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DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING METHODS

Training Workbook
EW-512-5

Written by
the Staff of Hobart Institute
of Welding Technology

Additional copies can be obtained from:

Hobart Institute of Welding Technology
400 Trade Square East
Troy, Ohio 45373
www.welding.org
(937) 332-5433

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, 400 Trade Square East, Troy, Ohio, U.S.A.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
ISBN: 978-1-936058-22-8

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW 512-5 Destructive Testing Methods

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC PAGE

Glossary of Welding Terms iii

Introduction to Destructive Testing Methods 1

Tension Testing 6

Impact Testing 16

Guided Bend Testing 22

Nick Break Testing 29

Fillet Weld Break Testing 34

Etch Testing 40

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 TOPIC 1

INTRODUCTION TO DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

OBJECTIVE
To know the mechanical properties of metals and welds and the type of tests used to evaluate these properties.

INTRODUCTION
Destructive testing is an evaluation process of
a weld or base metal specimen. Evaluation
takes place during and/or after the destruction
of the specimen. It is a function performed by
quality control to measure properties of metals
and welds.

The term weld soundness is commonly used

to describe the degree of freedom from
discontinuities contained with a weld. Cracks,
inclusions, porosity and lack of fusion reduce
weld soundness, which may prevent the weld
from performing in service. In addition to weld
soundness, the mechanical, chemical and
metallurgical properties of the welded joint are
important to insure reliability of the weldment
in service.

In design, materials are selected to provide

these properties. The process of welding
must enable the materials to maintain these
properties through development and use
of a proven procedure. Welding codes use
a variety of destructive testing methods to
evaluate materials so that design performance
requirements can be met.

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 Destructive testing processes are also
specified to evaluate the results of welding
procedures. Procedure and welders are
qualified by destructive tests.

Destructive testing can also be used to spot

check the quality of production weldments.
This is commonly known as work sampling.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The most important mechanical properties

of welded joints include strength, ductility,
toughness and hardness.

One important measure of strength is the

material’s ultimate tensile strength. This is
determined by subjecting weld metal or a weld
joint to a pulling load until it fails. The maximum
stress developed is a good indication of the
amount of load the material can sustain. Yield
strength is another important measurement of
the material’s load carrying capacity. The yield
strength is the stress at which the material will
change permanently in dimension, usually
length, and cross sectional area.
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 Ductility is the property of a metal which allows
it to be drawn or stretched without fracture. A
ductile material can be bent. A material which
is not ductile is referred to as brittle.

Toughness is the ability of a material to sustain

sudden shock loading at various temperatures
without failure. The energy absorbed by the
specimen will vary depending on temperature.
For example, steel will possess lower toughness
properties as the temperature is reduced.

The property of hardness is defined as the

metal’s resistance to indentation from the
force of a hardened substance. Hardness
of metals is measured by forcing a hardened
steel ball or a diamond into the surface of a
metal. The Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers tests
are commonly used to evaluate this property.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Destructive testing also includes chemical

tests. Welded joints may be cut to remove
sections for analysis of alloying elements.

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 Specialized equipment in laboratory conditions
is used to evaluate chemical composition. For
example, spectrographic analysis could be
used. Chemical composition is important to
weldments which require corrosion resistance.
Chromium and nickel contents and carbide
formations are analyzed to determine the
weldment’s ability to perform in service.

One method of determining metallurgical

structures is through etching the welded joint.
This method consists of cutting a specimen,
polishing the cut surface, applying an etching
acid, and visually inspecting the etched surface.

Variations of the process include viewing

the etched surface with different degrees
of magnification. This form of examination
is known as macro or micro examination,
depending upon the magnification used.

CONCLUSION
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Destructive testing can be a very effective tool
ESTABLISH PROCEDURE to determine weld quality if:
1) The destructive testing procedure is
SELECT AND PREPARE SPECIMENS established.
2) Specimens are properly selected and
EVALUATE RESULTS prepared.
3) Results are evaluated in accordance
with prescribed standards.
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 TOPIC 1

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. List the three major groups of properties evaluated by destructive testing:

2. Name three functions of destructive testing:

3. Name the four most common mechanical properties related to welding:

4. The process of selecting production weldments for test is called:

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 TOPIC 2

TENSION TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To know the procedure used to perform tensile tests and the results derived from the test.

INTRODUCTION
The tension test is used to determine the
behavior of a material as it is pulled gradually
beyond the breaking point. It is one of the most
valuable destructive tests because it provides
data on strength, ductility and soundness of
base metal and weld metal.

ALL WELD METAL TENSION TEST

All weld metal and all base metal specimens
are used to determine the strength and ductility
properties of material.

These tests are commonly used to classify

base metal and weld metal to national
standards. For example, filler metals must
meet minimum mechanical properties to be
classified to the American Welding Society
filler metal identification system.

All weld metal specimens are machined from

the center portion of a weld test coupon.

It must consist entirely of weld metal in the

reduced section of the specimen.

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 The ends of the specimen are shaped to fit the
jaws of the testing equipment in use. Published
codes provide requirements regarding
preparation of test specimens which must be
considered.

The reduced section of the specimen is

normally tapered about .005-inch from the ends
to the center. This allows the fracture to occur
approximately in the center of the specimen
where it is the thinnest.

The diameter at the center of the tensile

specimen will vary depending on material
thickness and code requirements. The finished
surface should be smooth enough to prevent
premature failure. A rough surface could
initiate a fracture in an undesirable location.

The procedure for testing all weld metal or base

metal tensile specimens will be discussed first.
It is essential that the applicable specification be
reviewed to determine the exact procedure. A
.505-inch specimen will be used for illustration.

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 The five-o-five specimen is marked with a
centerpunch at two points, two inches apart.
This is known as gage length. The original
gage length of two inches is recorded for use
later to calculate ductility.

The specimen is secured in the jaws of the

tension machine. A strain gage is attached
to the specimen to detect changes in length
when force is applied.

The equipment operator begins the pulling

process by allowing the machine to apply
pounds of force (load) to the specimen.

As the force is applied, stress develops in the

specimen. The stress is equal to the force
applied divided by the cross sectional area of
the specimen.

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 The area of a five-o-five diameter specimen is
determined by squaring the diameter and then
multiplying by Ȇ or 3.14. This value is divided
by four. The answer is .2 square inches.

If the force applied to the specimen is five

thousand pounds, the stress becomes 25,000
pounds per square inch (psi).

As the force is applied, the specimen begins to

stretch or elongate. This is commonly referred
to as strain. The units for strain are inch per
inch. This is the amount of increase in length
per inch of gage length.

Some tensile equipment is designed with

charts to plot the stress in relation to the strain.
The gage attached to the specimen detects
the elongation which is used by the equipment
to plot the strain.

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 The curve which is plotted is called a stress-
strain curve. In the lower part of the curve, the
stress is proportional to the strain. Under these
loading conditions, the material is an elastic
state. This means if the load is removed, the
material will return to its original length.

As the load continues to increase, the material

eventually reaches its elastic limit at point A. At
point A, the material begins to yield. When the
material yields, it will permanently elongate,
sometimes referred to as plastic deformation.
Under these loading conditions, the material is
in a plastic state. If the load is removed now,
the material will not return to its original length.

The point at which the material is permanently

elongated is called the yield point. The yield
point is defined as the load that causes a
marked increase in strain without increase in
stress.

In many cases, the yield point is difficult to

determine. Because of this, yield strength is
more commonly used to describe the point of
yielding, or permanent deformation.

The yield strength is determined by drawing a

straight line parallel to the straight portion of
the curve.

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 This is described an as offset method since
the distance between the lines is a percentage
of the original gage length. The point at which
the offset line crosses the original curve is the
yield strength.

If the intersection occurred at a load of eight

thousand pounds, we can divide the load by
the cross sectional area to determine the yield
strength. In this case, it is 40,000 pounds per
square inch.

After the material has yielded, the strain gage

is usually removed to prevent damage to the
gage when the material ruptures.

As addition load is applied, it reaches a

maximum value called the ultimate tensile
strength. A noticeable reduction in area and
increase in length will occur as the load is
increased.

By dividing the maximum load by the original

cross sectional area, the ultimate tensile
strength can be calculated.

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 After the ultimate strength is achieved, the
actual stress may decrease as the material
fails. This is due to the significant reduction
of area which occurs in the later stages of the
test.

The broken specimen is used to calculate

ductility through percent elongation and
percent reduction of area.

The percent of elongation is determined by

measuring the final length between the punch
marks.

The difference between the final length and the

original length is divided by the original length
followed by multiplying by 100. A higher
percentage indicates greater ductility.

To measure reduction of area, measure the

smallest cross section of the broken specimen.
Calibrated micrometers or calipers are used to
make the measurement.

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 The difference between the original and final
area is divided by the original area and then the
result is multiplied by 100. A higher percentage
indicates greater ductility.

The all weld metal tensile test is most

commonly used to specify and classify welding
consumables. However some welding codes
also require this test to qualify procedures with
special processes such as electroslag and
electrogas welding.

REDUCED SECTION TENSION TEST

These tests are commonly used by published
welding codes to qualify welding procedures.

Usually the test specimens are removed from

plate and pipe welds transverse to the direction
of welding. The type, size and number of test
specimens will depend on code requirements.

Once the specimens are removed, they are

machined to the required dimension. The term
reduced section is used since the middle of
the specimen is thinner than the ends.

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 The reduced section tensile is placed in the
tension machine and pulled to failure. The
strain gage is normally not used to perform
these tests.

Most codes require the ultimate tensile strength

recorded in the test to be equal to or greater
than the minimum of the specified tensile range
of the base metal welded.

Full sections may be required on thin material

or small diameter pipe where it becomes
difficult to remove the test specimen.

It is important to review the applicable

specification to determine the proper procedure
and type of coupon based on the qualification
to be performed. The tensile test is most often
used to verify materials and procedures prior to
production or construction, although it could be
used on random sampling of production parts.

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 TOPIC 2
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Determine the following mechanical properties using the information and equations
shown below:

Ultimate Tensile Strength =

Yield Strength =

% Elongation =

% Reduction of Area =

EQUATIONS INFORMATION

Ȇ (d)2 Diameter = .505 inches

Area = Maximum Load = 18,400 pounds
4 Load at Yield = 13,200 pounds
Original Length = 2 inches
Final Length = 2.25 inches
Load Final Diameter - .405 inches
Stress = = 3.14
Area

Lf - Lo
% Elongation = X 100
Lo

Ao - Af
% Reduction of Area = X 100
Ao

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 TOPIC 3

IMPACT TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To know the procedure used to perform impact tests and the results derived from the test.

INTRODUCTION

The basic principle of the impact test is to

determine the behavior of a material once it
has been struck with a sudden blow. The test
provides data to measure the toughness of a
material at varying temperatures. Base and
filler metals are evaluated to determine their
ability to provide toughness through impact
testing.

CHARPY V-NOTCH PREPARATION

The most common form of impact test is the

Charpy v-notch test. The test specimen is
prepared with a precisely machined notch.

When weld joints require impact tests, a series

of specimens are removed transverse to the
weld axis. Normally, five, seven or more are
required to determine impact properties. The
dimensions of the specimens are important
to the accuracy of the test. The dimensions
are based on the quality specification and the
testing procedure.

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 There are three common types of notched
specimens used with the Charpy test which
include the V-notch, the keyhole notch and the
U-notch. The V-notch is the most common.
The notch is precisely machined to insure
reliability of the results.

The required numbers of specimens are

stamped for identification. Both ends should
be stamped so the broken specimens can be
matched and evaluated.

The test begins by cooling the specimens.

Methanol and liquid nitrogen are sometimes
used in a refrigerated bath to cool the
specimens.

The impact strength of a metal is determined

by measuring the energy absorbed in the
fracture in terms of foot pounds. The Charpy
impact machine provides the impact force with
a free-falling pendulum. The amount of energy
depends on the weight of the pendulum and
the distance it travels to apply the load.

The test specimen is placed at the support

fixture against the anvil at the base of the
machine. The specimen is supported at both
ends and positioned with the notch centered
on the opposite side of the pendulum strike.

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 The pendulum is released from a fixed standard
height and allowed to swing downward and
strike the specimen. As the pendulum falls, it
builds up energy.

A gage located on the test equipment starts

at three hundred foot pounds. The needle
will travel clockwise and stop at the top of the
pendulum swing.

When the pendulum strikes the specimen, it

slows down because the specimen absorbs
some of the three hundred foot pounds. This
prevents the pendulum from making a full
swing. At the completion of the swing, the
needle will register the amount of absorbed
energy.

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 CHARPY V-NOTCH RESULTS

Some quality specifications may require a

series of five or more specimens to be cooled
to -20º F. Once the temperature is achieved,
all of the specimens are broken.

The material meets the necessary toughness

requirements if all specimens are capable
of sustaining the minimum acceptable foot
pounds of energy.

Another procedure which is sometimes

employed consists of preparing a series of
specimens to be tested at various temperatures.
Groups of five or more test specimens may be
tested at each temperature.

The results of the specimens tested are

averaged to obtain a foot pound value at each
temperature. The results can be plotted on an
energy transition curve. The curves developed
for carbon steel show an upper shelf and a lower
shelf. The lower shelf indicates that toughness
properties are lost in this temperature range. At
lower temperatures, steels normally become
brittle or lose toughness properties.

A measure of ductility is also possible. This is

the degree of lateral expansion of the fracture
surface, sometimes called Mils Lateral
Expansion. More expansion on the side
adjacent to the notch after testing indicates
the material has greater ductility.

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 The fractured surface of the impact specimen
can also be evaluated at either ductile or brittle.
Some standards require that 50% or more of
the fractured surface must appear ductile.

PROCEDURES
The Charpy impact test is commonly used
AND STANDARDS to certify welding filler metals and to qualify
welding procedures. The procedure for
• American Welding Society
conducting the test, number and type of
• American Society for
specimens and standards of acceptability may
Testing and Materials
be specified by code.
• American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
• Military Specifications

OTHER IMPACT TESTS

Other types of tests are used to measure

toughness properties. Although not as
common as the Charpy test, may be specified
by some quality specifications.

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 TOPIC 3

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A carbon steel brittle fractured surface will have a:

A. silver grainy appearance

B. torn surface
C. significant amount of lateral expansion
D. dull gray appearance

2. The Charpy impact test is commonly used to:

A. certify filler metals

B. certify base metals
C. qualify procedures for special processes
D. all of the above

3. Besides the Charpy impact test, what other tests are used to meaure toughness?

A. Drop-weight test
B. Crack tip opening displacement test
C. Explosion bulge test
D. All of the above

4. The toughness properties of a material are very sensitive to:

A. temperature
B. notch placement
C. amount of loading
D. all of the above

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 TOPIC 4

GUIDED BEND TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To know the procedure used to perform guided bend tests and the results derived from the
test.
INTRODUCTION

The basic principle of the guided bend test

is to determine the soundness and ductility
of weld metal by bending a specimen into a
U-shape and then evaluating the bent surface.

The guided bend test is perhaps one of the

most popular destructive testing methods due
to its simplicity and comparatively low cost.

Because it provides a tension and a

compression load on a weld specimen, this
test is helpful for determining if weld metal and
base metal are thoroughly fused.

It is used to provide evidence that a welding

procedure will produce quality welds with
minimum discontinuities. It is also used to
determine the welder’s ability to deposit sound
welds on plate or pipe.

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 GUIDED BEND TEST PROCEDURES

There are five types of bend specimens, each

of which is evaluated in much the same way.

The transverse face and root bend specimens

are removed perpendicular to the weld axis.
The actual number and location of the specimen
will depend on the applicable specification or
code.

Generally, the length is a minimum of six inches.

The width of the specimen is normally no more
than four times the test material thickness.
The thickness for the transverse face and root
bend is equal to the test material thickness
and generally does not exceed three-eighths
inch.

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 Before bending, the weld reinforcement is
removed. Care must be taken to avoid removing
material below the surface of the specimen.
The grinding or machining should be parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the specimen.

The transverse face bend is positioned in the

bend fixture so that the face surface becomes
the convex surface of the bend specimen. For
a root bend, the root surface becomes convex.

The transverse side bend test is generally

used on material greater than three-eighths
inch thick.

The specimen is bent so that one of the side

surfaces becomes the convex surface.

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 The longitudinal root and face bend are
prepared down the weld axis.

The length is approximately six inches and the

width is approximately the width of the weld
plus five-eighths inch. The thickness is equal
to the plate thickness up to a maximum of
three-eighths inch.

The longitudinal face bend is bent so that the

face surface becomes the convex surface of
the bent specimen. The root would be tested
in a similar manner.

THE CODE LISTS:

TYPE The requirements are detailed in the testing
NUMBER procedure or applicable code.

LOCATION
DIMENSIONS

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 There are basically three types of guided
bend machines. The conventional plunger
and shoulder machine consists of a plunger
which applies the bending load and a set of
shoulders which act as a die, forming the
prescribed bend specimen.

The roller machine works in much the same way.

However, the shoulders have rollers attached
to minimize resistance during bending.

The wrap-around machine is much different. It

holds one end of the bend specimen and then
forces the other end around a prescribed size
die to shape the specimen into a U.

Regardless of the type used, the machine must

be set up to provide the required radius on the
specimen. The required radius will differ with
each code so care must be taken to insure
proper set-up.

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 The specimen is placed in the bend fixture
with the weld in the center. This insures the
weld is in the center of the bend. Activate the
plunger and bend the specimen.

GUIDED BEND TEST RESULTS

Once all the required specimens have been

bent, the evaluation process begins. The
standards of acceptability will differ with each
code, so care must be taken to insure the
proper code is used.

Discontinuities exposed on the convex surface

of the specimen are evaluated. Some codes
allow evaluation of discontinuities on the sides
of the specimen as well.

Any discontinuities greater than the allowable

code limits are considered unacceptable. For
example, the maximum discontinuity size could
be one-eighth inch measured in any direction.

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 TOPIC 4

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name at least four types of guided bend tests:

2. List four discontinuities which can be determined by the guided bend test:

3. Which type of bend test is most often used on thicker metals?

4. What are the three types of bend equipment?

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 TOPIC 5

NICK BREAK TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To know the procedure used to perform nick break tests and the results derived from the test.

INTRODUCTION

This destructive test is a simple but effective

method of determining the soundness of
weld metal. It is commonly used to qualify
procedures and welders by some codes. For
example, the American Petroleum Institute
code for transmission pipelines sometimes
requires the nick break for qualification.

The basic principle of this test is to visually

inspect a fractured surface for weld metal
soundness. Discontinuities such as porosity,
slag entrapment, lack of fusion, or other
welding problems are evaluated.

NICK BREAK TEST PROCEDURES

The nick break test consists of preparing a

weld metal specimen from a butt joint, much
like those prepared for the guided bend test.

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 Special attention must be given to the
dimensions required. Published welding
codes or company standards will dictate the
number and type of specimens, if required.

There are two types of specimens: the end

notched specimen and the all-around notched
specimen. The end-notched specimen is
the more common. The all-around notched
specimen is considered optional by some
codes.

The location from which the specimens are

taken is generally the same as for guided bend
specimens. However, when both are required
from the same test coupon, they are taken
side by side, as in the case of certain pipe
qualifications.

The dimensions of the nick break specimen

depend largely on the thickness of the test
material and the governing specification.

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 All codes agree that the notch is prepared in
the center of the weld. However, the depth of
the notch can differ from one code to the next.
The notch is prepared by any suitable means.
Generally, the notch depth is approximately
one-eighth inch. The portion between the two
notches is the area of fracture and is normally
required to be a minimum of three-quarters
inch.

Weld reinforcement is generally not removed

so that the entire throat of the weld can be
inspected. However, this would not be true with
the all-around notch specimen since the notch
has removed a portion of the reinforcement.

Any suitable means of breaking the specimen

is acceptable. However, proper attention
to safety must always be considered when
conducting the test. The specimens can be
pulled in a tension test machine until broken.

The specimen can also be subjected to a

bending load or one end of the specimens
could be fixed and the opposite end struck
with a hammer to cause the break.

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 NICK BREAK TEST RESULTS

The specimen is then examined for

discontinuities that might cause poor
soundness.

Lack of fusion could appear as a silvery line

in the weld metal which could open during
testing.

Porosity appears as round depressions on

the fractured surfaces. Some codes allow no
more than six gas pockets per square inch
of weld metal, with the largest gas pocket no
greater than on-sixteenth inch.

Slag inclusions appear as a non-metallic, glass-

like substance on the fractured surfaces. The
applicable quality specification will provide
dimensions on the amount of acceptable slag
inclusions.

Once the test specimens are evaluated, the

results are recorded on the applicable form.
This could be a procedure qualification record
or welder qualification report.

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 TOPIC 5

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name four discontinuities which could appear on the fractured surface of a nick break
test specimen:

2. The nick break test is commonly used to:

A. certify filler metals

B. determine weld strength
C. determine impact strength
D. qualify procedures and welders

3. The nick break specimen contains:

A. a keyhole notch
B. a v-notch
C. a rectangular notch
D. a U-shaped notch

4. The nick break test most often used on:

A. a groove weld
B. a fillet weld
C. an edge weld
D. a flange weld

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 TOPIC 6

FILLET WELD BREAK TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To know the procedure used to perform fillet weld break tests and the results derived from the
test.

INTRODUCTION

This destructive test is similar to the nick

break test. The fillet weld break test consists
of depositing a fillet welding of a specific size
and then applying force to bend or break
the specimen. The face of the weld and
the fractured surface are evaluated for weld
soundness.

The fillet weld break test is used to qualify

procedures, welders and welding operators
for producing fillet welds on plate and pipe. It
is especially common for the qualification of
tack welders.

The governing code or quality specification

must be considered to obtain accurate test
information.

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 FILLET WELD BREAK TEST PROCEDURES

When plates are to be joined by fillet welds, the

t-joint is most often used to perform the break
test. Single pass fillet welds are tested using
this method due to the difficulty in breaking
large multipass welds. The length, width and
thickness of the test plate and the fillet weld
size depend upon the code requirements and
the design of the weldment.

The preparation for the t-joint test consists of

depositing the proper size fillet weld according
to the welding procedure. Some codes may
require a weld restart in the center of the bead.

One inch from each end may be removed prior

to break testing. This is especially common
when macro etch specimens are also required.

The specimen is visually inspected for cracks,

overlap, undercut and other discontinuities.

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 To break the weld, the root must be in tension.
Generally, any suitable means of loading the
specimen is acceptable although safety must
be considered.

The specimen can be bent or broken using a

hammer; or a press could be used to apply a
bending load.

The load is increased or repeated until the

specimen breaks. However, if the specimen
bends without breaking, it usually passes the
test.

FILLET WELD BREAK TEST RESULTS

The broken surfaces are visually inspected for

discontinuities such as cracks, lack of fusion,
inclusions and porosity.

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 Complete fusion to the root of the joint should
be evident. Lack of fusion will normally appear
as unmelted base metal with a clear edge.

Porosity appears as a round discontinuity

on the fractured surface. The discontinuities
may have a silver color from oxidation. The
maximum size or diameter of porosity and
a total size is usually stated by the quality
specification.

Slag inclusions will normally appear as

nonmetallic material along the weld or with the
weld metal. Similar to porosity, a maximum
size and total length may be indicated.

FILLET WELD BREAK TEST PIPE

Fillet welds on pipe connections can also be

tested. Specimens may be removed from
socket welds or t-connections.

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 The preparation of pipe specimens consists
of welding the prescribed pipe per procedure
and then removing the required number of
specimens from the required location on the
pipe.

Generally the size of the pipe weld test

specimen is at least two inches long and one
inch wide. However, the size will vary based
on the quality specification. The specimens
are prepared, broken and examined.

REPORTING

The results of the tests are placed on the

appropriate form. This could be a procedure
qualification record, a welder qualification
report or a quality control production report.

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 TOPIC 6

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name three uses of the fillet weld break test:

2. Usually single pass fillet welds are visually inspected prior to break testing. What
discontinuities are inspected visually?

3. Place the letter in the blank provided to indicate which illustration shows the correct
method of loading the fillet weld in the break test. ________________________

4. What discontinuities are inspected on the fractured surface of the fillet weld break test?

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 TOPIC 7

ETCH TESTING
OBJECTIVE

To know the procedures used to perform etch tests and the results derived from the test.

INTRODUCTION

The etch test consists of cutting a specimen

transverse to the weld axis, applying an etching
solution and inspecting the exposed surface.
This form of destructive testing is an excellent
method of determining the soundness of weld
metal and the metallurgical structure produced
by the weld.

The test outlines or defines the weld structure

in relation to the base metal. The etched
surface provides a contrast between the weld,
heat affected zone and base metal. This
form of testing is commonly referred to as
metallographic examination.

MACROETCH TEST

The macroetch test is commonly used to

qualify fillet weld procedures and welders.

In this test, the coupon is cut transverse to the

weld axis in one or more locations.

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 The weld specimens are ground smooth. In
the case of carbon steel, the surface can be
etched with a solution of one part ammonium
persulphate and nine parts water or a solution
of diluted hydrochloric acid.

Safety precautions must be considered when

working with etchants such as hydrochloric
acid. Some acids can cause serious burns
through contact with the skin. The type of
etchant will depend on the metal.

The etchant is normally applied at room

temperature using a cotton swab or similar
applicator. Etching begins the instant the
solution is applied. However, it may be
necessary to continue rubbing the surface until
there is a clear definition of the weld structure.

After the surface is completely etched, it

is washed in clean water and dried. When
handling the specimen, the tester must be
careful not to touch the etched surface. The
etched surface can be preserved by applying
a thin coat of clear lacquer.

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 The macrospecimen is inspected by looking
at the etched surface without magnification or
with magnification less than ten X.

The X means the number of times larger the

area appears under a magnifying lens. Ten
X means that the area will appear ten times
larger than normal.

The etched surface is examined to determine

weld soundness. Discontinuities such as
cracks, porosity, incomplete fusion, slag
inclusions and lack of penetration are
evaluated.

The number of weld passes is also visible

which helps determine where the problems
occur and how the procedure can be modified
to solve them.

Published welding codes provide a standard

of acceptability for evaluation of macroetch
specimens to qualify welding procedures and
welders.

The results are recorded on qualification

reports or the quality control documents.

MICROETCH TEST

The microspecimen is inspected by examining

the etched surface through a microscope with
a magnification greater than ten X.

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 The microspecimen is prepared similar to
the macrospecimen. However the surface is
carefully ground and polished to a mirror-like
finish to remove all scratches.

A metallographic etching solution is applied to

the surface. Nital solution is commonly used
on carbon steel which consists of 5% nitric
acid in methyl alcohol.

The etched surface is then viewed through a

microscope at high magnifications. Usually
a picture (micrograph) is produced. The
metallurgical structure of the weld metal, fusion
zone and heat affected zone are analyzed for
characteristics such as grain size, carbon
content, and ferrite content.

Few codes require this detailed an examination.

However, it is helpful in evaluating solutions to
welding problems on ferrous and nonferrous
metals.

The microexamination requires a trained

metallographer with skill in metal preparation,
knowledge of the test procedure and necessary
experience to interpret results.

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 TOPIC 7

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain the difference between macroetch test and microetch test.

2. List the steps required to perform macroetch examination in the proper order in the
space provided.

Grind macrospecimen

Inspect macrospecimen

Apply lacquer

Cut macrospecimen

Wash macrospecimen

Apply etchant to macrospecimen

3. What is the primary use of macroetch testing?

4. What is the primary use of microetch testing?

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 GLOSSARY OF WELDING TERMS

All–Weld Metal Test Specimen – A test Molding shoe(s) are used to confine the molten
specimen with the reduced section composed weld metal for vertical position welding. The
wholly of weld metal. electrodes may be either flux cored or solid.
Shielding may or may not be obtained from an
Axis of a Weld – A line through the length of externally supplied gas or mixture.
a weld, perpendicular to and at the geometric
center of its cross section. Electroslag Welding (ESW) – A welding
process producing coalescence of metals with
Base Metal Test Specimen – A test specimen molten slag which melts the filler metal and
composed wholly of base metal. the surfaces of the work to be welded. The
molten weld pool is shielded by this slag which
Complete Fusion – Fusion which has occurred moves along the full cross section of the
over the entire base material surfaces intended joint as welding progresses. The process is
for welding and between all layers and weld initiated by an arc which heats the slag. The arc
beads. is then extinguished and the conductive slag is
maintained in a molten condition by its resistance
Complete Joint Penetration – Joint penetration to electric current passing between the electrode
in which the weld metal completely fills the groove and the work.
and is fused to the base metal throughout its total
thickness. Ferrite Number – An arbitrary, standardized
value designating the ferrite content of an
Crack – A fracture type discontinuity characterized austenitic stainless steel weld metal. It should be
by a sharp tip and high ratio of length and width used in place of percent ferrite or volume percent
to opening displacement. ferrite on a direct one-to-one replacement basis.
See the latest edition of AWS A4.2 Standard
Defect – A discontinuity or discontinuities that, Procedure for Calibrating Magnetic Instruments
by nature or accumulated effect, render a part to Measure the Delta Ferrite Content of Austenitic
or product unable to meet minimum applicable and Duplex Ferritic-Austenitic Stainless Steel
acceptance standards or specifications. This Weld Metal.
term designates rejectability.
Fusion Zone – The area of base metal melted
Depth of Fusion – The distance that fusion as determined on the cross section of a weld.
extends into the base metal or previous pass
from the surface melted during welding. Heat-Affected Zone – That portion of the base
metal which has not been melted, but whose
Discontinuity – An interruption of the typical mechanical properties or microstructure have
structure of a material, such as a lack of been altered by the heat of welding, brazing,
homogeneity in its mechanical, metallurgical, or soldering or cutting.
physical characteristics. A discontinuity is not
necessarily a defect. Joint Penetration – The minimum depth a
groove or flange weld extends from its face
Electrogas Welding (EGW) – An arc welding into a joint, exclusive of reinforcement. Joint
process which produces coalescence of metals penetration may include root penetration.
by heating them with an arc between a continuous
filler metal (consumable) electrode and the work. Leg of Fillet Weld – The shortest distance from
the root of the joint to the toe of the fillet weld.
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 Overlap – In fusion welding, the protrusion Slag inclusion – A discontinuity consisting
of weld metal beyond the weld toe or weld of slag entrapped in weld metal or at the weld
root; In resistance seam welding, the portion interface.
of the preceding weld nugget remelted by the
succeeding weld. Spatter – The metal particles expelled during
welding and which do not form a part of the
Peel Test – A destructive method of inspection weld.
which mechanically separates a lap joint by
peeling. Tack Weld – A weld made to hold parts of a
weldment in proper alignment until the final
Porosity – Cavity-type discontinuities formed by welds are made.
gas entrapment during solidification.
Undercut – A groove melted into the base metal
Procedure Qualification – The demonstration adjacent to the toe or root of a weld and left
that welds made by a specific procedure can unfilled by weld metal.
meet prescribed standards.
Underfill – A depression on the face of the weld
Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) – A or root surface extending below the surface of
record of welding variables used to produce an the adjacent base metal.
acceptable test weldment and the results of tests
conducted on the weldment to qualify a welding Weldability – The capacity of a material to be
procedure specification. welded under the fabrication conditions imposed
into a specific, suitably designed structure and
Reinforcement of Weld – Weld metal in excess to perform satisfactorily in the intended service.
of the quantity required to fill a joint.
Welder – One who performs a manual or
Size of Weld: semiautomatic welding operation.
Groove Weld – The joint penetration
(depth of bevel plus the root penetration Welder Performance Qualification – The
when specified.) demonstration of a welder’s ability to produce
welds meeting prescribed standards.
Fillet Weld – For equal leg fillet welds, the
leg lengths of the largest isosceles right Welding Operator – One who operates machine
triangle which can be inscribed within the or automatic welding equipment.
fillet weld cross section. For unequal leg
fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest Welding Procedure – The detailed methods
right triangle which can be inscribed and practices including all welding procedure
within the fillet weld cross section. specifications involved in the production of a
weldment.
Note: When one member makes an
angle with the other member greater Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) –
than 105 degrees, the leg length (size) A document providing in detail the required
is of less significance than the effective variables for a specific application to assure
throat, which is the controlling factor for repeatability by properly trained welders and
the strength of a weld. welding operators.

Based on Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS 3.0. American Welding Society.

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