Chemistry is the study of matter (from its composition, structure,

properties, to transformation as well as the energy involved in the

transformation).
Matter as a basic definition is anything that has mass and occupies
space.
Solids

Liquids

Gases
Physical Quantities and Units

Chemistry is an EXPERIMENTAL
SCIENCE.

- Measurement

Base Units of the SI System

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
UNIT CONVERSION
- Conversion factors (eg: 1 kg=2.2 lb)
- Laws of exponent and basic multiplication operation.

5.1 km→m
6.2 kg → lb.
Conversion factor 1 kg = 2.2 lb.
7.3 m/s →mi/hr.
Conversion factors: 1 mi = 1.61 km

6.3 m/s2 → km/hr2.

Temperature Conversions:
In converting temperature, use the following guide:
Scientific Notation
Section 2: Matter

There are two major classifications of matter according to composition, substances and
mixtures. In summary, this can be illustrated below. Definition of the terms will follow below.

Reference: http://web.fscj.edu/Milczanowski/psc/lect/Ch9/slide2.htm

Substances are matter of definite composition by mass and the components are inseparable by
physical processes. These can be further classified into elements and compounds.
- Elements are composed of only one type of atom. These are found in the periodic table.
- Compounds are composed of more than one atom.

Mixtures are composed of more than one substance and the individual components can be
separated by physical processes. These can be further classified into homogeneous mixtures
and heterogeneous mixtures.
- Homogeneous mixtures have no visible parts and are uniform though out.
- Heterogeneous mixtures have visible parts that can be recognizable from one another.

There are different separation processes for mixture but not limited to the following below:
- Magnetism is used to separate metallic and non-metallic substances.
- Distillation is used to separate liquids with different boiling points.
- Evaporation is used to separate soluble solid in liquids.
- Filtration is used to separate insoluble fine solid particles in liquid.
- Sieving is used to separate solids of different sizes.
- Decantation is used to separate large solid particles in liquid.

Classification of Elements. Elements can be classified as metal, non-metal, and metalloid.

These are easily recognized in the periodic table.
 Reference: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cheminter/chapter/metalloids/
o Metals are good conductors, are malleable, luster, and ductile
o Non-metals do not conduct electricity and lack the metallic character
o Metalloids have hybrid properties of metals and non-metals (limited to B, Si, Ge,
As, Sb, Te, Po).

Classification of Compounds. Compounds can be classified as ionic and covalent.

o Ionic compounds are formed from a cation (positive ion) and anion (negative ion),
or combination of charge particles held by attraction between unlike charges.
This compound usually contains metals and non-metals.
o Covalent compounds are formed by sharing of electrons between atoms. This
compound usually does not contain metals.
This can be summarized by the illustration below:

Reference: https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch150-preparatory-
chemistry/ch150-chapter-4-covalent-bonds-molecular-compounds/

Phase Changes of Matter. When matter undergoes phase changes, the process involved
are summarized below. In later modules, we will discuss the involved enthalpy for these
changes.

Reference: https://www.shmoop.com/study-guides/chemistry/matter-properties/phase-
change
Properties of matter. The properties of matter can be described based on amount or based
on chemical reactivity:
o Based on amount
▪ Extensive properties increase with increasing amount of matter (e.g.
volume, mass, enthalpy)
▪ Intensive properties are independent on the amount of matter (e.g. molar
mass, density, boiling point)
o Based on chemical reactivity
▪ Physical properties describe the current state of the matter (e.g. color,
shape, phase)
▪ Chemical properties determine the ability to react with other chemicals
(e.g. flammability, explosivity)

Transformation of matter. There are three known transformation of matter. In this course,
we will only discuss the first two.
o Physical transformations are changes that do not change the chemical
composition of the substance (e.g. phase changes, bending, cutting)
o Chemical transformations are changes in chemical composition by
rearrangement of chemical bonds forming new compounds from same set of
elements (e.g. combustion, oxidation, decomposition)
o Nuclear transformations are changes in composition via changes in the nucleus
forming a different set of elements (e.g. alpha decay, beta decay, positron
emission)

Fundamental Chemical Observations. There are three chemical observations that are
already established in the 18th century. These are:
o Law of Mass Conservation. The total mass of a substance does not change
during a chemical reaction. This means, based on all chemical experiences, that
matter cannot be created nor destroyed. (Note that mass does change in a
nuclear reaction – which is not a chemical reaction).
o Law of Definite Proportions. No matter what its source (or its phase), a particular
compound is composed of the same elements in the same parts or fractions by
mass. The mass of the element in a compound /sample of compound is
mathematically expressed as:
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 ( )
𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
o Law of Multiple Proportions. If elements A and B react to form two compounds,
the different masses of B that combine with a fixed amount of A can be
expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers.

To know more on these fundamental chemical observations, you may read the following
websites:

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_for_C
hanging_Times_(Hill_and_McCreary)/02%3A_Atoms/2.02%3A_Scientific_Laws_-
_Conservation_of_Mass_and_Definite_Proportions

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/the-law-of-multiple-proportions/

The following videos also explain definite and multiple proportions and show problem
solving related to definite and multiple proportions:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ly0ywRdVG_M

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxE95VOY-YY

Section 3: The Atomic Structure

Atoms are the smallest units of an element.

Following is the summary of Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
o All matter is composed by atoms.
o Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable.
o Elements are made up of the same atoms.
o Elements combine in simple whole number ratios.
o A chemical reaction involves rearrangement of atoms.
To know more on Dalton’s Atomic Theory, you may read the following links:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/electronic-structure-of-atoms/history-of-
atomic-structure/a/daltons-atomic-theory-version-2

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/john-dalton-and-atomic-theory/

Subatomic Particles. An atom has subatomic particles, described below:

Subatomic Particle Charge Mass (amu) Location
Protons, p+ + 1.00727 Nucleus
Electrons, e- - 0.00054858 Outside Nucleus
Neutrons, n0 0 1.00866 Nucleus

Based on this, the mass of an atom is concentrated on the nucleus. Particles of the nucleus
(protons and neutrons – also known as nucleons) make up for this mass.

Summary of Scientific work on the atomic structure:

Scientist Contribution/Discovery
J.J. Charge to mass ratio of electron and plum pudding
Thomson model
R. Millikan Charge and mass of electron
E. Goldstein Proton
E. Nucleus and nuclear model of atom
Rutherford
J. Chadwick Neutron
H. Moseley Atomic number

For more information of the scientific works and contribution of scientist to the atomic
structure, you may refer to the following links:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_-
_The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/02._Atoms%2C_Molecules%2C_and_Ions/2.2%3
A_The_Discovery_of_Atomic_Structure

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/history-of-atomic-
structure/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/discoveries-leading-to-
nuclear-atom-model/

https://www.slideshare.net/JeromeJerome1/4-the-discovery-of-the-structure-of-the-atom

Nuclear Model of an Atom explains that atoms are mostly empty space and the mass of
each atoms is concentrated on the nucleus.

Notation of Elements: A-Z notation of elements

𝐴 𝐶
𝑍𝑋
Where:
X – is the element symbol found in the periodic table (e.g. C for carbon, O for oxygen)
A – is the mass number (the sum of protons and neutrons)
Z – is the atomic number, which denotes the number of protons of an element. Each
element has a unique atomic number.
C – charge, which arises from loss or gain of electrons. The charge becomes positive if an
atom losses electron/s, and negative if it gains electron/s. No number is written if the atom
is neutral (protons = electrons)

In computing for the number of subatomic particles, be guided by the following formula:
Subatomic Particle Formula
Protons, p+ Z
Neutrons, n0 A-Z
Electrons, e- Z-C

Example: Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons for the following:
Atomic Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons
37
17𝐶𝑙 =Z=17 =A-Z=37-17=20 =Z-C=17-0=17
79 =Z=35 =A-Z=79-35=44 =Z-C=35-0=35
35𝐵𝑟
24 2+
12𝑀𝑔 =Z=12 =A-Z=24-12=12 =Z-C=12-(+2)=10
32 2−
16 𝑆 =Z=16 =A-Z=32-16=16 =Z-C=16-(-2)=18

Isotopes and Average Atomic Mass (AAM).

Isotopes are elements of different mass numbers due to varying number of neutrons.
Atomic mass unit (amu) is the mass equal to 1/12 of the mass of Carbon-12 isotope
(which has exactly 12 amu).
Average atomic mass (AAM) is the weighted average of the mass of an element from all of
its isotopes as described by the equation below:
%𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐴𝐴𝑀 = ∑(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒)𝑖 ( )
100 𝑖
𝑖
To simplify, this is equal to the sum of products of mass of each isotope to its
corresponding % abundance in nature.

Example 1: Silver (Ag: Z=47) has 46 known isotopes, but only two occur naturally. 107
47𝐴𝑔
109
and 47𝐴𝑔. Given the following mass spectrometric data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag:
Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance, %
107
47𝐴𝑔 106.90509 51.84
109
47𝐴𝑔 108.90476 48.16
 Solution Plan: To solve this, just use the formula for AAM and directly substitute the
values.
%𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐴𝐴𝑀 = ∑(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒)𝑖 ( )
100 𝑖
𝑖
𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 107 47𝐴𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 10947𝐴𝑔
𝐴𝐴𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 107
47𝐴𝑔 (
109
) + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 47𝐴𝑔 ( )
100 100
51.84 48.16
𝐴𝐴𝑀 = (106.90509 𝑎𝑚𝑢) ( ) + (108.90476 𝑎𝑚𝑢) ( ) = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟖𝟕 𝒂𝒎𝒖
100 100

Example 2: There are two stable chlorine isotopes, Cl-35 (amu = 35.00) and Cl-37 (amu =
37.00). Determine the % abundance of Cl-35 and Cl-37 if the average atomic mass for Cl
is 35.45 amu.
Solution Plan: To solve this, we must note that the total abundance should be 100%.
Letting x be the abundance of Cl-35. With this, the abundance of Cl-37 is 100-x. Just input
this in the formula for AAM then solve for x and 100-x to get the %abundance of Cl-35 and
Cl-37.
𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑙 − 35 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑙 − 37
𝐴𝐴𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑙 − 35 ( ) + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑙 − 37 ( )
100 100
𝑥 100 − 𝑥
35.45 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 35.00 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ( ) + 37.00 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ( )
100 100

Solving for x (let us remove amu first so the solution will not be cluttered):
35.45 = 0.3500𝑥 + 37.00 − 0.3700𝑥
37.00 − 35.45
𝑥= = 77.5%
. 3700 − .3500

100 − 𝑥 = 100 − 77.5 = 22.5%

This means that the abundance for Cl-35 is 77.5% and the abundance for Cl-37 is 22.5%.

Where:
X – is the element symbol found in the periodic table (e.g. C for carbon, O for oxygen)
A – is the mass number (the sum of protons and neutrons)

To know more on isotopes and computation of atomic mass unit, you may visit the
following links:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_
Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Atomic_Theory/Isot
opes

A video showing how to compute amu can be accessed here:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ULRsJYhQmlo

Section 4: Naming and Writing of Compounds and Molecular Mass

As discussed earlier, compounds are pure substances composed of more than one atom. It is
the electrons of the atoms of interacting elements that are involved in compound formation.
Elements combine in two general ways:
 o Transferring electrons from atoms of one element to those of another to form ionic
compounds.
o Sharing electrons between atoms of different elements to form covalent compounds.

IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds are composed on ions, charged particles that form when an atom (or small
group of atoms) gains or loses on or more electrons. The simplest form of ionic compound is a
binary ionic compound, which is composed of two elements and is typically formed when a
metal reacts with a non-metal. The metal atom loses a certain number of electrons and
becomes a cation, while the non-metal gains the electrons lost by the metal atom and becomes
the anion. The figure below shows the typical charge of the atom when it becomes an ion.

Reference: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/atomic-structure-and-
properties/names-and-formulas-of-ionic-compounds/a/naming-monatomic-ions-and-ionic-
compounds
The cation takes the name of the element. (e.g. 𝑁𝑎+ is sodium ion as Na is sodium). The anion
takes the name of the element, but replacing the with suffix -ide (e.g. 𝐶𝑙 − is chloride ion, putting
the suffix -ide in chlorine. 𝑂2− is the oxide ion).

There are several metals that can form more than one ion, particularly transition elements.
Names of the compounds with these elements include a Roman numeral within parentheses
immediately after the metal ion’s name to indicate its charge (Systematic name). In common or
trivial names, the Latin root of the metal is followed by either the suffix -ous (ion with the lower
charge) or -ic (ion with the higher charge). The table below shows the common metals that form
more than one monoatomic ion as well as their systematic and common names.

Reference: https://study.com/academy/lesson/rules-for-naming-ionic-compounds.html
Ionic compounds can be also formed from polyatomic ions. These ions consist of two or more
atoms bonded covalently and have a net positive or negative charge.

Reference: https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/polyatomic-ion-listed-table-iodate-io3-
formula-periodate-io-chapter-5-problem-136pp-solution-9780321933720-exc

In naming ionic compounds, just combine the names of the cation+anion. In writing ionic
compounds formula, the charge of the cation will become the subscript of the anion, and the
charge of the anion will be the subscript of the cation (by crisscross).

Hydrated ionic compounds have a specific number of water molecules associated with each
formula unit. In their formulas, this number is shown after a centered dot. It is indicated in the
systematic name by a Greek numerical prefix before the word hydrate.

Reference: https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch150-preparatory-
chemistry/ch150-chapter-4-covalent-bonds-molecular-compounds/

Acid names can also be formed from anion names. These acids are important group of
hydrogen-containing compounds that have been used in different chemical reactions. The two
common types of acids are binary acids and oxoacids. We will only focus on these two for this
module. We name the acids based on the following:
o Binary acids solutions form from gaseous compounds dissolved in water. When
hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, it forms a solution called hydrochloric acid. We
name binary acid as prefix (hydro)+non-metal root+suffix (ic)+acid. We write them as
HCl(aq) since it forms an aqueous solution. More on this as we tackle writing reactions
and solutions.
o Oxoacids is from polyatomic anions attached to H+ cation. We name the acid with the
polyatomic anion +suffix -ic if the anion ends in -ate, and -ous if the anion ends in -ite.
Example: Complete the table for the following ionic compounds:
Chemical Name Cation Anion Chemical
Formula
Magnesium fluoride 𝑀𝑔2+ 𝐹− 𝑀𝑔𝐹2
Cupric oxide 𝐶𝑢2+ 𝑂2− 𝐶𝑢𝑂
Calcium phosphate 𝐶𝑎2+ 𝑃𝑂4 3− 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2
Lead (IV) nitrate heptahydrate 𝑃𝑏 4+ 𝑁𝑂3 − 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )4 ∙ 7𝐻2 𝑂
Hydronitric acid 𝐻+ 𝑁 3− 𝐻3 𝑁(𝑎𝑞)
Nitric acid 𝐻+ 𝑁𝑂3 − 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)

COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Covalent compounds are formed from the sharing of electrons between two or more atoms. In
this module, we will be focusing on binary covalent compounds, which is formed by the
combination of two elements, usually non-metals. They are systematically named by:
o The element with the lower group number in the periodic table is the first word in the
name: the element with the higher group number is the second word. (Note: When the
compound contains oxygen and any of the halogens, the halogen is named first).
o If both elements are in the same group, the one with the highest period is named first.
o The second element is named with its root and the suffix -ide.
o Covalent compounds have Greek numerical prefixes shown below, to indicate the
number of atoms in each element in the compound. The first word has a prefix only
when more than one atom of the element is present; the second word usually has a
numerical prefix.

Reference: https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch150-preparatory-
chemistry/ch150-chapter-4-covalent-bonds-molecular-compounds/

Example: Complete the table for the following covalent compounds:

Chemical Name Chemical
Formula
Carbon dioxide 𝐶𝑂2
Nitrogen trifluoride 𝑁𝐹3
Dichlorine monoxide 𝐶𝑙2 𝑂

Here are some website and videos that can help you in writing and naming compounds:

https://study.com/academy/lesson/rules-for-naming-ionic-compounds.html
https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch150-preparatory-
chemistry/ch150-chapter-4-covalent-bonds-molecular-compounds/

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/naming-compounds/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nijb6UMvZuE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eM5mDnQX0k8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PKA4CZwbZWU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URc75hoKGLY

MOLECULAR MASS

The molecular mass (also called molecular weight) of a chemical formula of a compound is the
sum of the atomic masses. For atoms inside a parentheses, the number of atoms of each
element inside the parentheses is multiplied by the subscript outside the parentheses.

Examples:

1. Determine the molecular mass of the following compounds:

Chemical Name Chemical Molecular Mass

Formula
Magnesium fluoride 𝑀𝑔𝐹2 =24.31+2(19.00)=62.31 amu
Calcium phosphate 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 =3(40.08)+2[30.97+4(16.00)]=310.18
amu
Nitric acid 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) =1.00+14.01+3(16.00)=63.01 amu
Carbon dioxide 𝐶𝑂2 =12.00+2(16.00)=44.00 amu

2. Paracetamol, C8H9NO2, ingredient of Tempra and Biogesic, is a known medication for

pain and fever. What is the molecular mass of Paracetamol

𝑀𝑀 = 8𝑥12.01 + 9𝑥1.008 + 1𝑥14.01 + 2𝑥15.999 = 151.16 𝑎𝑚𝑢

3. Loperamide, C29H33ClN2O2, ingredient of Imodium and Diatabs, is used to treat

sudden diarrhea. What is the molecular mass of Loperamide?
 𝑀𝑀 = 29𝑥12.01 + 33𝑥1.008 + 1𝑥35.45 + 2𝑥14.01 + 2𝑥15.999 = 477.02 𝑎𝑚𝑢

Here are some website and videos that can help you get the molecular mass of a compound:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/molar-mass/

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_British_Columbia/CHEM_100%3A_Foundatio
ns_of_Chemistry/06%3A_Chemical_Composition/6.9%3A_Calculating_Molecular_Formulas_for
_Compounds

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_zHROisdP4

Watch the video of lecture to be sent by the instructor

Assessment:
Problem Set to be given by the instructor at the end of this session.
References:
You may also read: Principles of General Chemistry 2nd Edition by Silberberg Chapter 1 and 2
MODULE 2: Stoichiometry

Overview: This module discusses the mole, composition and reaction stoichiometry, and
solution stoichiometry.

Module Objectives:
• Be able to define mole and know mole-mass-number conversions
• Calculate the mass percent of elements in a compound and determine the formula of an
unknown compound by computing its empirical and molecular formulas
• Write and balance chemical equations
• Calculate the amount of reactants needed and products formed by determining the
molar ratios from the balanced reaction and the limiting and excess reactants; and know
the reaction yield
• Solve for molarity and apply this to Solution stoichiometry

Course Materials:
Stoichiometry is the study of quantitative aspects of chemical formula and reactions. All the
lessons discussed in this module depend on your understanding of the mole concept.

Section 1: The Mole and Mole Conversion

The mole (mol) is the standard unit for the amount of substance.
o It contains Avogardo’s number (6.022x1023) of chemical entities, be it atoms, molecules,
or ions.
Examples:
a. 1 mole of C = 6.022x1023 atoms of C
b. 1 mole NaCl = 6.022x1023 molecules of NaCl
c. 1 mole 𝐶𝑎2+ = 6.022x1023 ions of 𝐶𝑎2+
o It has the same numerical value in grams as a single entity of the substance has in
atomic mass units (amu). This is then called the molar mass with units g/mol. The molar
mass can be obtained using the following:
o Elements. The molar mass of an element is its atomic mass (just change the unit
from amu to g/mol).
Examples:
a. 1 mole of C = 12.01 grams of C
b. 1 mole of Pb = 207.2 grams of Pb
c. 1 mole K= 39.10 grams of K
o Compounds. The molar mass of a compound is its molecular mass (just change
the unit from amu to g/mol)
Examples:
a. 1 mole of 𝑀𝑔𝐹2 = 62.31 grams of 𝑀𝑔𝐹2
b. 1 mole of 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 = 310.18 grams of 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2
c. 1 mole 𝐶𝑂2 = 44.0 grams of 𝐶𝑂2
The number of moles of an element present in a compound is determined by the
number of atoms of the element present in the compound.

This means that when the amount of a substance is expressed in moles, we can
determine the number of entities in a given mass of it, which means that amount, mass,
and number are interconvertible.
 You may refer to the following illustration for better understanding.
For elements:

For compounds:

Examples:
1. Complete the following table below. The computation for molar mass is also shown
below.

No. Chemical Chemical Name Molar Mass, g/mol

Formula
a. Na2S sodium sulfide MM = 2x22.990+1x32.07 = 78.05
b. P3Cl4 triphosphorus MM = 3x30.974+4x35.45 =
tetrachloride 234.72
c. (NH4)2Cr2O7 ammonium dichromate MM =
2x14.01+8x1.008+2x51.996+7x16
= 252.08
d. Al(HCO3)3 aluminum bicarbonate or MM =
aluminum hydrogen 1x26.982+3x1.008+3x12.01+9x16
carbonate = 210.04
e. Pb3(PO4)4 plumbic phosphate MM = 3x207.2+4x30.974+16x16
= 794.3

2. Determine the mass and number of entities/particles for 1.15 mol of Au.
Note: Molas mass of Au = 197 g/mol
197 𝑔 𝐴𝑢
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑢 = 1.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑢 ( ) = 226.6 𝑔 𝐴𝑢
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑢
6.022𝑥1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝐴𝑢
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝐴𝑢 = 1.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑢 ( ) = 6.925𝑥1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝐴𝑢
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑢
3. Mefenamic acid, C15H15NO2, ingredient of Dolfenal and Ponstan, is commonly used to
relieve the symptoms of arthritis, fever, and menstrual and other types of pain.
 a. What is the molar mass of Mefenamic acid? 𝑀𝑀 = 15𝑥12.01 + 15𝑥1.008 + 1𝑥14.01 +
𝑔
2𝑥15.999 = 241.28
𝑚𝑜𝑙
b. In a certain medicine tablet, there are 2.5 milligrams of Mefenamic acid. How many
moles of Mefenamic acid are there? (1000 mg = 1 g)
1 𝑔 C15 H15 NO2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 C15 H15 NO2
2.5 𝑚𝑔 C15 H15 NO2 ( )( )
1000 𝑚𝑔 C15 H15 NO2 241.28 𝑔 C15 H15 NO2
= 1.04𝑥10−5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 C15 H15 NO2
c. How many grams of hydrogen are present in 1.15 moles of mefenamic acid?
15 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 1.008 𝑔 𝐻
1.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙 C15 H15 NO2 ( )( ) = 17.4 𝑔 𝐻
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 C15 H15 NO2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻

4. Phenylpropanolamine, C9H13NO, ingredient of Tuseran and Neozep, is used to

treat nasal congestion associated with the common cold and other respiratory illnesses
like rhinitis and sinusitis.

a. What is the molar mass of Phenylpropanolamine? 𝑀𝑀 = 9𝑥12.01 + 13𝑥1.008 +

𝑔
1𝑥14.01 + 1𝑥15.999 = 151.20 𝑚𝑜𝑙
b. In a certain medicine tablet, there are 2.5 milligrams of Phenylpropanolamine.
How many moles of Phenylpropanolamine are there? (1000 mg = 1 g)
1 𝑔 C9 H13 NO 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 C9 H13 NO
2.5 𝑚𝑔 C9 H13 NO ( )( )
1000 𝑚𝑔 C9 H13 NO 151.2 𝑔 C9 H13 NO
= 1.65𝑥10−5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 C9 H13 NO
c. How much hydrogen, in grams, is present in 2.5 milligrams of
Phenylpropanolamine?
1 𝑔 C9 H13 NO 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙C9 H13 NO 13 𝑚𝑜𝑙 H 1.008 𝑔 H
2.5 𝑚𝑔 C9 H13 NO ( )( )( )( )
1000 𝑚𝑔 C9 H13 NO 151.2 𝑔 C9 H13 NO 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 C9 H13 NO 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
= 2.17𝑥10−4 𝑔 𝐻

Here are some website and videos that can help you understand the mole concept, mole-mass-
entity conversion and calculating the molar mass

http://chemistry.bd.psu.edu/jircitano/mole.html

https://www.ausetute.com.au/massmole.html

https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/3-1-formula-mass-and-the-mole-concept/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HMAOrGpkTsQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMnkSb2YsXI

Section 2: Composition Stoichiometry

Composition stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships of elements in a

compound. The main objective of composition stoichiometry is to describe a compound by its
elemental mass percentages or whole number rations of elements within the compound to
describe the simplest or actual formula of the compound.

MASS PERCENT
Each element in a compound constitutes its own particular portion of the compound’s mass. The
mass percent of a particular element in a compound is computed using:

𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 ( )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑋 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑋 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑋 = 𝑥 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

As always, the individual mass percents of the elements in the compound must total to 100%.
Example: Indicators are used in titration to determine the equivalence point. These indicators
react and change the color of the solution when the equivalence point is reached. Methyl red, 2-
(N,N-dimethyl-4-aminophenyl) azobenzenecarboxylic acid, is an indicator used to determine
bacteria producing acids that maintain acid end products from glucose fermentation. Methyl red
formula is C15H15N3O2. Determine the mass percent of each element in the compound.

Solution Plan: First, we must determine Methyl Red’s molar mass.

𝑔
𝑀𝑀 = 15𝑥12.01 + 15𝑥1.008 + 3𝑥14.01 + 2𝑥15.999 = 269.30
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Assuming 1 mole (269.3 g of methyl red), we can now compute for the mass percent of each
element in the compound with the following solution.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶 15𝑥12.01
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝐶 = 𝑥 100% = 𝑥100% = 66.9%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 C15 H15 N3 O2 269.30
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐻 15𝑥1.008
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝐻 = 𝑥 100% = 𝑥100% = 5.6%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 C15 H15 N3 O2 269.30
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑁 3𝑥14.01
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝑁 = 𝑥 100% = 𝑥100% = 15.6%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 C15 H15 N3 O2 269.30
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑂 2𝑥15.999
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝑂 = 𝑥 100% = 𝑥100% = 11.9%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 C15 H15 N3 O2 269.30
Note that the sum of the mass % of each element equals to 100%.

EMPIRICAL and MOLECULAR FORMULA

The empirical formula or simplest formula is the chemical formula in which the smallest or
simplest whole numbers are used.
The molecular formula or actual formula is the chemical formula in which the actual number of
elements in the compound is written.

To visualize, shown below is the chemical structure for glucose, which is a type of sugar in the
blood and a major source of energy for the cells.

From its chemical structure, we note that there are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6
oxygen atoms. This makes the molecular formula for glucose to be C6H12O6. Simplifying this, the
empirical formula is CH2O.

Solving for the empirical and molecular formula

All formula is written based on the elemental composition and the ratio of each element in the
compound. One has to obtain the correct ratio of the elements in the compound to solve the
empirical formula. This can be done by solving the amount of each element by moles and
getting their mole rations. The simplified mole ratio of the elements expressed in whole
numbers will determine the empirical formula. The molecular formula can be expressed
as a multiple of the empirical formula where
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 = (𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)𝑥
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
𝑥=
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

You may refer to the following illustration for better understanding on the steps to obtain the
empirical and molecular formula:
Examples:
1. Caffeine is a simulant naturally found in coffee and tea. Elemental analysis shows that
caffeine is composed of 49.48% carbon, 5.19% hydrogen, 28.86% nitrogen, and 16.48%
oxygen. If the molar mass of caffeine is 194.2 g/mol, what is the empirical and molecular
formula of caffeine.

Mass, g Divide with

Element (assume 100 Convert to moles Smallest
grams) mole
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
= 49.48 𝑔 ( ) 4.120
C 49.48 12.01 𝑔 𝐶 = ≅4 Emprical
= 4.120 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶 1.030
Formula is:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 5.149 𝑪𝟒 𝑯𝟓 𝑵𝟐 𝑶
= 5.19 𝑔 ( ) = ≅5
H 5.19 1.008 𝑔 𝐻 1.030
= 5.149 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 2.060
= 28.86 𝑔 ( ) = ≅2
N 28.86 14.01 𝑔 𝑁 1.030
= 2.060 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 1.030
= 16.48 𝑔 ( ) = ≅1
O 16.48 16.00 𝑔 𝑂 1.030
= 1.030 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂
𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐹 = 4𝑥12.01 + 5𝑥1.008 + 2𝑥14.01 + 1𝑥16 = 97.1 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝐹 194.2
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐹 = 97.1 ≅ 2 Therefore, molecular formula is 𝑪𝟖 𝑯𝟏𝟎 𝑵𝟒 𝑶𝟐.

2. The beta-blocker drug, timolol, is used to reduce the need for heart bypass surgeries.
Timolol will weigh 158 grams at 0.5 moles. If its composition by mass is 49.4%C, 7.6%H,
17.7%N, 15.2%O, and 10.1%S, what is the empirical and molecular formula for timolol?

Solution Plan: Assume 100 grams of sample and obtain the mass of each element.
Mass, g Divide with
Element (assume 100 Convert to moles Smallest
grams) mole
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 4.122
= 49.5 𝑔 ( ) =
C 49.5 12.01 𝑔 𝐶 0.315
= 4.122 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶 ≅ 13
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 7.540
= 7.6 𝑔 ( ) =
H 7.6 1.008 𝑔 𝐻 0.315 Empirical
= 7.540 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻 ≅ 24 Formula is:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 1.263 𝑪𝟏𝟑 𝑯𝟐𝟒 𝑵𝟒 𝑶𝟑 𝑺
= 17.7 𝑔 ( ) = ≅4
N 17.7 14.01 𝑔 𝑁 0.315
= 1.263 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 0.950
= 15.2 𝑔 ( ) = ≅3
O 15.2 15.999 𝑔 𝑂 0.315
= 0.950 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆 0.315
= 10.1 𝑔 ( ) = ≅1
S 10.1 32.07 𝑔 𝑆 0.315
= 0.315 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑆
 158 𝑔
𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝐹 = 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 316 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐹 = 13𝑥12.01 + 24𝑥1.008 +
4𝑥14.01 + 3𝑥15.999 + 1𝑥32.07 = 316.429 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝐹 316
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐹 = 316.429 ≅ 1 Therefore, molecular formula is 𝑪𝟏𝟑 𝑯𝟐𝟒 𝑵𝟒 𝑶𝟑 𝑺.

Combustion Analysis of Elements. Various elements can react with O2 forming oxides. The
moles of elemental oxides formed can be related to the moles of elements in the compound that
reacted with O2. This method is commonly used for carbon-containing compounds.

Example: Menthol (Molar mass = 156.3 g/mol), a strong-smelling substance used in cough
drops, is a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When 0.1595 g of menthol
was combusted, it produced 0.449 g of CO2 and 0.184 g of H2O. What is the molecular formula
for menthol?
Solution Plan: Obtain mass of C and H from CO2 and H2O. Obtain mass of O from mass of
sample minus mass of C and H.
Divide
Elem with
Mass, g Convert to moles
ent Smalle
st mole
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 12.01 𝑔 𝐶 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 0.01020Empiri
= 0.449 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 ( )( )=( 0.1225 𝑔)( =)
C 44.008 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 12.01 𝑔 𝐶 0.001026 cal
= 0.1225 𝑔 𝐶 = 0.01020 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶 ≅ 10 Formu
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 1.008 𝑔 𝐻 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 0.02043 la is:
= 0.184 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂 ( )( )=( 0.02059 𝑔) ( =) 𝑪 𝑯 𝑶
H 18.016 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 1.008 𝑔 𝐻 0.001026 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎
= 0.02059 𝑔 𝐻 = 0.02043 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻 ≅ 20
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 0.01020
= 0.1595 − 0.1225 − 0.02059 = 0.01641 𝑔 ( = )
O 15.999 𝑔 𝑂0.001026
= 0.01641 𝑔 𝑂
= 0.001026 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂 ≅ 1
𝑀𝐸𝐹 = 10𝑥12.01 + 20𝑥1.008 + 1𝑥15.999 = 156.259 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝐹 156.3
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐹 = 156.259 ≅ 1 Therefore, molecular formula is 𝑪𝟏𝟎 𝑯𝟐𝟎 𝑶.

Here are some website and videos that can help you understand composition stoichiometry:

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-chemistry/stoichiometry-and-molecular-composition-
ap

https://www.thoughtco.com/calculate-empirical-and-molecular-formula-609503

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Heartland_Community_College/HCC%3A_Chem_161/3%3
A_Chemical_Reactions_and_Quantities/3.4%3A_Determing_an_Empirical_and_Molecular_For
mula

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lywmGCfIUIA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wnRaBWvhYKY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JeSSucG-CVw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfBcM3uvWfs
Section 3: Chemical Reactions and Reaction Stoichiometry

Chemical reactions happen everywhere, anytime. From our body, to the rusting metal on your
front door, to manufacturing and production of our basic needs such as soaps, glass, etc, and
even waste treatment, all of these involve chemical reactions.

Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

A chemical equation is a statement in formula that expresses the identities and quantities of
the substances involved in a chemical or physical change. The most important reason for
knowing to express the amount of substance in moles is because it represents the amount of
substance taking part in the reaction. The left side of the equation shows that amount of each
substance present before the change, and the right side shows the amounts present after. To
depict these amounts accurately, the chemical equation must be balanced. This requirement
follows the law of mass conservation and atomic theory:
o In a chemical process, atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or changed, and will
only be rearranged into different combinations.
o A formula represents a fixed ratio of elements in a compound so a different ratio
represents a different compound.
We can convert the chemical statements into a balanced equation using the following steps:
1. Translate the chemical statement into a skeleton equation: chemical formula arranged in
an equation format. All the reactants are placed to the left of the yield arrow and the
products on the right of the yield arrow.
2. Match the number of each type of atoms on each side. At the end of this step, a
balancing coefficient will have to be added to balance the equation. Balancing is easiest
when:
o Start with the most complex substance, the one with the largest number of
atoms or different types of atoms.
o End with the least complex substance, such as an element by itself.
Note that the subscripts in the chemical formula should not be changed, as these
subscripts are from the chemical formula.
3. Always check that the equation is balanced after balancing and adjusting the
coefficients.
4. The final chemical equation also indicates the physical state of each substance. The
states/phases are abbreviated as follows:
o Solid state – (s)
o Liquid state – (l)
o Gaseous state – (g)
o Aqueous state – (aq) – includes acids, bases, and solutions.

Examples: Convert the following chemical statements into balanced equations.

1. When gallium metal is heated with oxygen gas, it melts and forms solid gallium (III)
oxide.
4𝐺𝑎(𝑠) + 3𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝐺𝑎2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
2. Liquid disilicon hexachloride reacts with water to form solid silicon dioxide, hydrogen
chloride gas, and hydrogen gas.
𝑆𝑖2 𝐶𝑙6 (𝑙) + 4𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝑆𝑖𝑂2 (𝑠) + 6𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) + 𝐻2
(𝑔)
3. Solid potassium nitrate decomposes on heating, producing solid potassium oxide, and
gaseous nitrogen and oxygen.
 5
2𝐾𝑁𝑂3 (𝑠) → 𝐾2 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝑁2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2
2 (𝑔)
4. Solid chromium (III) oxide reacts with hydrogen sulfide gas to form solid chromium (III)
sulfide and water
𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3 (𝑠) + 3𝐻2 𝑆(𝑔) → 𝐶𝑟2 𝑆3 (𝑠) +3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
5. When solutions of calcium chloride and sodium phosphate are mixed, solid calcium
phosphate forms and sodium chloride remains in solution.
3𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑎3 𝑃𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 (𝑠) + 6𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)

Amounts of Reactants and Products from Chemical Reactions

The reason for balancing the chemical equation since this will tell you the mole-to-mole
relationship between the reactants and products. Simply put, the balanced equation for the
reaction tells you the number of mole of all others (be it reactant or product), if you know the
number of moles of one substance.

As an example, the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of hydrochloric acid with solid
sodium carbonate producing aqueous solution of sodium chloride, as well as carbon dioxide and
water vapor is shown below:
2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)
From this chemical equation, we can deduce the following:
o 2 moles of 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) will react with one mole of 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠)
o 2 moles of 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) will produce 2 moles of 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
o 1 mole of 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) will produce 1 mole of 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)

Obviously, we will not know these mole-to-mole relationships without the balanced chemical
equation. Here is a general approach for solving any stoichiometry problem that involves a
chemical reaction:
1. Write a balanced equation.
2. Convert the mass/entity of the substance to moles.
3. Use the balanced chemical equation to relate amount (mol) of the first substance to mol
of second substance.
4. Convert the amount of the second substance to desired mass/entity.
The following illustration summarized the mass-mole-number relationships in a chemical
reaction.
Example: Chlorine trifluoride is used in the processing of uranium fuel for power plants. By the
reaction of fluorine gas and chlorine gas in a special metal container, chlorine trifluoride gas will
be formed.
a. What is the balanced chemical equation for the reaction above?
𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) + 3𝐹2 (𝑔) → 2𝐶𝑙𝐹3 (𝑔)

b. If there are 3.15 moles of fluorine gas in the container, how much chlorine
trifluoride gas in moles will be formed?
Solution Plan: We can use the balanced chemical equation to solve this problem.
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙𝐹3 (𝑔)
= 3.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹2 (𝑔) ( ) = 2.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙𝐹3 (𝑔)
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹2 (𝑔)
c. If there are 3.15 grams of chlorine gas in the container, how much chlorine
trifluoride gas in grams will be formed?
Solution Plan: We must convert grams of Cl2 to moles Cl2 (using MM of Cl2).
Then use the balanced equation to convert moles Cl2 to moles ClF3. Lastly,
convert moles ClF3 to grams ClF3 (using MM of ClF3)
Molar mass of Cl2 = 2 (35.45)=70.9 g/mol
Molar mass of ClF3 = 35.45+3(19.00)=91.45 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙𝐹3 (𝑔) 91.45 𝑔 𝐶𝑙𝐹3 (𝑔)
= 3.15 𝑔 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) ( )( )( ) = 8.1 𝑔 𝐶𝑙𝐹3 (𝑔)
70.9 𝑔 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙𝐹3 (𝑔)

Limiting and Excess Reactant and Reaction Yield

The problems considered up to now only have the amount of one reactant, and it is assumed
that there was enough for the other reactant for the first reactant to be completely used up. Well,
most of the time, the amount of one reactant is not stoichiometrically equivalent to another
reactant for it to completely react. Therefore, one reactant will be completely used up in the
reaction called the limiting reactant, while another reactant will have an excess called the
excess reactant.

To understand the concept of limiting and excess reactant, we follow the illustration below.
Supposed each sandwich needs 2 slices of bread, 3 pieces of lunchmeat, and 1 slice of cheese,
you can only make 3 sandwiches once you have 6 slices of bread, 12 pieces of lunchmeat, and
5 slices of cheese.

Each of the reactant (slice of bread, pieces of lunch meat, slice of cheese) can be converted to
the amount of product it can form to see which of the reactants is limiting. In mathematical
terms, the limiting reactant is the one that yields the lowest amount of product. The amount of
product to be formed will depend on the amount of the limiting reactant.
 1 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ
𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 6 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 ( ) = 3 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
2 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑

1 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ
𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 12 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑡 ( ) = 4 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
3 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑡

1 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ
𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑒 = 5 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑒 ( ) = 5 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
1 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑒

From this, we know that the bread is the limiting reactant, while the lunchmeat and cheese are
the excess reactants. How can we know how much is the excess? From the final product
(sandwich formed), we can check how much of the excess reactant will be used up:
3 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 3 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 ( ) = 9 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑡
1 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ
1 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑒
𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 3 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 ( ) = 3 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑒
1 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ

Since we know how much of the excess reactant is used, we can determine how much is the
excess:
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 − 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑝
Using this equation, we know that the amounts of excess reactant are 3 pieces of lunchmeat
and 2 slides of cheese.

With this, if the amounts of two or more reactants are given, it is most likely that it is a limiting
reactant problem.
Common mistakes in solving problems involving a limiting reacting include:
• The limiting reactant is not the reactant with the fewer number of moles, rather it is the
reactant which produces the fewer number of moles of the product.
• The limiting reactant is not the reactant with the lower mass, rather it is the reactant
which produces the lower mass of product.

Example: The combination of solid ammonium perchlorate and aluminum metal will result in
solid aluminum oxide and formation of nitrogen gas, hydrogen chloride gas, and water vapor.
a. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction above.
6𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) + 10𝐴𝑙(𝑠) → 5𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) + 3𝑁2 (𝑔) + 6𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) + 9𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)
b. How much aluminum oxide in grams can be formed from 10 grams of ammonium
perchlorate and 30 grams of aluminum metal?
Solution Plan: We check how much aluminum oxide can be formed from 10.0
grams of ammonium perchlorate and 3.0 grams of aluminum metal. The lower
mass of aluminum oxide formed (from the limiting reactant) will be our answer.
To solve this, we convert the mass of reactants to moles (using MM of NH4ClO4
or Al), moles of reactants to moles of product from the balanced chemical
equation, then the moles of product to mass of product (using MM of Al2O3).
Molar mass of NH4ClO4 = 14.01+4(1.008)+35.45+4(15.999) = 117.488 g/mol
Molar mass of Al = 26.98 g/mol
Molar mass of Al2O3 = 2(26.98)+3(15.999)=101.957 g/mol
Determining mass of Al2O3 from 10 grams of NH4ClO4
 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 101.957 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
= 10 𝑔 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) ( )( )( )
117.488 𝑔 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
= 7.23 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
Determining mass of Al2O3 from 30 grams of Al
𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑙(𝑠)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙(𝑠) 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 101.957 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
= 3.0 𝑔 𝐴𝑙(𝑠) ( )( )( )
26.98 𝑔 𝐴𝑙(𝑠) 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙(𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
= 5.67 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
Since there are only 5.67 g of Al2O3 formed from 3.0 g of Al, 3.0 g Al is the
limiting reactant. The amount of Al2O3 formed will be 5.67 g Al2O3.
c. Which is the excess reactant and how much (in grams) is the excess?
The excess reactant is 10 g NH4ClO4. To determined how much is the excess
reactant, we first solve how much of the NH4ClO4 is consumed in the reaction. To
compute this, we convert the mass of Al2O3 formed to moles of Al2O3, moles of
Al2O3 to moles of NH4ClO4 from the balanced chemical equation, then moles of
NH4ClO4 to mass of NH4ClO4.
𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) 117.488 𝑔 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠)
= 5.67 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) ( )( )( )
101.957 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠)
= 7.84 𝑔 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠)

With initial amount of NH4ClO4 at 10 g, the excess NH4ClO4 is:

𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 10 𝑔 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) − 7.84 𝑔 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠) = 2.16 𝑔 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙𝑂4 (𝑠)

Reaction Yield or Percent Yield

In a chemical reaction, not all the theoretical amount of product will be realized. This means that
the actual product formed will be smaller than the supposedly amount of the product. The
measured amount of product that is made from a given amount of reactant is the actual yield.
The percent yield is the actual yield divided by the theoretical yield and multiplied by
100%. In equation form:

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Examples:
1. The formation of ammonia (NH3), a common refrigerant and ingredient in household
items, is from the reaction of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas. If the theoretical yield of
NH3 is 1.81x1015 kg, what is the actual yield if % yield is 93%?
Solution Plan: We derive the equation to solve for the actual yield:
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑥 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 1.81𝑥1015 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 93%
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = =
100% 100
= 1.68𝑥1015 𝑘𝑔
2. Solid silver nitrate undergoes thermal decomposition forming silver metal, nitrogen
dioxide gas, and oxygen gas.
a. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction above.
 2𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑠) → 2𝐴𝑔(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔)
b. How much silver metal in grams can be formed from 1.00-gram sample of silver
nitrate?
Solution Plan: We must convert grams of AgNO3 to moles AgNO3 (using MM of
AgNO3). Then use the balanced equation to convert moles AgNO3 to moles Ag.
Lastly, convert moles Ag to grams Ag (using MM of Ag).
Molar mass of AgNO3 = 107.9 +14.01+3(15.999) = 169.9 g/mol
Molar mass of Ag = 107.9 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑠) 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔 (𝑠) 107.9 𝑔 𝐴𝑔 (𝑠)
= 1.00 𝑔 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑠) ( )( )( )
169.9 𝑔 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑠) 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔 (𝑠)
= 0.64 𝑔 𝐴𝑔 (𝑠)
c. If only 0.475 g of silver metal was obtained from the reaction, what is the percent
yield of the reaction?
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 0.475 𝑔
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100% = 𝑥 100% = 74.2%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 0.64 𝑔

Here are some website and videos that can help you understand chemical reactions and
stoichiometry:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=npyvZSBqyc0

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CK2yK_JTUH4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IWtkhAv4RTo

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3A_Introductory_Chemis
try_(CK-12)/12%3A_Stoichiometry/12.9%3A_Theoretical_Yield_and_Percent_Yield

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Modules_and_Websites_(Inorgani
c_Chemistry)/Chemical_Reactions/Stoichiometry/Excess_and_Limiting_Reagents

https://chemistrytutor.me/chemistry-calculations-limiting-excess-reactants/

https://www.oakton.edu/user/3/gmines/chm121/a_ANSWER_KEYS/PS04-
06_&_MiscExam2Material/Ans_LR_%25yield_handout.pdf

Section 4: Solution Stoichiometry

Most biochemical reactions occur in solutions. For dissolved substances, we must know the
concentration of substance, that is the amount of substance. First, we define the component of
solution, the solute and solvent.
Solute is the minor component of the solution, the component present in smaller portions while
solvent major component of the solution, the component present in larger portions.

Molarity
Molarity is used to measure the concentration of solute in a solution and is expressed
mathematically as:
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
We can derive the equation to solve for moles of solute or liter of solution needed to achieve the
desired concentration or molarity.

Examples:
1. What is the molarity of an aqueous solution that contains 0.715 mol of glycerin in 495 mL
solution?
Solution plan: We just input the given to molarity equation.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 0.715 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 1.44 𝑀
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 495 𝑚𝑙 ( 1 𝐿 )
1000 𝑚𝑙
2. How many moles of KI are in 84 mL of 0.5 M KI solution?
Solution Plan: We derive the equation to solve for moles solute.
1𝐿
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = 0.5𝑀(84 𝑚𝑙) ( ) = 0.042 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐼
1000 𝑚𝑙
3. How many L of solution must be prepared if 0.1 g NaCl is dissolved in a solution to form
0.4 M solution.
Solution Plan: We derive the equation to solve for L solution. Nevertheless, the mass of
NaCl should be converted to moles NaCl first.
Molar mass NaCl = 22.99+35.45=58.44 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 0.1 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 ( ) = 0.00171 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
58.44 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 0.00171 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 0.004278 𝐿 = 4.2 𝑚𝐿
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 0.4 𝑀
4. Volume in mL of 0.0055 M calcium hydroxide solution containing 0.15 grams of solute.
MM Ca(OH)2 = 1(40.08)+2(15.999)+2(1.008)=74.022 g/mol
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 ( 𝑀𝑀 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 )
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿)𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
0.15 𝑔 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 ( )
74.022 𝑔 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
= = 0.368 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 368 𝑚𝐿
0.0055 𝑀
5. Molarity of 275 mL solution containing 1.75 grams of propranolol (C16H22ClNO2)
MM propranolol (C16H22ClNO2) = 16(12.01)+22(1.008)+1(35.45)+1(14.01)+2(15.999)
= 295.794 g/mol
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 ( )
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 𝑀𝑀 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿) 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿) 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶16 𝐻22 𝐶𝑙𝑁𝑂2
1.75 g 𝐶16 𝐻22 𝐶𝑙𝑁𝑂2 ( )
295.794 𝑔 𝐶16 𝐻22 𝐶𝑙𝑁𝑂2
= = 0.0215 𝑀
1𝐿
275 𝑚𝐿 (1000 𝑚𝐿)
6. Number of PO43- ions in 3.7 L of 0.55 M ferrous phosphate solution
Ferrous phosphate can be dissociated to: 𝐹𝑒3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 → 3𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑃𝑂43−
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 6.022𝑥1023 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
= 3.7(0.55) 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 ( )( )
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
= 2.45𝑥1024 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Reactions involving solutions

Just like in Section 3, we apply the concept of mole and mole-to-mole relationship from
balanced chemical equation to reactions involving solutions. However, we will add now the
conversion from molarity to moles of solute and volume of solution to solve these problems. You
may refer to the illustration below for better understanding.

Examples:

1. The reaction of hydrochloric acid with solid sodium carbonate will produce aqueous
solution of sodium chloride. Carbon dioxide and water are also released in the reaction.
(5 pts)
a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the above reaction.
2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)
b. If 0.156 M of hydrochloric acid is needed to react completely with 20.3 grams of
sodium carbonate, how much volume is needed for the hydrochloric acid?
Solution plan: Get moles of HCl from grams of Na2CO3. Then solve for the volume
using the molarity equation.
MM Na2CO3 = 2(22.99)+1(12.01)+3(15.999)=105.987 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 20.3 𝑔 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) ( )( )
105.987 𝑔 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠)
= 0.383 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 0.383 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿)𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 2.455 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 2455 𝑚𝐿
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 0.156 𝑀

2. Solid aluminum metal reacts with lead (II) nitrate forming aluminum nitrate and solid lead
metal. (10 pts)
a. Write the balanced chemical equation.
2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 3𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑁𝑂3 )3 (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝑃𝑏(𝑠)
b. If 5.3 grams of aluminum metal is reacted with 45.0 mL of 1.5 M lead (II) nitrate, how
much lead metal will be formed?
 Solution plan: From the given 2 reactants, solve how much lead metal will be formed.
The smaller amount of lead metal formed will be from the limiting reactant and is the
answer.
5.3 g Al:
MM Al = 26.982 g/mol
MM Pb = 207.2 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏 207.2 𝑔 𝑃𝑏
𝑔 𝑃𝑏 = 5.3 𝑔 𝐴𝑙 ( )( )( ) = 61.05 𝑔 𝑃𝑏
26.982 𝑔 𝐴𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏
45 mL of 1.5 M Pb(NO3)2:
45
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿) 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1.5 ( ) 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2
1000
= 0.0675 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏 207.2 𝑔 𝑃𝑏
𝑔 𝑃𝑏 = 0.0675 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 ( )( ) = 13.99 𝑔 𝑃𝑏
3 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏
Only 13.99 g Pb will be formed.

Dilution of Solutions

Dilution means lowering the concentration of the solution. Solvent has to be added for the
concentration of the solution to decrease. Since the moles of the solute did not change and only
the concentration (molarity) and volume of the solution change, the final in molarity and volume
can be calculated using initial concentration and volume by following equation:

𝑀1 𝑉1 = 𝑀2 𝑉2

Example: What is the final volume of the solution of 0.3 M NaCl from 100 mL of 1.0 M solution?
Solution Plan: We derive the equation to solve for V2, then substitute the values.

𝑀1 𝑉1 (100 𝑚𝐿)(1.0 𝑀)
𝑉2 = = = 333 𝑚𝐿
𝑀2 0.3 𝑀

Here are some website and videos that can help you understand solution stoichiometry:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/molarity/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4E6rOkiw2I

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rPND65LPwS0

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPidlCmymVg

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Modules_and_Websites_(Inorgani
c_Chemistry)/Chemical_Reactions/Reactions_in_Solution

Watch the video of lecture to be sent by the instructor

Assessment:
Problem Set to be given by the instructor at the end of this session.
References:
You may also read: Principles of General Chemistry 2nd Edition by Silberberg Chapter 3
MODULE 3: Major Types of Chemical Reactions

Overview: This module discusses the main types of chemical reactions – precipitation
reactions, neutralization reactions, and redox reactions.

Module Objectives:
• Know how behavior of water as a solvent and reactions involving aqueous solutions
• Know how to write equations for aqueous ionic reactions
• Apply the knowledge from Modules 1 and 2 in solving problems involving these types of
reactions: precipitation reactions, neutralization reactions, and redox reactions.
• Be able to predict if a precipitate will form from two or more solutions
• Study the neutralization reactions and determine the products formed from
neutralization, and perform calculations on titrations
• Identify the reducing and oxidizing reagents by determining the oxidation number of
elements involved

Course Materials:

Section 1: Water as Solvent

Water is known as the universal solvent as it dissolves various ionic and covalent compounds,
because of its shape and distribution of electrons. One common misconception is that water is a
conductor of electricity. It must be known that pure water does not conduct electricity, rather the
ions dissolved in water. The following video will show this.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ODbgKXFED5o&t=131s

In water, ionic compounds and a few covalent compounds such as HCl dissociate into ions. Due
to water’s polar nature, the oxygen atom becomes slightly negative and the hydrogen atoms
become slightly positive.
The slightly negative oxygen atoms get attracted to the sodium ion, breaking ionic bond with
chlorine atom. The sodium ion as well as the chlorine ion gets surrounded by molecules of
water (oxygen is attracted to the sodium ion, hydrogen to chlorine ion) forming hydration shells.
These hydration shells limit the sodium ion and chlorine ion from forming bonds again thus, the
sodium chloride salt remain dissolved in water in form of Na+ and Cl- ions. You may refer to the
illustration below for better understanding.
Unlike ionic compounds, covalent compounds that dissolve in water do not dissociate. Instead,
the molecules maintain its shape. In later modules, the behavior of covalent compounds as well
as their solutions will be discussed. Because the molecules do not dissociate, covalent
compounds dissolved in water will not conduct electricity. Note: Water is also a covalent
compound. The illustration below shows the comparison of ionic compounds and covalent
compounds in water forming solutions.

Section 2: Aqueous Ionic Reactions

When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the compound dissociates into its ions. Since the
ionic compound is neutral, the total or sum of the charges of the ions combined should be zero.
In this case, for NaCl, it will dissociate into Na+ and Cl-. For the case of calcium chloride, CaCl2,
the ions should dissociate should be 1 ion of Ca2+ and 2 ions of Cl-. In equation form:

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑎2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)

With this, the sum of the charges is zero. You may also notice that to get the ions involved, you
may go back to the criss cross method and just apply the subscript of the element as its ion
coefficient. Just like the other chemical equations, the ionic equation also refers to the mole-to-
mole ratio between the compound and its dissociated ions.

Example: Calculate the number of 𝑃𝑂4 3− ions in 3.7 L of 0.55 M ferrous phosphate solution
Ferrous phosphate can be dissociated to: 𝐹𝑒3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 → 3𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑃𝑂43−
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 6.022𝑥1023 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 3.7(0.55) 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 ( )( ) = 2.45𝑥1024 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑂43− 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

The two types of ionic equations describe an aqueous ionic reaction. A total ionic equation
shows ions for all soluble substances. A net ionic equation is more useful as it omits the
spectator ions (those not involved in the reaction) and shows the actual chemical change taking
place. More on this in the next sections.

Section 3: Precipitation Reactions

Precipitation reactions occur when soluble ionic compounds exchange ions (metathesis or
double displacement) and form an insoluble product called a precipitate. The ions of the
precipitate attract each other so strongly that their attraction with water molecules cannot pull
them apart.

There are three steps to follow to determine if a precipitate will form:

1. Note the ions present in the reactants.
2. Consider the possible cation-anion combinations
3. Decide whether any of the combinations is insoluble.

To know which compounds are insoluble in water, please be guided by the following Solubility
Rules.
1. Salts of ammonium (𝑁𝐻4 + ) and Group IA are always soluble.
2. Halogen ions:
a. All chlorides (𝐶𝑙 − ) are soluble except AgCl, Hg2Cl2, and PbCl2 which are
insoluble.
b. All bromides (𝐵𝑟 − ) are soluble except AgBr, Hg2Br2, HgBr2, and PbBr2 which are
insoluble.
c. All iodides (𝐼 − ) are soluble except AgI, Hg2I2 , HgI2 , and PbI2 which are insoluble.
3. Chlorates (𝐶𝑙𝑂3 − ), nitrates (𝑁𝑂3 − ), and acetates (𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− ) are soluble.
4. Sulfates (𝑆𝑂4 2− ) are soluble except CaSO4, SrSO4, BaSO4, Hg2SO4, HgSO4, PbSO4,
and Ag2SO4 which are insoluble.
5. Phosphates (𝑃𝑂4 3− ), and carbonates (𝐶𝑂3 2− ) are insoluble except 𝑁𝐻4 + and Group IA
compounds.
6. All metallic oxides (𝑂2− ) are insoluble except 𝑁𝐻4 + and Group IA compounds.
7. All metallic hydroxides (𝑂𝐻 − ) are insoluble except 𝑁𝐻4 + and Group IA and Group IIA
from calcium down.
8. All sulfides (𝑆 2−) are insoluble except NH4 + and Groups IA and IIA.

You may watch the following Youtube video for the demonstration of precipitation reactions from
2 aqueous solutions:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vs_jb5teNaY

The solutions mixed in this video are shown below with their corresponding chemical equations.
You may fill-out the table based on the video.
Solutions mixed Visual Molecular Equation Net Ionic Equation
observation
 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) Clear solution 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) No reaction
→ 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞)
𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆(𝑎𝑞)
𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆(𝑎𝑞)
𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆(𝑎𝑞)
𝑁𝑎2 𝑆(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) Clear Solution 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) No reaction
→ 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)

Examples: Determine the products and write the molecular, total ionic, and net ionic chemical
equations for the following. If no reactions are expected, write No Reaction
a. Sodium chloride solution + silver nitrate solution →
Molecular: 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑠) + 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
+ − + +
Total Ionic: 𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐴𝑔(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑠) + 𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞)
− +
Net Ionic: 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐴𝑔(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑠)
b. Lead chlorate solution + chromium (III) acetate solution →
Molecular: 3𝑃𝑏(𝐶𝑙𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐶𝑟(𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂)3 (𝑎𝑞) → 3𝑃𝑏(𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂)2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐶𝑟(𝐶𝑙𝑂3 )3 (𝑎𝑞)
Total Ionic: 2+
3𝑃𝑏(𝑎𝑞) + 6𝐶𝑙𝑂3 − 3+ − 2+ −
(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐶𝑟(𝑎𝑞) + 6𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂 (𝑎𝑞) → 3𝑃𝑏(𝑎𝑞) + 6𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂 (𝑎𝑞) +
3+ −
2𝐶𝑟(𝑎𝑞) + 6𝐶𝑙𝑂3
(𝑎𝑞)

Net Ionic: 𝑁𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

c. Ammonium phosphate solution + calcium nitrate solution →
Molecular: 2(𝑁𝐻4 )3 𝑃𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) → 6𝑁𝐻4 𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 (𝑠)
Total Ionic: 6𝑁𝐻4 + 3− 2+ − + −
(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑃𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐶𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 6𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) → 6𝑁𝐻4 (𝑎𝑞) + 6𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑎3
(𝑃𝑂4 )2 (𝑠)
Net Ionic: 2𝑃𝑂4 3− 2+
(𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐶𝑎(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑎3
(𝑃𝑂4 )2 (𝑠)
d. Zinc sulfate solution + sodium carbonate solution →
Molecular: 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠)
Total Ionic: 2+
𝑍𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂4 2− + 2− + 2−
(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) → 2𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠)
2+
Net Ionic: 𝑍𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞) → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠)

To know more about precipitation reactions, you may access these websites and videos:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=leCoWeIN-h8

In problems involving precipitation reactions, we will also use the concepts learned from Module
2. We just have to determine if the final product will be a precipitate or remain dissolved in the
solution.

Example: Mercury and its compounds have many uses, from filling for teeth (as mixture with
Au, Cu, Sn) to the industrial production of chlorine. Because of their toxicity, soluble mercury
such as mercury (II) nitrate must be removed from industrial wastewater. One removal method
reacts mercury (II) nitrate with sodium sulfide to produce solid mercury (II) sulfide and sodium
nitrate solution.
 a. Write the balanced molecular, total ionic, and net ionic chemical equation for the reaction
above.
Molecular: 𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻𝑔𝑆(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
2+ + 2− +
Total Ionic: 𝐻𝑔(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻𝑔𝑆(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞)
2+ 2−
Net Ionic: 𝐻𝑔(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻𝑔𝑆(𝑠)
b. In a lab simulation, it took 10.5 mL of 0.65 M sodium sulfide solution to completely react
with 30.0 mL of the wastewater with mercury (II) nitrate. What is the concentration
(molarity) of Hg2+ ions in the wastewater? If the safe concentration of Hg2+ in
wastewater is at 0.25M, is the wastewater still safe for the environment (Yes or no, and
why?)
Solution Plan: Calculate the moles of mercury (II) nitrate, then solve the molarity using
the molarity equation.
2+
Mercury (II) nitrate can be dissociated to: 𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻𝑔(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞)
Compare this with 0.25 M safe concentration.
10.5 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 = 0.65 ( ) 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆 ( )
1000 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆
= 0.006825 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔2+
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 0.006825 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂 3 )2 ( )
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿) 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1𝐿
30 𝑚𝐿 (1000 𝑚𝐿)
= 0.2275 𝑀 𝐻𝑔2+
Yes. Since the concentration of Hg2+ is 0.2275 M, and is less than 0.25M safe
concentration, the waste water is still safe for the environment.
c. How much mercury (II) sulfide will be formed from the lab simulation?
MM HgS = 1(200.59)+1(32.07) = 232.66 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔𝑆 232.66 𝑔 𝐻𝑔𝑆
𝑔 𝐻𝑔𝑆 = 0.006825 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 ( )( ) = 1.588 𝑔 𝐻𝑔𝑆
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔𝑆

Section 4: Acid-Base Reactions

Neutralization reactions or acid-base reactions occur when an aqueous solution of acid and
aqueous solution of base react. An acid produces H+ ions in solution and a base produces OH-
ions. In neutralization reactions, the H+ ions and OH- ions form water. Another way to view this
process is that an acid transfers a proton to a base. In this section, we will focus on the reaction
between a strong acid and strong base.
Strong acid are as follows: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4
Strong bases are as follows: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

When strong acid and strong base react, water and a salt (which can be soluble or insoluble)
will from thru double displacement or metathesis.

Examples:
a. Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide →
 Molecular: 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
+ − + − + −
Total Ionic: 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
+ −
Net Ionic: 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
b. Sulfuric acid + barium hydroxide →
Molecular: 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 (𝑠)
Total Ionic: +
2𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂4 2− 2+ −
(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 (𝑠)

Net Ionic: +
2𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂4 2− 2+ −
(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4 (𝑠)

An acid-base titration is used to measure the amount (mol) of an acid or base. It also
determines the concentration of an acid or base. A chemical reaction is set-up between a known
volume of a solution with unknown concentration (titrand or analyte) and known volume of a
solution with known concentration (titrant). When the solution of unknown concentration and
solution of known concentration reacted to the point where the amount of acid is equivalent to
the mole of base in a chemical reaction, the equivalence point is reached. Since we are only
discussing reactions of strong acids and strong bases, the equivalence point occurs at pH 7.0.
There are two common methods in determining the equivalence point:
• Use of pH meter. Since equivalence point occurs at pH 7.0, pH meters will know if the
combined solution will have pH 7.0.
• Use of indicators. This is method relies on observing a color change in the solution.
Indicators are weak organic acids or bases that are different colors in their dissociated
and undissociated states. Because they are used in low concentrations, indicators do
not appreciably alter the equivalence point of a titration. The point at which the indicator
changes color is called the end point.

A common set-up of acid-base titration is shown below:

To know more on acid-base titrations, you may access the following websites:
https://www.thoughtco.com/overview-of-titration-procedure-603661
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/acid-base-titrations/

https://www.coursehero.com/sg/general-chemistry/quantitative-analysis-of-acids-and-bases/
Example: In a titration of HNO3, you add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator to 50.00 mL
of acid in a flask. You quickly add 20.00 mL of 0.0502 M NaOH, but overshoot the end point,
and the solution turns deep pink. Instead of starting over, you add 30.00 mL of the acid, and the
solution turns colorless. Then, it takes 3.22 mL of the NaOH to reach the end point.
a. Write the balanced molecular, total ionic, and net ionic chemical equation for the
neutralization reaction of HNO3 and NaOH.
Molecular: 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
+ + − +
Total Ionic: 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞)
+ −
Net Ionic: 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
b. What is the concentration (molarity) of the HNO3 solution?
Solution Plan: Determine how many moles of NaOH is added to neutralize all the added
HNO3. Solve the molarity of HNO3 using the molarity equation.
Volume of NaOH used = 20+3.22 = 23.22 mL
Volume of HNO3 used = 50+30 = 80 mL
23.22 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 = 0.0502 ( ) 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ( ) = 0.001166 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
1000 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 0.001166 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 0.0146𝑀 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿) 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1𝐿
80 𝑚𝐿 (1000 𝑚𝐿)
c. How many moles of NaOH were in excess after the first production?
Solution Plan: Compute the moles of HNO3 initially present using the computed HNO3
molarity and 50 mL volume, then convert to moles NaOH (NaOH needed to neutralize
HNO3). Compute also the moles of NaOH from 20.00 mL of 0.0502 M NaOH (added
NaOH). You can get the excess by subtracting the moles of added NaOH and moles of
NaOH needed to neutralize the HNO3
50 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 = 0.0146 ( ) 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 ( )
1000 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
= 0.00073 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
20
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = 0.0502 ( ) 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = 0.001004 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
1000
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
= 0.001004 − 0.00073 = 0.000274 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

Section 5: Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Oxidation-reduction or redox reactions is used in the formation of compounds from elements.

Many reactions, including combustion or burning, are redox reactions. This reaction happens
because of the movement of electron from one reactant to the other: the electron transfers from
reactant with less attraction to electron to reactant with more attraction with electron.

Redox reactions are composed of oxidation reaction and reduction reaction.

Let’s take the example the following reactions:
 2𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠)
Oxidation happens when there’s loss of electron from a reactant. The reactant that undergoes
oxidation is called the reducing agent. Reduction happens when there’s gain of electrons from a
reactant. The reactant that undergoes reduction is called the oxidizing agent. To remember this,
mnemonics below can be followed:
LEORA (Loss of Electrons – Oxidation – Reducing Agent)
GEROA (Gain of Electrons – Reduction – Oxidizing Agent)

Let’s go back to the equation above. The reaction can be broken down into:
2𝑀𝑔(𝑠) → 2𝑀𝑔2+ + 4𝑒 −
𝑂2 (𝑔) + 4𝑒 − → 2𝑂2−

2𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠)

From this, we can determine that solid Mg is the reducing agent because it has lost electrons
while O2 is the oxidizing again because it received the electrons from Mg.

Oxidation numbers
To systematically determine which is the reducing and oxidizing agent, oxidation numbers are to
be determined. An increase in oxidation number of the reactant indicates that the reactant has
undergone oxidation, which means it is the reducing agent. In contrast, a decrease in oxidation
number of the reactant indicates that the reactant has undergone reduction, which means it is
the oxidizing agent. Here are the rules to follow in determining the atoms’ oxidation number:
• Atoms in elemental form have oxidation number equal to zero. The sum of atoms in a
compound is zero.
• The ion’s charge is the oxidation number of the ion.
• Elements in Group 1A have oxidation number equal to +1 in a compound/ion. Meanwhile
elements in Group 2A have oxidation number equal to +2 in a compound/ion.
• Hydrogen when combined with non-metals has an oxidation number of +1, -1 if
combined with metals and boron.
• Fluorine has an oxidation number of -1 when combined with other elements.
• Oxygen has an oxidation number of -2 when combined with other elements except
fluorine. Oxygen in peroxides has an oxidation number of -1.
• Elements in Group 7A have oxidation number equal to -1 when combined with metals,
non-metals (except oxygen) and other halogens lower in the group.

Examples: Identify the oxidation number of the following elements in the compound/ion.
a. Chlorine in 𝐶𝑙𝑂−
𝑥 + (−2) = −1 𝑥=1
b. Iodine in 𝐼𝐹3
𝑥 + 3(−1) = 0 𝑥=3
−
c. Nitrogen in 𝑁𝑂3
𝑥 + 3(−2) = −1 𝑥=5

Types of Redox Reactions

These types of redox reactions are classified by comparing the number of reactants and
products.
• Combination reactions: when two or more reactants form one product. These
reactants can be two elements forming ionic (for metal+non-metal) or covalent (for non-
metal+non-metal) compounds. These reactants can also be binary compounds that can
react with elements to form compounds with higher molar masses.
Examples:
o Metal element + Non-metal element: 4𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 3𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
o Non-metal element + non-metal element: 𝑁2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔) → 2𝑁𝐻3 (𝑔)
o Compound + Element: 2𝑁𝑂(𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔)
• Decomposition reactions: when one reactant form two or more products. There are
two types of decomposition reactions depending on the energy at which the reactant
absorbs for its bonds to break. We will tackle here are thermal decomposition and
electrolytic decomposition.
o Thermal Decomposition. This reaction happens when the absorbed energy is heat.
A delta (Δ) above a reaction arrow indicates that heat is required in the reaction.
Oxygen is released for many metal oxides, chlorates, and perchlorates when heated.
∆
Example: 2𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3 (𝑠) → 2𝐾𝐶𝑙(𝑠) + 3𝑂2 (𝑔)
o Electrolytic Decomposition. When a compound absorbs electrical energy, it
decomposes into elements on a process called electrolysis.
Example: 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 (𝑙) → 𝑀𝑔(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔)
• Single displacement reactions: the number of substances is the same but atoms (or
ions) exchange places.
The activity series.
To determine if a single displacement reaction will occur, we need to understand the
activity series of metals. This will explain why when you put your gold ring or watch in
water, it will not disintegrate. This is also the reason why in pawnshops, to confirm that a
jewelry is gold, the pawnshop personnel will use acid for determination.

To use this activity series, if metal A will displace (or replace) metal B, then metal A must
be above metal B in the activity series for metals. If metal A is lower than metal B, there
will be no reaction. Also, the metals in the activity series will show activity when reacted
with water, steam, or acid (H+). If metal C will only release H2 gas when reacted with only
acid, it will not react with water or steam. Going back to the example earlier, when gold
(Au) is exposed to acid used in pawnshops, it will not react. If the jewelry is fake (eg: iron
– Fe), the acid solution reacted with the metal will form bubbles due to the formation of
H2 gas.
 Examples. Determine the products and write the molecular, total ionic, and net ionic
chemical equations for the following. If no reactions are expected, write No Reaction
a. Gold metal + ferric iodide solution →
Molecular: 𝐴𝑢(𝑠) + 𝐹𝑒𝐼3 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
b. Aluminum metal + permanganic acid →
Molecular: 2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 6𝐻𝑀𝑛𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑀𝑛𝑂4 )3 (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔)
+ 3+
Total Ionic: 2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 6𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 6𝑀𝑛𝑂4−(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 6𝑀𝑛𝑂4−(𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔)
+ 3+
Net Ionic: 2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 6𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔)
• Combustion reactions: happen when an element or compound is reacted with oxygen.
Since oxygen is involved, it is always the oxidizing agent in these reactions.

Examples: Balance each chemical equation, identify the type of redox reaction, and determine
the reducing agent and oxidizing reagent.

Given Chemical Reaction Balanced chemical Reaction Type of redox Reducing Oxidizing
reaction Agent agent
𝐹𝑒(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑠) 2𝐹𝑒(𝑠) + 3𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) → 2𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑠) Combination Fe Cl2
𝐶𝑠𝐼(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝑠𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐼2 2𝐶𝑠𝐼(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) → 2𝐶𝑠𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐼2 Single CsI Cl2
(𝑔) (𝑔)
Displacement
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝑁𝑎(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) Electrolytic NaCl NaCl
(with electricity) (with electricity) Decomposition
𝐶2 𝐻6 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) 7 Combustion C2H6 O2
𝐶2 𝐻6 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
2
𝑁𝑎(𝑠) + 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) 6𝑁𝑎(𝑠) + 2𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) Single Na H3PO4
→ 𝐻2 (𝑔) + 𝑁𝑎3 𝑃𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) → 3𝐻2 (𝑔) + 2𝑁𝑎3 𝑃𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) Displacement
𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3 (𝑠) → 𝐾𝐶𝑙(𝑠) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) 2𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3 (𝑠) → 2𝐾𝐶𝑙(𝑠) + 3𝑂2 (𝑔) Thermal KClO3 KClO3
(with heat) Decomposition

Problem Solving involving Redox reactions. Again, just apply the knowledge from Modules
2-3 for problems involving redox reactions.
Examples:
1. Solid nickel metal reacts with lead (II) nitrate forming nickel (III) nitrate and solid lead metal.
a. Write the balanced chemical equation.
2𝑁𝑖(𝑠) + 3𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 (𝑎𝑞) → 2𝑁𝑖(𝑁𝑂3 )3 (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝑃𝑏(𝑠)
b. If 5.3 grams of nickel metal is reacted with 45.0 mL of 1.5 M lead (II) nitrate, how much
lead metal will be formed?
Solution plan: From the given 2 reactants, solve how much lead metal will be formed.
The smaller amount of lead metal formed will be from the limiting reactant and is the
answer.
5.3 g Ni:
MM Ni = 58.693 g/mol
MM Pb = 207.2 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏 207.2 𝑔 𝑃𝑏
𝑔 𝑃𝑏 = 5.3 𝑔 𝑁𝑖 ( )( )( ) = 28.07 𝑔 𝑃𝑏
58.693 𝑔 𝑁𝑖 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏

45 mL of 1.5 M Pb(NO3)2:
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐿) 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
45
= 1.5 ( ) 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 = 0.0675 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2
1000
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏 207.2 𝑔 𝑃𝑏
𝑔 𝑃𝑏 = 0.0675 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 ( )( ) = 13.99 𝑔 𝑃𝑏
3 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑏

Only 13.99 g Pb will be formed.

2. Picking is the procedure used to treat metal surfaces such as rust from iron materials
like steel. Rust on the surface of the steel can be removed by washing the steel with
hydrochloric acid (Reaction 1). However, during the process, some iron is lost as well
(Reaction 2).

Reaction 1: Removal of rust using hydrochloric acid

𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠) → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) (𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑)

Reaction 2: Reaction of iron with hydrochloric acid – undesirable reaction

𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 (𝑔) (𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑)

a. Write the balanced chemical equation for reactions 1 and 2. Which reaction, if either,
is a redox process?
Reaction 1
6𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠) → 2𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
Reaction 1 is not a redox reaction, as oxidation numbers of H. Cl. Fe, and O did not
change.

Reaction 2
2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)
 Reaction 2 is a redox reaction. Fe(s) underwent oxidation (Fe oxidation number
increased), while HCl underwent reduction (H oxidation number decreased).

b. If Reaction 2 did not occur and all the HCl were used in Reaction 1, how many grams
of Fe2O3 could be removed and FeCl3 produced in a 3.5x103 liter bath of 3.00 M HCl?
Solution Plan: Calculate the mole HCl from volume and molarity. Convert to mole to
gram of Fe2O3 and FeCl3.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 3.5𝑥103 𝐿(3.0 𝑀) = 10,500 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
MM Fe2O3 = 2(55.933)+3(15.999) = 159.863 g/mol
MM FeCl3 = 1(55.933)+3(35.45) = 162.283 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 159.863 𝑔 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
𝑔 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠) = 10,500 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 ( )( )
6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
= 2.798𝑥105 𝑔 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠)
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞) 162.283 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞)
𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞) = 10,500 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 ( )( )
6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞)
= 5.680𝑥105 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞)

c. If Reaction 1 did not occur and all the HCl were used in Reaction 2, how many grams
of Fe could be lost and FeCl2 produced in a 3.5x103 liter bath of 3.00 M HCl?
Solution Plan: Calculate the mole HCl from volume and molarity. Convert to mole to
gram of Fe and FeCl2.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 3.5𝑥103 𝐿(3.0 𝑀) = 10,500 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
MM Fe = 1(55.933) = 55.933 g/mol
MM FeCl2 = 1(55.933)+2(35.45) = 126.833 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) 55.933 𝑔 𝐹𝑒(𝑠)
𝑔 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) = 10,500 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 ( )( ) = 2.936𝑥105 𝑔 𝐹𝑒(𝑠)
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒(𝑠)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) 126.833 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞)
𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) = 10,500 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 ( )( )
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞)
= 6.659𝑥105 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞)

d. If 0.23 g of Fe is lost per gram of Fe2O3 removed, what is the mass ratio of FeCl2 to
FeCl3?
Solution Plan: Assume 1 gram of Fe2O3 removed. This means that there is 0.23 g
Fe lost. Convert these to get the mass of FeCl2 to FeCl3, then get the ratio.

𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞) 162.283 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞)
= 1.0 𝑔 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠) ( )( )( )
159.863 𝑔 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞)
= 2.030 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞)
 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) 126.833 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞)
𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞) = 0.23 𝑔 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) ( )( )( )
55.933 𝑔 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒(𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞)
= 0.522 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞)

2.030 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑎𝑞)

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 3.9
0.522 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 (𝑎𝑞)
Therefore, mass ratio of FeCl2 to FeCl3 is 1:3.9

Here are some website and videos that can help you understand these three main types of
reactions – precipitation, neutralization, and redox reactions as well as problems involving these
reactions:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVBsrwJFBTY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFpFCPTDv2w&t=18s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2z4mlE6MK0U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BllRQAc76Y0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rtJdjas-mY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iSAwDJTLIKY

Watch the video of lecture to be sent by the instructor

Assessment:
Problem Set to be given by the instructor at the end of this session.

References:
You may also read: Principles of General Chemistry 2nd Edition by Silberberg Chapter 4