.

Reading Behavior Notation Explanation

Accurate reading Notation: A check is noted for each word
pronounced correctly.

Self-Correction attempt sc The child corrects an error himself. This is not

word in text counted as a miscue.
Notation: “SC” is the notation used for
self-corrections.

Omission A word or words are left out during the reading.

Word in text Notation: A dash mark is written over a line above
the word(s) from the text that has been omitted.

Insertion Word inserted The child adds a word that is not in the text.
Notation: The word inserted by the reader is
placed above a line and a dash placed below it.

Student Appeal A The child is “stuck” on a word he cannot call and

and Assistance Word from text asks (verbal or nonverbal) the teacher for help.
Notation: “A” is written above a line for “assisted”
and the problem word from the text is written
below the line.

Repetition Sometimes children will repeat words or phrases.

These repetitions are not scored as an error, but
R are recorded.
Notation: Write an “R” after the word repeated
and draw a line back to the point where the reader
returned.

Substitution Substituted word The child says a word that is different from the
Word from text word in the text.
Notation: The student’s substitution word is
written above a line under which the correct word
from text is written.

reads, “I went to the zoo,” instead of “I ran to the zoo,” the English grammar or
syntax is correct because a verb goes in that spot, but the word chosen is not cor-
rect. As a result, you mark this error with an S and know the child understands the
sentence structure but needs to look more closely at the print.

MyLab Education Application Exercise 3.1

After categorizing the child’s errors, the teacher can calculate an accuracy rate:

Total words 2 Errors

3 100 5 % Accuracy
Total words
 More In-depth Measures of Assessment 43

Figure 3.6  Running Record Form

SOURCE: Adapted from M. Clay, Running Records for Classroom Teachers. Reprinted by permission of Pearson New Zealand.

Name: Date:

Book: Book level:

Words: Error rate: Accuracy rate:

Errors:

Self-correction rate:

Cues used
E—errors SC—self-correction
E SC Text M S V M S V

M—meaning, S—structure, V—visual, E—error, SC—self-correction

Reading level
Independent: 95% to 100% accuracy
Instructional: 90% to 95% accuracy
Difficult (or Frustration): 89% or less accuracy
Reading proficiency: fluent word by word choppy
Retelling
Setting: characters time place
Theme: problem or goal
Events: number included
Resolution: solved problem achieved goal ending

In other words,

1. Record the number of words in the testing passage (e.g., 70 words).

2. Count the number of errors made by the child and subtract that from the total
number of passage words (e.g., 5 errors subtracted from 70 equals 65).
3. Divide that number (65) by the total words in the passage (70).
4. Multiply that by 100; the result equals the percent of accuracy for the passage read
(about 93% in this example).
44  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

If a child reads 95 to 100% of the words correctly (generally 0 to 3 errors in the pas-
sage), the material is at his or her independent level; if 90 to 95% of the words are correct
(roughly 4 to 10 errors in the passage), the material is at the instructional level; less than
90% of the words read correctly (more than 11 errors) is the child’s frustration level. If a
child is at the frustration level with the first book he or she tries, for kindergarten, stop
testing. If an older child is at frustration level for the first passage, go down as many
levels as necessary until you arrive at the appropriate instructional material.

MyLab Education Application Exercise 3.2

Keep in mind that although leveled books are good for small group reading instruc-
tion, they are not meant to replace literature. Leveled books are mostly for instruc-
tion. Standards have recommended that, from time to time, teachers use books above
a child’s grade level to help the child strive to reach higher goals. When using books
that are more difficult for a child than his or her current instructional level, the teacher
should be reading the book to the child. Although they may not be able to read the
book alone, they can learn new vocabulary and have sophisticated discussions about
it. Often listening comprehension is greater than reading comprehension. If the child
wishes to read the book, she can follow along in their own copy as the teacher reads.
The teacher needs to model, and provide a lot of support, when the child is reading a
text that is difficult for him.
The running record form also contains a place to indicate if the child’s reading was
fluent, word by word, or choppy. Teachers can also ask children to retell stories read
to determine comprehension of text (Kuhn, 2007; Stahl & Heubach, 2005; Bellinger &
DiPerna, 2011).
MyLab Education Running records should be done about at least once every other month for all early
Video Example 3.3 childhood students. Teachers should talk to children about the types of errors they make
Running Record Analysis in a running record; teachers should also provide children with strategies such as listening
In this video, two teachers discuss to the meaning of a sentence and looking at the letters in the word to figure out a word.
the purpose of a running record Children who cannot yet read sentences in the first-leveled books can be evalu-
and model how to use it with
ated for their progress with a letter recognition test. This test shows the letters of the
a student (1:48). At 7:55, they
model how to analyze it to plan alphabet printed out of order in uppercase and lowercase. Children are asked to read
instruction. the letter names one row at a time as the teacher records correct and incorrect letters.
https://www.youtube.com/ The test can go one step further, to determine whether students know sound–symbol
watch?v=AxJxp9bT0yA&t=118s correspondence, by asking children if they know the sound that particular letters make
and a word that begins with each letter or sound and then recording their responses.
In addition, high frequency word recognition assessment can be done. Chapter 7 is a
high-frequency word list. The list can be divided by grade level according to which
words are considered most difficult. The teacher asks children to read words from the
list beginning with what are considered to be the easiest first. If they are successful,
the next group of words for the next grade level is tried. Vocabulary word lists will be
discussed more in Chapter 7.

Informal Reading Inventories

Informal reading inventories (IRIs) are similar to running records, but they place a
larger emphasis on comprehension. The purpose of this type of inventory is to deter-
mine a student’s reading level, such as first, third, or sixth grade. This is done by having
children read graded word lists. They may also read graded reading passages orally
and silently to help determine if the materials are at their (1) independent reading level
 Figure 3.7  Sample Reading Inventory and Scoring Guide
Adapted with permission of Kendall Hunt Publishing, from Johns, J. (2012). Basic reading inventory; pre-primer through grade twelve and early literacy assessment. Dubuque, IA: Kendal
Hunt Publishing Company.

First Grade Miscues

(refer to Figure 3.7).

Comprehension Questions
T 1. ____ What is the story about?
F 2. ____ Where did Spotty go?
F 3. ____ What did Spotty see?
Spotty Swims

Substitution
Insertion
Omission
Reversal
Repetition
Self-Correction
Meaning Change
F 4. ____ What happened when Spotty saw the frog?
One day Spotty went for a walk. F 5. ____ What did the frog do when Spotty barked?
The sun was warm. Spotty walked to F 6. ____ What did Spotty do when the water went
the pond. There he saw a frog. The over his head?
frog was on a log. Spotty wanted to F 7. ____ What did Spotty learn in the story?
play. Spotty began to bark. The frog I 8. ____ Who was Spotty?
jumped in the water. E 9. ____ Why do you think Spotty wanted to play
Then Spotty jumped into the water.
with the frog?
V 10. ___ What is a "pond"?
But poor Spotty did not know what to
do. The water was very deep. The water Comprehension Scoring Guide
went way over his head. Spotty moved Questions Level
Missed
his legs. Soon his head came out of the
0–1 Independent
water. He kept moving. He came to 1.5–2 Ind./Inst.
the other side of the pond. That is how 2.5 Instructional
3–4.5 Inst./Frust.

text. The comprehension questions focus on main ideas, inferences, and vocabulary
material is too difficult for them to read). After reading, children answer several types
material but need some scaffolding from the teacher; or (3) frustration level (when the
(when they don’t need help); (2) instructional reading level (when they can read the

of comprehension questions. Students should read both narrative and informational

Spotty learned to swim. 5+ Frustration
Total Word Recognition Scoring Guide
Total Level Significant
Miscues Miscues
0–1 Independent 0–1
2–4 Ind./Inst. 2
5 Instructional 3
6–9 Inst./Frust. 4
10+ Frustration 5+
More In-depth Measures of Assessment 45
46  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

As with the running record, when teachers listen to the oral reading, they use a
coding system to identify and record the types of errors the children make. For exam-
ple, these codes will indicate if the students omit words, repeat words, reverse words,
self-correct, add words, substitute words, and so on. This information helps to guide
instruction. One of the most important elements of the IRI, however, is the assessment
of comprehension when a child reads or listens to a story (Flippo, Holland, McCarthy, &
Swinning, 2009). Children can be tested reading orally and silently. Errors are counted
and an accuracy percentage is calculated which indicates if the book the child is reading
is at his or her independent, instructional, or frustration level.
When we read to children, sometimes the material should be above their reading
level but at their level of comprehension. With the use of the IRI, comprehension ques-
tions can determine if what is being read is too easy or too difficult for the child’s listening
comprehension (Gunning, 2003; Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2006; Tompkins, 2003). Teachers
can make their own IRI tests, but there are also published tests. Some of these tests are:

• Johns, J. (2012). Basic Reading Inventory; Pre-primer through Grade Twelve and Early
Literacy Assessment. Dubuque, IA: Kendal Hunt Publishing Company.
• Leslie, L. & Caldwell, J. S. (2011). Qualitative reading inventory-5. Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
• Mariotti, A. & Homan, S. (2001). Linking reading assessment to instruction: An applica-
tion worktext for elementary classroom teachers (5th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
• Wheelock, W., Silvaroli, J. & Campbell, C. (2005). Classroom reading inventory
(12th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
• Woods, M. J. & Moe, A. (2011). Analytical reading inventory: Comprehensive standard
based assessment for all students including gifted and remedial (9th ed.). Boston, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.

The children are to read the passage. As they read you can determine the types of
oral reading errors made, and when they answer the comprehension questions you can
see how well they understand the text. If using this as a retell, for oral and silent reading,
have them retell it first and then ask them the comprehension questions. Scoring proce-
dures for retelling are in Chapter 9 on comprehension, scoring for types of oral errors
are in this chapter, and scoring for comprehension is on the page with the passage. If a
child gets 0 to 4 questions correct, the material is at the appropriate level for his inde-
pendent level of reading. Five questions correctly correspond to his instructional level
and five to 10 incorrect reflects his frustration level. The graded passages tell you what
the child’s reading grade level is. Chapter 13 discusses the concept of leveling books
for instructional purposes in more depth.

Portfolio Assessment
Portfolio assessment provides a way for teachers, children, and parents to collect rep-
resentative samples of children’s work. It can include work in progress and completed
samples. A portfolio provides a story of where children have been and what they are
capable of doing now, to determine where they should go from this point forth. The
teacher’s portfolio should include work selected by the child, teacher, and parent. It
should represent the best work that children can produce and illustrate difficulties they
may be experiencing. The physical portfolio is often a folder that is personalized with
a drawing by the child, a picture of the child, and his or her name.
Currently, many teachers are opting to create digital portfolios where all of the
students’ work is electronic. Computerized assignments can simply be transferred
into an electronic folder, and projects that are done by hand can be scanned into a
computer file and added to that same folder. A separate digital folder can be used for
each child. One obvious benefit of a digital portfolio is that it is easy for the student,
teacher, parents, and future teachers to obtain copies, as the folders can be attached
 More In-depth Measures of Assessment 47

Figure 3.8  Schedule for Collecting Portfolio Samples and Tests

*Not applicable for Pre-K. source: Copyright (c) Pearson Education

Student: Grade:

School: Teacher:

Tests are given in September, January, and May. Record the test when given in the space provided.

Sept. Jan. May Sept. Jan. May Sept. Jan. May Sept. Jan. May
“Grade” “Pre-K” “Pre-K” “Pre-K” “K” “K” “K” “1” “1” “1” “2” “2” “2”

1. Child interview
2. Parent interview
3. Self-portrait
4. Concepts about
print test
5. Story retelling/
reenactment
6. Written retelling*
7. Free writing
8. Letter
recognition
9. Running record*
10. High-frequency
sight words
11. Observation
comments

and sent in an email or transferred to removable storage drives. Digital portfolios

also reduce the amount of paperwork stored in the classroom and make organizing
and tracking items easier.
Whether a teacher opts for a physical or digital portfolio, it should include grade
appropriate work such as:

• Daily work performance samples

• Anecdotes about behavior
• Audio and video of oral reading
• Analyzed language samples
• Analyzed story retellings
• Checklists recording skill development
• Interviews
• Standardized and standards-based test results
• Child’s self-assessment form
• Evaluated expository and narrative writing samples.
48  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

MyLab Education Application Exercise 3.3

Some schools have formal schedules for collecting portfolios and administering
tests (refer to Figure 3.8). A portfolio should be prepared by the teacher with the child.
Children usually take them home at the end of the school year. Occasionally, teachers
pass a portfolio on to the next teacher the child will have (McKenna & Dougherty-Stahl,
2009). With all of this information the teacher should write a narrative about the child’s
formative assessment early in the school year and his summative assessment at the
end of the year. These reflections discuss what the child can do and needs to do (Gullo,
2013). Following is such a reflection.

September: First Grade

Student: DJ
Teacher: Ms. Murray
Recommendations for Instructions Based on Multiple Measures of Assessment (Courtesy of Lesley Mandel Morrow)
DJ recognizes most of the letters of the alphabet but must learn to recognize all of the letters specifically upper and lower case
and their sounds. This will help him with figuring out unknown words in both reading and writing. When reading, he needs to learn
to self-monitor—that is, remember the strategies he has learned and use them. If one strategy doesn’t work than he should be
able to use another. In this way he will begin to self-monitor his reading.
DJ’s reading is word by word. He needs help with automaticity and expressions. I will need to select texts on his ­independent
level so he can practice fluency and gradually move up to texts at his instructional level. I need to model fluent reading for him
and do some echo reading.
When writing DJ needs to leave appropriate space within a word and between words, and match sounds of letters when
writing words. He has a similar problem in reading text. He does not seem to be able to focus on a word to figure it out and will
read words out of sequence in a sentence.
Now in September, DJ’s reading level is in an A text. My goal is for him to reach beginning second grade level reading by
the end of first grade.

Recommendations for Instructions Based on Multiple Measures

February 2: Grade 1
Student: DJ
Teacher: Ms. Murray
DJ has mastered recognition of all of the letters in the alphabet both upper and lower case. He knows all the regular letter sounds
and the hard and soft c and g. He still has trouble with vowel sounds. He is demonstrating strong word solving skills. He still
hesitates for a long time for figuring out unknown words. More work with phonics, reading pictures for clues, and figuring out
the word by selecting one that makes sense with the context and the sounds in the word. I will also try and increase his sight
word vocabulary.
DJ can identify a variety of text structures. He also uses visual information, including familiar word families or patterns within
words, to solve unknown words. DJ uses multiple strategies to figure out unknown words such as the meaning of the sentence,
picture clues, clues from the syntax of a sentence and phonics skills.
When writing DJ is now able to compose varied, compound sentences with good detail. His spacing in writing has improved
enormously. His sentences sometimes run on. Continued instruction will teach him how to break up his sentences so they are
more easily read and grammatically correct.
From September until February, DJ has become a confident reader and uses strategies learned to help him with decoding
and understanding the text. He monitors his fluency and will repeat a sentence when the pace and expression don’t seem quite
right to him. He is ready to work on developing many strategies to help him comprehend.
DJ has demonstrated steady growth in his independent use of reading strategies. He is now reading in a Level G book.

MyLab Education Self-Check 3.3

Standardized Tests: The Pros and Cons

In addition to the informal assessments, teachers are also responsible for administer-
ing formal assessments. Standardized tests often start in third grade. However there
is more and more testing in preschool and kindergarten than in the past. Standardized
 Standardized Tests: The Pros and Cons 49

tests are prepared by publishers and are norm referenced; that is, they are adminis-
tered to large numbers of students when they are created to develop norms. Norms
are the average performance of students who are tested at a particular grade and age
level. When selecting a standardized test, it is important to check its validity for your
students. That is, does the test evaluate what it says it tests for, and does it match the
goals you have for your students? The reliability of the test is important as well. In other
words, are scores accurate and dependable when given over and over again? Other
features of standardized tests are as follows:
1. Grade equivalent scores are raw scores converted into grade level scores. For
example, if a child scores a grade equivalent of 2.3, in first grade, it means as a
first grader the child reads on a 2.3 grade level.
2. Percentile ranks are raw scores converted into a rank according to where the child
ranked as compared to all children who took the test at the same grade and age
level. Therefore, if a youngster received a percentile rank of 80, it would mean that
she scored better than or equal to 80% of students taking the test in the same grade
and age level and that 20% of the children taking the test scored better.
Although many criticisms are associated with standardized measures, they do pres-
ent another source of information about a child’s performance. Parents like receiving
the information from the test because it is concrete information regarding where their
child ranks among others in the same grade. It must be emphasized, however, that
standardized scores are just one type of information and no more important than all
the other measures discussed earlier.

Concerns Associated with Standardized Testing

Because standardized tests represent only one form of assessment, their use must be
coordinated with that of other assessment measures. Some standardized tests for early
literacy evaluate children on skills such as auditory memory, rhyme, letter recognition,
visual matching, school language, and listening. Less commonly covered by standard-
ized tests are many practices that nurture early literacy, such as measuring a child’s
prior knowledge, book concepts, attitudes about reading, association of meaning with
print, and characteristics of printed materials. Additionally, one child might pass all
portions of a standardized test and still not be ready to read. Another child might not
pass any portion of the test but already be reading.
Some standardized tests do not match the instructional practices suggested by the
latest research and theory on early literacy. Because school districts are often evaluated
on how well children perform on the standardized tests, teachers may feel pressured to
teach to the test. This situation is often referred to as high-stakes assessment because
major decisions are being made from the results of one test score. For example, a teach-
er’s competency might be judged based on test scores; these scores may also factor
into the decision to retain or promote a child to the next grade. Some schools prepare
children for standardized tests by drilling them on sample tests similar to the real ones.
The sample tests are graded, and instruction is geared to remedy student weaknesses. If
teachers do not prepare children for the test with practice sessions and do not teach to
the test, their children may not score well. However, children must have the advantage
of knowing what the test is like and some test taking strategies. They need to be able to:
• Follow the directions and how to fill in the answers.
• They need to know to read the entire question and all of the answers before select-
ing the answer.
• If the test allows, answer easier questions in a section first and then go back to the
more difficult ones.
• If the test is multiple choice and you aren’t sure about the answer eliminate answers you
know aren’t right and then you can more easily figure out which is the right answer.
50  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

• Don’t change your answer, your first response is likely to be correct.

• Remember the test is timed so don’t spend too much time on something very
difficult for you. Skip it and answer as many questions as possible.

Standardized tests, on which high stakes decisions are based, can potentially
yield inaccurate information. Figure 3.9 illustrates hypothetical subscores and overall
percentile ranks of three kindergarten children on a typical standardized test. The
example illustrates the need for teachers to use multiple assessment measures and
also take into account the whole child when determining academic strengths and
weaknesses (Im, 2017).
Student A scored well in auditory and visual skills and poorly in language skills.
The child’s overall score is at the 50th percentile. Student B has good auditory skills,
poor visual skills, and good language skills, and also scored overall at the 50th percen-
tile. Student C scored fairly consistently across visual, auditory, and language skills,
and likewise scored overall at the 50th percentile. These three children are very differ-
ent in ability yet have scored at the same overall percentile on a standardized test. All
three children will go to the first grade and could be placed in the same reading group,
even though Student A has a possible language deficit and is missing one of the most
important ingredients for reading success—a strong language base. It is very unlikely
that the three will achieve similar success in reading, although they might be expected
to on the basis of their test scores.

Figure 3.9  Hypothetical Subtest Profiles on Three Kindergarten Children Achieving

about the Same Test Performance Rating
Copyright © Pearson Education

Total
Auditory Visual Language

letter high- school

segmenting blending frequency language &
recognition
words listening
90

80

70 a b

60 b a c

50 c c a c 50%

40 c

30 b b

20 a

10

0
Student A profile (a)
Student B profile (b)
Student C profile (c)
 Literacy Standards and Shifts in the Literacy Curriculum 51

Standardized test scores are less reliable with younger children than with older
children, and some tests are still biased in favor of white, middle class children
despite genuine attempts to alleviate the problem. Their use tends to place rural,
African American, and English learners at a disadvantage. Prior knowledge plays a
large role in how well children will do on the test. Children from white, middle-class
homes tend to have experiences that lead to better achievement on the tests. The joint
­International Literacy Association ILA/NAEYC position statement, Learning to Read
and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children (1998), suggests that
evaluative procedures used with young children be developmentally and culturally
appropriate and that the selection of measures be based on the objectives of an instruc-
tional program. Standardized tests and multiple authentic assessments, such as inter-
views, anecdotal records, checklists, and so on, will provide a complete picture of a
child’s progress (International Literacy Association ILA, 1999). Parents, community
members, and policy makers need to be made aware of the value of classroom-based
assessment (Howard, Woodcock, Ehrich, & Bokosmaty, 2017).

MyLab Education Self-Check 3.4

Literacy Standards and Shifts in the

Literacy Curriculum
As a result, professional literacy organizations, the federal government, and individual
states have outlined standards for achievement. The purpose of standards is to articu-
late what students need to learn at each grade level in the English/Language Arts. In
1996 and again in 2010, the ILA and National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE)
published Standards for the English Language Arts, one of the first attempts at national
standards in literacy for the United States (1996). The Standards also asked for a higher
level of achievement on the part of students. The document advanced a set of general
standards to do the following:

1. Prepare students for literacy now and in the future with specific concerns about
how technology will change the manner in which we deal with literacy in the
future.
2. Ensure that students attain the vision of parents, teachers, and researchers about
expectations for their achievement in the language arts.
3. Promote high expectations for literacy achievement among children and bridge
inequities that exist in educational opportunities for all (From IRA and NCTE.
(1996). Standards for the English Language Arts. Newark, DE: International Read-
ing Association, and Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Reprinted
with permission.)

Standards are assessed with a test that matches them. Potentially everyone could
pass standards based tests since they are based on a certain number of questions
answered correctly. This differs from standardized tests, which are based on norms,
and 50% of the population will pass and 50% will fail. To help students become fluent
readers, we must have standards beginning with preschool.

Standards for Prekindergarten

The National Institute of Literacy and the National Center for Family Literacy
(2004) created a panel called the National Early Literacy Panel. Its purpose was
to determine (from scientifically-based research) what precursors, predictors, and
52  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

foundational or emergent literacy skills children needed from birth to age 5 to pre-
dict success in reading and writing. Several variables were found as predictors of
later literacy and could be considered standards to accomplish in preschool literacy.
They include:

• Alphabet knowledge (AK): knowledge of the names and sounds associated with printed letters
• Phonological awareness (PA): ability to detect, manipulate, or analyze the auditory aspects of spoken language (including
the ability to distinguish or segment words, syllables, or phonemes)
• Rapid automatic naming (RAN) of letters or digits: ability to rapidly name a sequence of random letters or digits
• RAN of objects or colors: ability to rapidly name a sequence of repeated random sets of pictures, objects (e.g., car, tree, or
house), or colors
• Writing or writing name: ability to write letters in isolation on request or to write one’s own name, and write a short sentence
• Phonological memory: ability to remember spoken information for a short period of time
• Concepts about books and print: knowledge of the title of the book, author, cover, back, front, print, and pictures
• Print knowledge: combination of alphabetic knowledge, concepts of print, vocabulary, memory, and phonological awareness
• Oral language: ability to produce or comprehend spoken language, with appropriate vocabulary and grammar
• Visual processing: ability to match or discriminate visually presented symbols.

(There will be more detailed discussion of these goals in Chapters 4 and 6)

The panel also found that interventions and intentional instruction in literacy in
preschool and at home was important.

Standards in K–3 Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts.  As
mentioned there must be standards to provide goals for achievement in all content
areas and of course in the language arts. Many states have had standards for a while.
The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) in English language arts were adopted
as national standards in 45 states. States that didn’t adopt them created their own
but they are similar. The standards describe what children should be able to dem-
onstrate at the end of each grade. Now states have carved out their own standards
however they are very similar to the Common Core. Here are examples of standards
for grades K–3:

1. Key ideas and details: reading (fiction and nonfiction texts)

a. Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical
inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to
support conclusions drawn from the text.
b. Determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development;
retell and summarize the key supporting details and ideas.
c. Analyze how and why individuals, events, and ideas develop and interact over
the course of a text.
2. Craft and structure
d. Interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text, including determin-
ing technical, connotative, and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific
word choices shape meaning or tone in different types of text.
e. Analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs,
and larger portions of the text (e.g., a section, chapter, scene, or stanza) relate
to each other and to the whole.
f. Assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text.
3. Integration of knowledge and ideas
g. Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, includ-
ing visually and quantitatively, as well as in words.
 Implementing and Assessing the Standards 53

h.
Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, including
the validity of the reasoning as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the
evidence.
i.
Analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to
build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take.
4. Range of reading and level of text complexity
j. Read a range of difficult text fluently and comprehend complex literary and infor-
mational texts independently, orally, in collaboration with others, and proficiently.
© Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School
Officers. All rights reserved.

Standards should include all of the language arts, for example there needs to be
an emphasis on

• Comprehension of informational text

• Comprehension of narrative text
• Learning foundational skills
• Writing
• Speaking, listening, and language development.

These processes of communication are closely connected and should be taught

concurrently.

MyLab Education Self-Check 3.5

Implementing and Assessing the

Standards
Standards are important in schools. In addition to the skills involved in reading and
comprehending literature and informational text, the other skills covered include foun-
dational skills, writing skills, speaking and listening skills, and language skills.

Assessing Standards
Assessments for standards are similar to standardized tests. The common core has two simi-
lar tests. One is called the Partnership for Assessment of Reading for College and Career (PARCC).
The other one is called SMARTER Balanced Assessment Tool. Different states have chosen
to use one or the other. They are very similar. The tests involve children in the following:

1. Formative assessment to plan instruction.

2. The test are tightly links assessment to standards.
3. Assesses each child’s achievement in relationship to him or herself.
4. Assesses each child in relationship to his or her group (compare to their class and
to select groups for explicit instruction).
5. Assesses select areas of need and competence across the whole group (to adjust the
curriculum if needed).

Children will not be tested until third grade.

Now that states have adopted their own standards the assessments in states are chang-
ing. They are still standardized tests however to test what the standards suggest we
should teach.

MyLab Education Self-Check 3.6
54  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

Stages of Child Development

Early childhood education has always been concerned about the physical, social, emo-
tional, and cognitive development of the child. The curriculum, therefore, should empha-
size all four areas. One cannot discuss early literacy without being concerned with the
total child. This information is needed when preparing instructional environments and
activities. This knowledge will also help determine whether children have special needs
related to learning disabilities, giftedness, or communication disorders, for example.
Considering the total development of the child, and not just the cognitive, has been and
always should be a hallmark in early childhood education and must influence early
literacy development as well. Figure 3.10 describes the developmental characteristics of
children from birth through 8 years (Seefeldt & Barbour, 1998, pp. 63–69). It can be used
as a reference throughout this book in teaching and assessing child development. The
chart can be used as a checklist for evaluating child development.

Figure 3.10  Developmental Characteristics of Children during Stages of Development

source: From Seefeldt and Barbour, Early Childhood Education: An Introduction, 4th edition, pp. 63–69. © 1998. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by
permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Birth through 12-Months-Old

Physical
Develops rapidly.
Changes from waking because of hunger and distress to sleeping through the night with two naps during the day.
Changes eating patterns from every 3 hours to regular meals three times a day.
Develops control of muscles that hold up the head. By 4 months enjoys holding up head.
Focuses eyes and begins to explore the environment visually.
Begins to grasp objects at about 16 weeks. Can grasp and let go by six months.
Rolls over intentionally (4 to 6 months).
Holds own bottle (6 to 8 months).
Shows first tooth at about 6 months. Has about 12 teeth by age 1.
Sits well alone, can turn and recover balance (6 to 8 months).
Raises body at 9 months. May even pull self up to a standing position.
Starts to crawl at 6 months and to creep at nine or ten months.
May begin walking by age 1.

Social
Begins to smile socially (4 or 5 months).
Enjoys frolicking and being jostled.
Recognizes mother or other significant adult.
Notices hands and feet and plays with them.
By 6 months likes playing, alone or with company.
Begins to be wary of strangers.
Cooperates in games such as peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake.
Imitates actions of others.

Emotional
Differentiates crying according to specific discomforts, such as being hungry, cold, or wet.
Shows emotions by overall body movements, such as kicking, arm waving, and facial expressions.
Begins to show pleasure when needs are being met.
By 6 months shows affection by kissing and hugging.
Shows signs of fearfulness.
Pushes away things not liked.
 Stages of Child Development 55

Cognitive
First discriminates mother from others; later discriminates familiar faces from those of strangers.
Explores world through looking, mouthing, grasping.
Inspects things for long periods.
As a first sign of awareness, protests disappearance of objects.
Discovers how to make things happen and delights in doing so by repeating an action several times.
Between 6 and 12 months becomes aware of object permanency by recognizing that an object has been taken away and by
looking for a hidden object.
Begins intentional actions by pulling at an object or removing an obstacle to get at an object.
Becomes increasingly curious about surroundings.

One- and Two-Years-Old

Physical
Begins to develop many motor skills.
Continues teething until about 18 months; develops all 20 teeth by age 2.
Develops large muscles. Crawls well, stands alone (at about a year), and pushes chair around.
Starts to walk at about a year to 15 months.
Places ball in and out of box.
Releases ball with thrust.
Creeps down stairs backward.
Develops fine motor skills. Stacks two blocks, picks up a bean, and puts objects into a container. Starts to use spoon. Puts on
simple things—for instance, an apron over the head.
By end of 18 months, scribbles with a crayon in vertical or horizontal lines.
Turns pages of book.
During the second year, walks without assistance.
Runs but often bumps into things.
Jumps up and down.
Walks up and down stairs with one foot forward.
Holds glass with one hand.
Stacks at least six blocks and strings beads.
Opens doors and cupboards.
Scribbles spirals, loops, and rough circles.
Starts to prefer one hand to the other.
Starts day control of elimination.

Social
At age 1, differentiates meagerly between self and others.
Approaches mirror image socially.
By 18 months, distinguishes between terms you and me.
Plays spontaneously; is self-absorbed but notices newcomers.
Imitates behavior more elaborately.
Identifies body parts.
Responds to music.
Develops socialization by age 2. Is less interested in playing with parent and more interested in playing with a peer.
Begins parallel play, playing side by side, but without interaction.
By age two learns to distinguish strongly between self and others.
Is ambivalent about moving out and exploring.
Becomes aware of owning things and may become very possessive.
56  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

Figure 3.10  Developmental Characteristics of Children during Stages of Development (continued)

Emotional
At age 1 is amiable.
At 18 months is resistant to change. Often suddenly—won’t let mother out of sight.
Tends to rebel, resist, fight, run, hide.
Perceives emotions of others.
At age 1, shows no sense of guilt. By age 2, begins to experience guilt and shows beginnings of conscience.
Says no emphatically. Shows willfulness and negativism.
Laughs and jumps exuberantly.

Cognitive
Shows mental imagery: looks for things that are hidden, recalls and anticipates events, moves beyond here and now, begins
temporal and spatial orientation.
Develops deductive reasoning: searches for things in more than one place.
Reveals memory: shows deferred imitation by seeing an event and imitating it later.
Remembers names of objects.
Completes awareness of object permanence.
By age 2 or 3 distinguishes between black and white and may use names of colors.
Distinguishes one from many.
Says “one, two, three” in rote counting, but not often in rational counting.
Acts out utterances and talks about actions while carrying them out.
Takes things apart and tries to put them back together.
Shows sense of time by remembering events. Knows terms today and tomorrow but mixes them up.

Three- and Four-Years-Old

Physical
Expands physical skills.
Rides a tricycle.
Pushes a wagon.
Runs smoothly and stops easily.
Climbs jungle gym ladder.
Walks stairs with alternating feet forward.
Jumps with two feet.
Shows high energy level.
By four can do a running broad jump.
Begins to skip, pushing one foot ahead of the other.
Can balance on one foot.
Keeps relatively good time in response to music.
Expands fine motor skills, can do zippers and dress oneself.
Controls elimination at night.

Social
Becomes more social.
Moves from parallel play to early associative play. Joins others in activities.

Emotional
Begins enjoying humor. Laughs when adults laugh.
Develops inner control over behavior.
Shows less negativism.
Develops phobias and fears, which may continue until age 5.
At four may begin intentional lying but is outraged by parents’ white lies.
 Stages of Child Development 57

Cognitive
Begins problem-solving skills. Stacks blocks and may kick them down to see what happens.
Learns to use listening skills as a means of learning about the world.
Still draws in scribbles at age 3, but in one direction and less repetitively.
At age 4, drawings represent what child knows and thinks is important.
Is perceptually bound to one attribute and characteristic. “Why” questions abound.
Believes everything in the world has a reason, but the reason must accord with the child’s own knowledge.
Persists in egocentric thinking.
Begins to sort out fantasy from reality.

Five- and Six-Years-Old

Physical
Well controlled and constantly in motion.
Often rides a bicycle as well as a tricycle.
Can skip with alternating feet and hop.
Can control fine motor skills. Begins to use tools such as toothbrush, saw, scissors, pencil, hammer, needle for sewing.
Has established handedness well. Identifies hand used for writing or drawing.
Can dress self but may still have trouble tying shoelaces.
At age 6 begins to lose teeth.

Social
Becomes very social. Visits with friends independently.
Becomes very self-sufficient.
Persists longer at a task. Can plan and carry out activities and return to projects next day.
Plays with two or three friends, often for just a short time only, then switches play groups.
Begins to conform. Is very helpful.
By age 6 becomes very assertive, often bossy, dominating situations and ready with advice.
Needs to be first. Has difficulty listening.
Is possessive and boastful.
Craves affection. Often has a love–hate relationship with parents.
Refines sex roles. Has tendency to type by sex.
Becomes clothes conscious.
Becomes aware of racial and sexual differences.
Begins independence.
By four shows growing sense of initiative and self-reliance.
Becomes aware of basic sex identity.
Not uncommonly develops imaginary playmates (a trait that may appear as early as two and a half).

Emotional
Continues to develop sense of humor.
Learns right from wrong.
At age 5 begins to control emotions and is able to express them in socially approved ways.
Quarrels frequently, but quarrels are of short duration.
At age 6 shifts emotions often and seems to be in emotional ferment.
New tensions appear as a result of attendance at school all day. Temper tantrums appear.
Giggles over bathroom words.
At age 5 develops a conscience but sees actions as all good or all bad.
At age 6 accepts rules and often develops rigid insistence that they be obeyed.
May become a tattletale.
58  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

Figure 3.10  Developmental Characteristics of Children during Stages of Development (continued)

Cognitive
Begins to recognize conservation of amount and length.
Becomes interested in letters and numbers. May begin printing or copying letters and numbers. Counts.
Knows most colors.
Recognizes that one can get meaning from printed words.
Has a sense of time, but mainly personal time. Knows when events take place in the child’s own day or week.
Recognizes own space and can move about independently in familiar territory.

Seven- and Eight-Years-Old

Physical
Great variation in height and weight, but rate of growth slows.
Masters physical skills for game playing and enjoys team sports.
Is willing to repeat a skill over and over to mastery.
Increases in fine motor performance—can draw a diamond correctly and form letters well.
Has sudden spurts of energy.
Loss of baby teeth continues and permanent teeth appear.
Physique begins to change. Body more proportionately developed and facial structure changes.

Social
Beginning to prefer own sex—has less boy/girl interaction.
Peer groups begin to form.
Security in sex identification.
Self-absorption.
Begins to work and play independently.
Can be argumentative.
At age 7 still not a good loser and often a tattletale.
By 8 plays games better and not as intent on winning.
Conscientious—can take responsibility for routine chores.
Less selfish. Able to share. Wants to please.
Still enjoys and engages in fantasy play.

Emotional
Difficulty in starting things but will persist to end.
Worries that school might be too hard.
Beginning of empathy—sees other’s viewpoint.
Sense of humor expressed in riddles, practical jokes, and nonsense words.
Discriminates between good and bad, but still immature.
Is sensitive and gets hurt easily.
Has sense of possession and takes care of possessions (makes collections).

Cognitive
Attention span is quite long.
Can plan and stay with a task or project over a long period.
Interested in conclusions and logical ends.
Aware of community and the world.
Expanding knowledge and interest.
Some sevens read well and by eight really enjoy reading.
Can tell time—aware of passage of time in months and years.
Interested in other time periods.
Conscious of other’s work and their own. May comment, “I’m good at art, but Sue is better at reading.”
Differences in abilities widening.
 Summary 59

An Idea from the Classroom

Teacher-Designed Informal Assessment
I like my second-grade students to reflect on and evaluate what they have learned on a daily basis, so I have my children
maintain an ongoing record that chronicles knowledge they have constructed over time. I created a chart that hangs on the wall
with one pocket for each student on the chart. There is a stack of index cards in a pocket for this purpose. At the end of each
day, I set aside 10 minutes for the children to complete the evaluation task. They are to take an index card and for 2 to 3 minutes,
review what they thought was the most important thing they learned that day and tell it to a partner. Then they are to write for
5 minutes what they discussed. After they write these concepts, they “pair and share” with their partner. When the children leave
the class, they put the index cards into their pockets on the chart. I review the cards. This gives me insight into what concepts
the children have understood and recalled correctly. Cards are sent home at the end of a week so parents are kept up to date
about what their children are learning. I encourage children and parents to discuss the contents of the cards and to extend the
learning at home.
I have gotten good parental feedback from this activity. When parents ask their children, “What did you do in school today?”
the children no longer say, “Nothing.” They share what they have written on their index cards. Reviewing at the end of the day
helps the children remember things they’ve done.
Christina Spiezio, Second Grade Teacher

Summary
3.1 Explain the role of assessment in early literacy 3.3 Identify and describe in-depth measures of
development. assessment.
Assessment in early literacy development is used for Unlike the performance snapshots provided by authentic
guiding instruction first and therefore is a crucial element assessment tools, in-depth measures of assessment allow
in the design of a program for children. At this stage, educators to track a student’s longitudinal progress.
assessment is as much about information gathering as it is Running records involve recording on a monthly basis
about evaluation—educators need to collect information errors and error types and tracking a child’s accuracy
to determine how to create more effective instruction. rate. Informal reading inventories are similar to running
Assessment at this stage should also seek to be panoramic. records but also track comprehension. Portfolio assessment
That is, assessment needs to align with instructional involves collecting pieces of work that, over time, paint an
objectives and, at the same time, take into account the almost complete picture of the child’s literacy achievement.
total development of the child. The information in a portfolio should be shared with the
child, parents, and school personnel.
3.2 Define authentic assessment and describe several
techniques for conducting it. 3.4 Discuss the pros and cons of standardized
testing.
Authentic assessment activities represent and reflect
the actual learning from inside and outside the class- Standardized tests are prepared by publishers and are
room. The different authentic assessment models allow norm referenced. Raw scores are converted into grade
educators to determine what a child knows and needs level scores and into percentile ranks that allow for a
to learn. Educators should integrate a variety of authen- child’s performance to be compared to his or her larger
tic assessment methods into their instruction. Some of group of cohorts. Scores and rankings provide simple
the more common and more useful types include anec- and understandable measures of performance. There are,
dotal observation forms, daily performance samples, au- however, many concerns about using standardized tests:
dio recordings, videos, pencil-and-paper forms, student they only test one modality; they may not reflect instruc-
evaluations, surveys and interviews, conferences, and tional best practices; teachers may feel pressured to teach
checklists. to the test; quantitative results do not qualitatively reflect
60  Chapter 3  Assessment in Early Literacy

the strengths and weaknesses in the aggregate score; do however, leave room for each state to determine how
and standardized tests produce less reliable results with to reach the standards. The CCSS emphasize helping
younger children. each child become a reader who can understand criti-
cally analyze materials read, so the standards empha-
3.5 Discuss standards and explain how they can affect size the use of nonfiction materials and project-based
the literacy curriculum. instruction.

Literacy standards articulate what students need to

3.6 Describe the assessment tools designed to measure
learn at each grade level in English/Language Arts.
outcomes.
CCSS describe what children should be able to demon-
strate at the end of each grade and are organized into Standardized assessment should have a formative
four levels: key ideas and details, craft and structure, component tightly linked to standards. The test should
integration of knowledge and ideas, and range of read- assess each child’s individual progress, asses each child’s
ing and level of text complexity. Standards have been progress in relationship to his or her peers, and assess
adopted by 45 states and provide uniform expectations groups across specific areas of need. This is a way to deter-
for student outcomes across the country. The standards mine the effectiveness of the curriculum.

Activities and Questions

1. Select a child from your field placement or from 2. Imagine that the parents in your district are not
your own classroom. The child can be a relative or a pleased with the authentic measures for assessment
friend’s child. The child should be between the ages being used. They want to know if their children are
of 4 and 8. Begin a portfolio for this child and collect doing as well as others. Based on standardized test
the following pieces of work over a three month scores, they want to know if their child is above, below,
period of time: or at grade level. You are convinced that authentic
assessment is the right way to evaluate children. What
a. An analyzed language sample (Chapter 6) can you do to help parents understand and accept
b. Concepts about books and conventions of the authentic assessment strategies? Plan a parent
print (Chapter 7) workshop to inform them about standards and how
c. Letter recognition (Chapter 7) you link your instruction and assessment to them.
d. Phonological awareness test (Chapter 8)
e. Phonics test (Chapter 8) 3. Design your own assessment that you could
f. Frequently used words (Chapter 7) potentially use in your classroom. Outline the
g. Story retelling for sequence, details, and story components of the assessment and align them
structure (Chapter 9) with the corresponding standards in this chapter.
h. Assessment of writing samples (Chapter 10) Provide a brief rationale for what this assessment is
i. Running record for grade level and types of measuring and how its student results could impact
errors (Chapter 3) future lessons.
j. Assessment of comprehension of text (Chapter 9)
k. Child interviews about reading and a. Child interviews about reading and
writing (Chapter 3) writing (Chapter 3)
l. Promoting early literacy at home, parent b. Promoting early literacy at home, parent
interview (Chapter 14) interview (Chapter 14)
Chapter 4
Literacy and Diversity:
Teaching Children
with Different Needs

Photo credit: Cathy Yeulet /123RF

Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
4.1 Describe the impact of shifting demographics and cultural diversity
on literacy.
4.2 List ways to help English learners communicate in school.

4.3 Describe strategies for teaching children with exceptionalities.

4.4 Summarize how to address diversity through differentiated

instruction.
4.5 Explain the importance of practicing empathy for diversity in the
literacy environment.
61
62  Chapter 4  Literacy and Diversity: Teaching Children with Different Needs

In the beginning of our country our founders understood the need for a literate popu-
VOCABULARY lation and that we needed to start educating children from the time they were very
young. Thomas Jefferson talked about three fundamental characteristics that needed
Cultural diversity
to become a part of our national beliefs and they were: “(1) the ability of every citizen to
Dialect
read is necessary to the practice of democracy, (2) it is therefore the duty of the general public to
English learner (EL)
support the teaching of reading for all youngsters, and (3) reading should be taught during the
Gifted
earliest years of schooling.” He continued with the following: “none is more important, none
Inclusion
more legitimate, than of rendering the people safe, as they are the ultimate guardians of their
Pull-out programs
own liberty.” “Thomas Jefferson, The Life and Selected Writings of Thomas Jefferson”
Reading Recovery
(Koch & Penden, 1998)
Response to Intervention (RTI)
Quality literacy instruction is necessary for all children. Small-group settings are
particularly critical for children with diverse needs. Such settings encourage commu-
nication and meaningful, natural conversation. English learners (EL) will pick up a lot
of English from informal conversations and interactions with their peers. More capable
children can help struggling readers to learn in small groups and centers. Stations are
small areas in a classroom that provide children with activities to do independently
or in collaboration with another child. Activities in centers focus on practicing skills
learned in literacy or in content areas.

Mr. Abere’s second-grade children were working independently and collaboratively during station time. He described the follow-
ing incident with a English learner: Juanita never spoke in class. One day, Mr. Abere observed Juanita acting as a teacher with a
group of children she organized. These three children sat in a circle; each child had a copy of the same book. Juanita, acting as
the teacher, asked different children if they wanted to read.

Mrs. Nash had station time where small groups of children had the opportunity to work together independent of the teacher. She
modeled the materials so they would know how to use them. When speaking with Mrs. Nash, it became apparent that children
with special needs greatly benefited from independent work during literacy center time. Mrs. Nash described a specific incident
involving a struggling reader in her classroom whose work was well below grade level. According to Mrs. Nash, Charlene never
read aloud. One day, Mrs. Nash noticed her reading aloud to a rag doll while another child was listening. Mrs. Nash bent over
and said quietly “Nice reading, Charlene.” The reading aloud continued daily during literacy station time.

Marcel was a gifted child in Mrs. Rosen’s classroom with many low achievers. He worked alone most of the time. About two
months after literacy center time was initiated in his classroom, he participated with other children in literacy activities. The first
time Mrs. Rosen observed him with others, he was reading the newspaper and checking out the weather in other parts of the
country. Patrick asked Marcel if he could look too. Marcel was pleased, and then David joined them. Together, they read and
discussed how hot and cold it was in various locations throughout the country.

Numerous anecdotes from station time describe how children are able to find ways
to participate in spite of some challenges they may have. One teacher commented,
“There seems to be something that every child can find to do during station time and
the social interaction causes collaboration no matter what the achievement of the chil-
dren involved.”

The Impact of Shifting Demographics

and Cultural Diversity on Literacy
Early childhood education has always been child centered and concerned with the
social, emotional, physical, and intellectual needs of children. In early childhood, every
youngster is seen as a unique individual; however, now, more than ever, there is greater
 The Impact of Shifting Demographics and Cultural Diversity on Literacy 63

diversity in today’s classrooms; differentiating instruction to meet the individual needs

of all children is a necessity.
Identification of special needs makes educators more aware that differences exist;
this helps in determining the implications for instructional programs and successfully
meeting individual needs. According to the Common Core Standards (2010), learning
goals are the same for all children although not all will be able to achieve them. That
means we need to adjust instruction for each student. Best practice is usually appro-
priate for all, with some modifications for those with special needs (Banks & Banks,
2009; Delpit, 1995). In addition to this chapter, more strategies are offered on diversity
throughout this book.

The Role of Shifting Demographics

The demographics of the U.S. population are becoming more racially and ethnically
diverse. Statistics show that one in every three children is from a different ethnic or
racial group. Today, the United States is serving about 15 million children who come
from households in which English is not the primary language. It is projected that
by 2030, 40 percent of the school-age population in the United States will be English
learners (Brock & Raphael, 2005). More than 400 different languages are reported to be
spoken in the United States.
Spanish is the most widespread, but there are other languages spoken such as
Korean, Arabic, Russian, Navajo, Mandarin, and Japanese, to name just a few (Brock
& Raphael, 2005). A major concern is that about 85 percent of the country’s teachers
speak English only (Gollnick & Chinn, 2008). However, most effective strategies for
teaching early literacy development to native English speakers are also effective with
EL students.
Much of the research on academic achievement in the United States demonstrates
that if English is not a child’s first language, that is, if the child is an EL that child is
less likely to be successful than a native English student (Donahue et al., 2001; Rossi &
Stringfield, 1995). Some of the reasons for this gap are the lack of acceptance and inclu-
sion of a student’s home culture in schools, the complex nature of learning a second
language, and the limited literacy ability of many of the families who do not speak
English as a first language (Banks & Banks, 2009).
In the past, diversity was disregarded in the United States; children were expected
to ignore their unique cultural backgrounds and language differences and to learn
English and American customs. If we are to live in harmony in a pluralistic society
and provide a worthwhile educational experience for all children, it is imperative that MyLab Education
educational leaders accept the charge to provide a relevant education for all students. Video Example 4.1
Educators must be sensitive toward cultural and language differences and recognize Cultural Experiences

that children can and should maintain their cultural heritage and native language, In this video, children learn about
cultural dances during Black
while simultaneously learning standard English and American cultural values (George,
History Month. The video shows
Raphael, & Florio-Ruane, 2003; Templeton, 1996). 5th graders but the activity can
be adapted for all grade levels.
Responding to Cultural Diversity https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=cBByA9PMg78
Multiculturalism is a complicated issue, referring not only to race and ethnicity but also
to class, culture, religion, sex, and age. The multiracial, multiethnic, multicultural, and
multilingual nature of our dynamic society mandates that we teach understanding of
differences as an ongoing process involving self-reflection, self-awareness, increasing
knowledge, and while developing relevant skills (Schickedanz, York, Stewart, & White,
1990). We must welcome cultural diversity in our schools; it adds a rich dimension to
the classroom and to topics of study. Most importantly, every child has the right to be
respected and to receive a quality educational experience. By recognizing students’
diverse backgrounds, we will enhance their self-images. Differences should be the norm
rather than the exception.
64  Chapter 4  Literacy and Diversity: Teaching Children with Different Needs

Goals for classrooms in our multicultural society include:

1. An improved understanding of cultural differences and their effect on lifestyle,

values, worldviews, and individual differences.
2. An increased awareness of how to develop strategies to enhance learning in a
multicultural environment.
3. A framework for conceptualizing ways to create a climate conducive to learning
and development.

The goals we need to pursue for children in culturally diverse classrooms and for
children whose language is other than English are as follows:

1. Children need to feel comfortable with their ethnic identities.

2. Children need to learn to function in other cultures, particularly in the dominant culture.
3. Children need to relate positively with individuals from various ethnic backgrounds.
4. Children must learn English however they should also retain and value their first
language(s) and culture(s)

Teachers must develop their own understanding of the multiethnic groups they
serve and respect their students’ ethnic identities, heritages, and traditions. Teachers
must also be aware of their own ethnic heritages, traditions, and beliefs (Barone, 1998;
Bauer & Manyak, 2008; Tabors, 1998).

MyLab Education Self-Check 4.1

Helping English Learners

Communicate at School
A major instructional concern in early childhood literacy programs is the varied lan-
guage backgrounds of the children who come to day-care centers, preschools, kindergar-
tens, and first, second, and third grades. Any given group may contain children using
words, syntax, and language patterns very different from those of standard English. Just
within the United States, there are many different forms of English usage; for example,
there are distinct grammars and accents in rural New England, Appalachia, and in some
African American communities. Even similar languages of children, whose families
have immigrated from Latin America, the Middle East, or Asia, can differ greatly.
In addition to speaking different languages, children also come to school speaking
different dialects. A dialect is an alternative form of one particular language used
in a different cultural, regional, or social group (Jalongo, 2007; Leu & Kinzer, 1991; Otto, 2006).
Such differences can be so significant that an individual from a region with one English
dialect may have difficulty understanding someone from another region because the
pronunciation of letter sounds is so different. Dialects are not inherently superior to one
another; however, one dialect typically emerges as the standard for a given language
and is used by the more advantaged individuals of a society. Teachers must be aware of
different dialects and help youngsters with the comprehension of standard dialects. Chil-
dren should not be degraded or viewed as less intelligent for speaking different dialects.
The following categories represent the diverse language abilities of young children
(Fromkin & Rodman, 2010; Galda, 1995).

Diverse Language Abilities of Children

1. Children who are recent immigrants with little or no English.

2. Children who come from homes in which the language is something other than
English, but who speak some English because of their experiences with television
and their contacts outside the home.
 Helping English Learners Communicate at School  65

3. Children who speak both English and another language fluently. These children
are usually easily assimilated into the majority group. Often, English becomes the
major language with which they communicate.
4. Children who speak mainly English but who have poor skills in their parents’ or
family’s language. Often, these children speak English at home, but their parents
speak to them in another language.
5. Children who speak nonstandard English because the English spoken at home is
not fluent or is a dialect. These children need to learn to speak and read standard
English. However, they must not be made to feel that their home language is infe-
rior or asked to abandon it.
6. Children who are monolingual in English.

All six categories represent major concerns because a firm base in oral language
is strongly linked to literacy development. In addition to skill development, teachers
need to consider emotional concerns. Unfortunately and often unintentionally children
with language differences are looked down on and classified as students with potential
learning problems. Some teachers have low expectations for English learners and assign
low-level tasks.
Differences do not mean deficits. Teachers need to respect language differences
and help children take pride in their backgrounds. Diversity in language and heritage
should be shared to enrich the classroom experience (Meier, 2004). It is however crucial
for all children to learn to speak and write in standard English to succeed in our society.

Children’s Responses to Language Differences

Children tend to choose playmates who speak the same language, presumably because
it is easier to communicate. However, they usually do not reject those who speak a
different language and will use gestures and other means of communication when
interacting with them. Allowing children natural opportunities in the classroom to
communicate with one another is a crucial component of helping EL students. Much
of the research on dual-language acquisition suggests that we acquire, or naturally and MyLab Education
subconsciously internalize, a new language through informal situations that warrant Video Example 4.2
Supporting ELs and Families
real communicative needs. Providing students time to acquire a second language along
In this video, best practices
with learning, which is defined by more conscious learning and more direct instruction
are shown in a comprehensive
about rules and conventions, is crucial.
and engaging way to help
Creating language-rich instruction for English learners is important as well. ELs develop language skills.
Bilingual children will often act as interpreters for their parents and friends who are https://www.youtube.com/
less skilled in the language of the classroom. Although children are curious about dif- watch?v=09PrmLppQ1A
ferences in speech and will often “correct” one another, they have not developed the
biases that adults have toward nonstandard usage.
Preschool and kindergarten children will acquire the language easily when
immersed in language-rich classrooms where there are good models of English and
sensitive teachers. This is particularly true of children whose native language is well
developed. Children whose first language is not English and whose first language is not
well developed will have difficulty learning English as easily as those who have a com-
mand of their first language (Meier, 2004). For that reason, it is important for children
to feel good about their first language. To support them in that regard:

• Include some print in the classroom that is from the children’s first language.
• Suggest that EL students create books in their first language and share their stories.
• Be sure that children from different language backgrounds have the opportunity to
read and write with others who speak their language, such as parents, aides, and
other children in the school (Freeman & Freeman, 2006; Griffin, 2001; Otto, 2006;
Roskos, Tabor, & Lenhardt, 2009).
 66  Chapter 4  Literacy and Diversity: Teaching Children with Different Needs

Respecting the Different Cultural

Backgrounds of Children at School
It is crucial that teachers show that they respect the cultural
heritages and value the native languages of their students
from the moment they walk into their classrooms. Imagine
how scary it is for a young child to come into a place where
everyone speaks a different language. Teachers need to show
interest in their students’ native languages and try to learn
at least a few key phrases in each of the languages repre-
sented in their classrooms (Xu, 2003). It is helpful to talk with
Photo credit: Lesley Mandel Morrow

parents about their child’s level of familiarity with English.

Teachers should have a translator during conferences if the
family wants one and agrees to have one. Whenever possi-
ble, schools should communicate with the parents to create a
connection between home and school (International Reading
Association, 2001). Encourage parents to participate in their
children’s classroom and share their culture and language.
The classroom should have plenty of words, phrases,
Encourage EL students to create and share books and materials in and texts in the native languages of the EL students. These
their native languages as a means to respect and learn about their include translations of favorite books, newspapers, menus,
home culture. and other everyday texts that a student might encounter at
home. This will allow teachers to connect each child’s home
and school literacy experiences (Au, 2001; Xu & Drame, 2008).
If teachers become familiar with each student’s cultures, the teachers are more likely to
respond effectively to all students’ needs (Allen, 2017).
In some cultures children are encouraged to participate in classroom discussions; in
others, children are encouraged not to speak in class. Making eye contact with someone
of authority while he or she is speaking is regarded as a sign of respect in some cultures,
whereas this practice is viewed as disrespectful in others. In some cultures, children eat
with their hands; in others, they use chopsticks or forks, knives, and spoons. We cannot
expect children to engage in manners or activities that conflict with what they learn at
home. It is imperative that teachers keep this in mind when designing classroom rules
and procedures so that all students feel at ease. If teachers are unaware of these cultural
traditions, they can easily be misinterpreted as rude or indifferent behavior.
The questionnaire shown in Figure 4.1 assists teachers in obtaining important infor-
mation from parents about their children. This will help you better understand their
culture, respond to their behavior in an appropriate manner, and make the child feel
comfortable and respected in your classroom (Hadaway & Young, 2006).

Strategies for Teaching English Learners

to Read and Write
Four well-known types of instruction for English learners are:
(1) English immersion, (2) English as a second language (ESL), (3) bilingual education,
and (4) primary language instruction.
English immersion, or English-only instruction, is effective with young children who are
able to acquire new languages easily. Students may learn English through interaction with
peers and teachers in school. There isn’t a special program other than respecting the child’s
background, making them feel comfortable, and using bits of their language in the classroom.
In an English as a second language (ESL) program, children are taken out of their
classroom by a different teacher and taught English. Students learn through direct
linguistic instruction as well as through the interactions they have with their peers
and other teachers throughout the day.
 Helping English Learners Communicate at School  67

Figure 4.1  Helping Me Learn about You and Your Child

Copyright © Pearson Education

Information about your child

Child’s Name and Country of Origin:

Mother’s Name and Country of Origin:

Father’s Name and Country of Origin:

Name of caregiver if not the mother or father:

Language or Languages spoken at home:

Does your child speak English?

Does your child speak the language spoken at home if it isn’t English?

What types of food is eaten at home?

What utensils are used to eat? Fork, chop sticks, Hands?

Do you live in a house?, apartment?

How many people live with you?

Are there brothers and sisters? How Many?

Is the child the oldest, youngest, etc?

Do you help your child with homework?

What does your child like most in school?

What doesn’t your child like at school?

Does your child have friends they see after school?

What does your child do when he/she is a alone?

Does your child like to read?

What does he/she read?

What are the most important things you want your child to learn in school?

There are several approaches to bilingual education. The transitional approach pro-
motes subtractive bilingualism, in which English eventually replaces the student’s
native language in school. The goal of the maintenance approach is additive bilingual-
ism, which means that students learn English while maintaining their first language.
The two languages have equal value. The two-way bilingual approach can be used in
classrooms with a mix of English speakers and non-English speakers (Gollnick &
68  Chapter 4  Literacy and Diversity: Teaching Children with Different Needs

Chinn, 2008). Roughly half of the curriculum is taught in English, and half is taught
in the language of the child.
Primary language instruction for EL students develops literacy in the primary lan-
guage first, before shifting to bilingual or English-only instruction. Children are taught
concepts, knowledge, and skills in their primary language as English skills are gradu-
ally incorporated into instruction (Gollnick & Chinn, 2008).
There is research to support all of these approaches. Several investigations show
that programs that provide initial literacy instruction in a child’s primary language
and promote long-term primary language development have proved effective with
English learners (Gunning, 2003; International Reading Association, 2001). The Com-
mittee on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young Children recommends that
children learn to read in their first language while learning to speak English over
time (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Two-way bilingual instruction has also been
successful.
Research supported by the U.S. Institute of Education Sciences, the U.S. National
Institute for Child Health and Human Development, and the U.S. Office of English
Language Acquisition found that:

• Knowledge of vocabulary in English is much more important in learning to read

for EL students than learning to decode.
• Bilingual education has the most positive impact on English reading when English
is introduced early at all grade levels.
• Teaching the components of literacy—phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency,
vocabulary, comprehension, and writing—is essential.
• Effective programs for native speakers are also effective for EL students.
• Instruction must be differentiated based on children’s needs.
• Effective instruction for EL students utilizes multiple strategies such as dual and
bilingual approaches, as well as use of the home language.
• Effective instruction uses all content areas to teach English.

Because there are many factors at play in each EL student’s educational develop-
ment, there is no one perfect method of instruction for all EL students. Teachers need to
decide with other professionals and parents what is best for each child.
There are numerous strategies for attending to ELs in the classroom. Many of these
strategies are effective in promoting literacy for all students, not just English learners.
Good literacy practice is good practice for all.
English learners may be very timid and nervous when they first enter an
­English-speaking classroom, so it is crucial that teachers have a warm smile which
is a universal sign of welcome. Additionally, teachers may want to have someone
who speaks the child’s language record a welcoming greeting to be played on the
first day of class. Teachers can help their native-speaking students develop empa-
thy for the non-English-speaking child by having someone come into the class and
teach a lesson in an unfamiliar language (Shore, 2001). In fact, if the EL student is
comfortable, the student could act as “teacher for a day” and immediately foster a
sense of belonging for them.
Share some words from the EL child’s native language. This activity would rein-
force the message that knowing another language is something to be celebrated and will
place the EL student in the role of expert to help foster self-esteem. This experience will
help the English-speaking children to better understand how a non-English-speaking
child feels in an English-only classroom.

1. Making EL’s comfortable

2. Strategies to the EL’s learn to read and
3. Parent involvement